Early and Middle Pleistocene landscapes of eastern England

Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 120 (2009) 3–33

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Early and Middle Pleistocene landscapes of eastern England James Rose * Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 6 March 2009 Received in revised form 17 May 2009 Accepted 17 May 2009 Available online 21 June 2009

This paper reviews the pattern of climate and environmental change in eastern England over the period of the Early and Middle Pleistocene, focussing especially upon northern East Anglia. Particular attention is given to the climate and tectonics that have brought about these changes and the distinctive geology, topography and biology that has developed. Throughout, an attempt is made to describe the new models that have been proposed for the Early and Middle Pleistocene of eastern England, and explain the reasons for these changes. The Early Pleistocene experienced relatively high insulation and relatively low magnitude climatic change and is represented primarily by non-climatically forced processes in the form of tidal current- and wave-activity which formed shallow marine deposits. It is possible to recognise a tectonic control in the distribution of deposits of this age because the surface processes do not have the power to remove this signature. The early Middle Pleistocene was dominated by higher magnitude climatic change involving, occasionally, climatic extremes that ranged from permafrost to mediterranean. The landscape at this time was dominated by the behaviour of major rivers (Thames, Bytham, Ancaster) and extensive coastal activity. In the latter part of the early Middle Pleistocene and the Late Middle Pleistocene the climate experienced major changes which resulted in periods of lowland glaciation and short intervals when the climate was warmer than the present. Details of tectonic activity are difficult to identify because they are removed by powerful surface processes, but it is possible to infer uplift focussed on the major interfluves of central England and subsidence in the North Seas basin. In the areas of glaciation the landscape changed radically from an organised terrain dominated by large rivers and extensive shallow coastal zones to complex, with small valleys, disrupted drainage and often discontinuous river, slope and coastal deposits. Likewise the switching off of the North Sea Delta and the opening of the Strait of Dover, separating Britain from continental Europe can be attributed to the onset of lowland glaciation. The case is made that eastern England was glaciated four times during the Middle Pleistocene: during MIS 16, 12, 10 and 6, and attention is given to recent evidence contradicting this model. Over the period of the Middle Pleistocene there is evidence for high biomass production occurring over short intervals coinciding with the climatic optima of MIS 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, and 7c, 7a and during most of these warmer periods, extending back to c. 750 ka (MIS 19/17), there is evidence in the region for the brief appearance of humans. ß 2009 The Geologists’ Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Neotectonics Bytham River Glacial stages Interglacial stages Palaeolithic archaeology Climate forcing

1. Introduction Eastern England provides some of the most complete evidence for Middle and Early Pleistocene terrestrial and shallow marine environments in northwestern Europe. The evidence is quite outstanding, with shallow marine sediments (Red and Norwich Crags), high and low energy river deposits (Kesgrave and Bytham Sands and Gravels and Cromer Forest-bed), organic lake muds (interglacial deposits at sites such as Hoxne and Marks Tey) and glacial deposits (chalky Lowestoft Till) being exceptionally well developed (and in many cases, exposed). The study of these

* Tel.: +44 1784 443 807; fax: +44 1784 472 836. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected].

deposits has contributed to the development of Quaternary thought (Wood, 1848–1882; Reid, 1882, 1890; Blake, 1890; Harmer, 1909; West, 1956), and influenced especially the thinking about the Quaternary history of Britain and northern continental Europe. It is also the region where most of the type sites for the British Quaternary stratigraphy are defined (Table 1). The Early Pleistocene is defined here as the period from 2.6 Ma (MIS 103) to 0.78 Ma (MIS 19) (see Bowen and Gibbard (2007) for discussion of the currently contentious issue of the base of the Pleistocene and retention of the term Quaternary) and the Middle Pleistocene is defined as between 0.78 Ma (MIS 19) and c. 0.13 Ma (base of MIS 5e). The boundary between the early Middle and late Middle Pleistocene is placed at c. 474 ka (base of MIS 12) (see Fig. 4). The region is also important because it was the focus of the outstanding work by Harmer (1909) who published an explanatory

0016-7878/$ – see front matter ß 2009 The Geologists’ Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2009.05.003

J. Rose / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 120 (2009) 3–33

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Table 1 British Stratigraphic Tables recommended by the Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London (1973 and 1999). (a) Mitchell et al. (1973) Stage

Type Locality when in Northern and Central East Anglia

(b) Bowen et al. (1999) Lithostratigraphy

Stage

Lithostratigraphy

Flandrian Devensian

Not given Not given

Devensian

Ipswichian

Lake muds

Ipswichian

Trafalgar Squ. Mb.

5e

Wolstonian

Sands, gravels and clays

Wolstonian

Ridgacre Fm. Kidderminster Mb. Strensham Court Mb. Bushley Green Mb.

6–8

Not considered Halling Mb. Stockport Fm. Upton Warren Mb. Cassington Mb.

MIS

2–5a

Hoxnian

Hoxne, Suffolk TM 175767

Lake muds

Hoxnian

Hoxne Fm. Spring Hill Mb. Swanscombe Mb.

9–11

Anglian

Corton Suffolk TM 543977

Lowestoft Till Corton Sands Cromer Till/Norwich Brickearth

Anglian

Lowestoft Fm.

12

Cromerian

West Runton, Norfolk TG 188432

Estuarine sands and silts and freshwater peat

Cromerian

West Runton Mb. Waverley Wood Mb. Kenn Fm. Grace Fm

13–21

Beestonian

Beeston Norfolk TG 169433

Gravels, sands and silts

Pastonian

Paston Norfolk TG 341352

Estuarine silts and freshwater peat

Baventian

Easton Bavents Suffolk TM 518787

Marine silt

Antian

Ludham Norfolk TG 385199

Marine shelly sand

Thurnian Ludhamian Waltonian

Marine silt Shelly sand Marine shelly sand

summary of his work in the Jubilee Volume of the Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association. This paper shows immense insight into the topic of the glacial history of the area and identifies many of the problems that still concern us today. For many years these pioneering publications influenced and indeed directed subsequent work so that the further publications about the region were written within the concepts that shaped these early models. Essentially these models invoked ‘preglacial’ shallow marine and fluviatile systems (Red and Norwich Crags, Cromer Forest-bed; West and Norton, 1974; West, 1980a) followed by a period with infrequent Middle Pleistocene glaciations and a limited number of temperate stages (Anglian and ‘Wolstonian’ glaciations, Hoxnian and Ipswichian Interglacials; West and Donner, 1956; West, 1980b; Perrin et al., 1979; Hart and Boulton, 1991). This evidence was considered to cover the Early and Middle Pleistocene history of Britain and formed the basis of the main part of the Geological Society Correlation of Quaternary Deposits (Table 1a) (Mitchell et al., 1973). This concept persisted up to 1999 with the second edition of the above publication (Bowen, 1999a,b) despite the severe reservations of the editor and an omission of much of the Middle and all of the Early Pleistocene from the stratigraphic scheme (Table 1b) (Bowen, 1999b, Table 2). Furthermore, aspects of the Early and Middle Pleistocene of East Anglia have been considered to be sufficiently important to justify the allocation of the name

‘Cromerian’ to a segment of the Dutch Quaternary succession (Zagwijn et al., 1971) (Fig. 1). It is remarkable to consider that these views were elaborated and maintained while a significant component of the Quaternary community had begun to take on-board the evidence of global climate change represented by marine core records (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973; Shackleton et al., 1990; Bassinot et al., 1994) and long terrestrial sequences (Wijmstra and Groenhart, 1984), an issue first highlighted by Bowen as long ago as 1978. Despite the exceptional evidence in the region, highlighted above, its limitations began to be recognised and, in 1975, Zagwijn first proposed that Britain lacked evidence for a substantial part of the Early and Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 1). This issue was debated at a very rewarding meeting in Norwich in April 1988 and the outcomes were subsequently published (Gibbard et al., 1991) (Fig. 1), demonstrating different views and conflicts of interpretation arising from different types of evidence. It was not until 1995 that Funnell presented a scheme in which the Early and Middle Pleistocene of eastern England was considered in terms of global climate forcing (using sea-level as a proxy of climate) (Fig. 2). Since then, a number of papers have addressed this issue with respect to both the biosphere (Preece and Parfitt, 2000; Preece, 2001; Schreve and Thomas, 2001) and surface processes in the form of glaciation, river activity and sea-level change (Hamblin et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2004a,b, 2006; Clark et al., 2004). This concept has since been challenged (Banham et al., 2001;

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Fig. 1. Stratigraphy of British and Dutch Early and Middle Pleistocene sediments. This figure is constructed from Fig. 8 of Zagwijn (1975) and Fig. 8 of Gibbard et al. (1991) which revised and updated the earlier work. The palaeomagnetic data is that of Van Montfrans, 1971 with revised ages taken from Funnell (1995) which is based on sources cited in Funnell (1995). The correlations and their reliability are taken from Gibbard et al. (1991). The hiatus identified on the British scheme follows the proposal of Zagwijn (1975) but it should be noted that there are abundant Quaternary sediments, in the form of the Kesgrave Sands and Gravels and Wroxham Crag that were deposited over this period of time. This matter is discussed in Gibbard et al. (1991) with respect to the Kesgrave Sands and Gravels, but the Wroxham Crag had not yet been identified when these works were published.

Gibbard et al., 2008; Preece et al., in press; see Hamblin et al., 2001 and Lee et al., 2008, for responses). Over the last c. 15 years the issues of Middle Pleistocene climate and environmental change have become especially important for the study of human origins, and have consequently reached the attention of the public and a much wider academic community. This is because of the discovery of human artefacts associated with the early Middle Pleistocene lithostratigraphy (Ashton et al., 1992; Rose and Wymer, 1994; Parfitt et al., 2005) and the recognition that humans had been in northern Europe c. 750,000 years ago, at least 200,000 years earlier than previously recognised.

The text below provides an overview of the history and palaeogeography of the Early and Middle Pleistocene of eastern England taking into consideration recent publications. It assumes that the physical and biological processes which operate in eastern England are part of an integrated Earth system (something that has been absent from earlier models which have considered Britain and northern Europe in isolation), and that the evidence for the Early and Middle Pleistocene of eastern England can be related to global climate change. It also draws attention to the fact that although the evidence in this area is of exceptional quality, it is very fragmentary in nature, and evidence that is the basis of the classical British Quaternary stratigraphy represented in Mitchell

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Fig. 2. The relationship of the British stage names and lithostratigraphic units to evidence of global climate change represented by the calcium carbonate abundance from ocean sediments (Ruddiman and Raymo, 1988). Taken from Rose et al. (2001), Quaternary International with modifications.

et al. (1973) and Bowen (1999a,b) (Table 1, Figs. 1 and 2) represents but a very small fragment of Early and Middle Pleistocene time. This paper is based on that published in the Quaternary Research Association Field Guide (Rose, 2008), for a field meeting in northern East Anglia (Candy et al., 2008), and is presented here as an opportunity to outline many of the views expressed at that meeting to the wider scientific community. All locations cited in the text are shown on Fig. 3, if not shown on the figure that illustrates the particular topic.

2. Stratigraphic and dating methods 2.1. Dating methods As with all attempts to reconstruct Earth history, it is essential to have a methodology by which it is possible to date events and correlate rocks, landforms and environment. The terrestrial landscapes of the Early and Middle Pleistocene are particularly difficult to reconstruct because very few dating methods provide

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Fig. 3. Localities named in the text.

reliable ages for this interval. The magnetic reversal around the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary (780 ka) (Maher and Hallam, 2005a) and Ar/Ar dating are available, but material suitable for dating is rare in the first case and, hitherto, not known to be available in the second. Cosmogenic radionuclide dating (Ivy-Ochs and Kober, 2008), and in particular burial dating (Dehnert and Schlu¨chter, 2008) are possible, but have not yet been used in the region. Amino acid racemisation (AAR) is proving to be both applicable and reliable for calcite mollusca (Preece and Penkman, 2005; Penkman et al., 2008), but has only moderate (although relevant) resolution. Dating by luminescence (Preusser et al., 2008) and ESR (Schellmann et al., 2008) may extend across the whole Middle Pleistocene, but results from this period have low resolution and are not necessarily reliable. Like AAR, large numbers of OSL or ESR dates, suitable for statistical treatment, are needed to provide ages that may progress the science. U-series (Scholz and Hoffmann, 2008; Geyh, 2008), especially with AMS technology (Candy and Schreve, 2007), has reliability and fine resolution but is not suitable earlier than the late Middle Pleistocene. The time period is beyond the range of 14C (see Walker, 2005 for a review of dating methods). Within these constraints these methods have been used wherever possible to derive a timescale and correlate elements of the landscape, but other methodologies using the litho-, bio- and morphostratigraphy have necessarily played the major role in the reconstruction of Early and Middle Pleistocene landscapes of eastern England. 2.2. Biostratigraphy First and Last Appearance biostratigraphy (FAD, LAD) has played an important part in correlating elements of the Early and Middle Pleistocene succession with horizons ‘dated’ elsewhere. A number of species including terrestrial and marine mollusca, mammals, rodents and insects have been widely used and their use

is discussed in Preece and Parfitt (2000, 2008). This methodology has a long pedigree in geological work, but is empirical so that any new discovery may change the stratigraphic position of the first or last appearance. Furthermore the dates ascribed to these datums are derived from materials that are subject to the same problems as described in the preceding paragraph, except that there may be material suitable for magnetic reversal or Ar/Ar determinations. Nevertheless, FAD/LAD biostratigraphy has played, and continues to play a major role in resolving the patterns of landscape development in the Early and Middle Pleistocene (Preece and Parfitt, 2008). Pollen assemblage biostratigraphy developed as an alternative biostratigraphic method based on distinctive pollen assemblages that were ascribed to particular temperate episodes. This scheme used the concept that a particular pollen assemblage would represent a position in a simple cycle of climate change from glacial through temperate back to glacial (Turner and West, 1968). These climatic cycles were then defined according to ‘characteristic’ pollen/vegetation assemblages (West, 1980b) and named from a type locality (Mitchell et al., 1973). Characteristic pollenassemblages were then placed in stratigraphic order by relationship to other evidence such as glacial, fluvial or marine sediment bodies, or their position on the landscape. Hence, the temperate stages of the Early Pleistocene were named, from oldest to youngest: Ludhamian, Antian and Bramertonian, and the Middle Pleistocene consisted from the oldest to the youngest of Pastonian, Cromerian and Hoxnian (Mitchell et al., 1973; West, 1977, 1980b) (Table 1). Subsequent correlation with the Netherlands demonstrated that the British scheme did not include all of the Early and Middle Pleistocene temperate stages (Zagwijn, 1975), but there is no doubt that this methodology was critical in developing a realistic stratigraphy for the British Isles and providing an initial understanding of landscape development throughout the Quaternary.

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Nevertheless the role of pollen-assemblage biostratigraphy in unravelling the British Quaternary stratigraphy has meant that there has been a pre-occupation with stratigraphic signatures rather that a systematic evaluation of the British temperate-stage palaeoecology (Sutcliffe, 1976; Bennett, 1988; Seppa¨ and Bennett, 2003). The result has been that even when attempts have been made to take a biogeographical approach to the characteristics of temperate episodes/interglacials (West, 1980b), problems have arisen because the reconstruction assumed a simple climatic warming–cooling–warming cycle and the reconstructed palaeobiogeography often mixed assemblages from different temperate episodes, giving meaningless results. At present the most useful review of this evidence is in Jones and Keen (1993). The nature of this problem can be illustrated by comparison of the pollen stratigraphy from the type site of the ‘Cromerian’ Stage at West Runton in north Norfolk (West and Wilson, 1968; West, 1980a) with an ecological study of the sediments, pollen and the stable-isotopes from the associated freshwater mollusca (Davies et al., 2000; Rose et al., 2008). Pollen analysis of the Cromer Forestbed has been interpreted, biostratigraphically, as the warming part of the Cromerian Interglacial stage (West and Wilson, 1968; West, 1980a,b). In contrast a palaeoecological interpretation of the pollen content and spectrum indicates that the vegetation represents a typical seral development on a floodplain, with a new surface being colonised by temperate-climate woodland. A period of c. 100 years would produce a similar vegetational succession. In support of this ecological interpretation, relatively coarse-grained sedimentation (organic sand with diamictic lenses) indicates relatively rapid sedimentation—in the order of 10–100s years, and not 1000s of years (Rose et al., 2008). Finally, the oxygen isotopes from the freshwater mollusca that exist throughout the succession indicate that there has been no change of temperature over period in which the sediments were deposited (Davies et al., 2000; Rose et al., 2008). Although the above text may appear critical, it needs to be placed in perspective. Pollen assemblage biostratigraphy was essential for our early understanding of the British Quaternary stratigraphy and the nature and dynamics of British Quaternary environmental change. Richard West (who is cited above) was the outstanding scientist responsible for steering this science, but the science has now moved-on, and the palaeoecological approach that now typifies Holocene studies must be applied to earlier parts of the Quaternary. This aspiration will be difficult to fulfil because of the absence of fine resolution dating methods, but to retain the present approach of correlating like-with-like without independent dating or multi-proxy evaluations, will remain an exercise in futility. 2.3. Lithostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy inevitably forms the building blocks of stratigraphy and landscape reconstruction, but in terrestrial regions such as eastern England long, stacked sequences are absent, lithologies are regionally very variable and such sequences that do exist are dominated by hiatuses. The result is that depositional models need to be very complex. This is highlighted best by reference to glacial deposits which are particularly important for Quaternary stratigraphy because of their spatial extent, their association with powerful surface processes and the fact that they can be very distinctive. However, glacial deposits change across a region according to the direction of the ice flow path, the lithology of the underlying bed, the behaviour of the ice at the glacier bed and the process of depositing the glaciogenic sediment. The nature of this problem can well be illustrated by work in which I was involved, which proposed that the glacial deposits throughout midland and eastern England are of

one age and were deposited in a single glacial episode (Anglian Stage) (Perrin et al., 1979; Rose, 1989c). This study was based on a statistical analysis of lithological properties of a very large sample (>200) of tills from across the region. The results showed uniform trends which could be interpreted to show a single (if complex in places) pattern of ice flow, and residuals that indicated anomalies that needed particular explanation, but did not deflect from the general model. However, subsequent detailed analyses across the region have shown that this single glacial model is invalidated by non-glacial materials within the ‘single till’, and the fact that different parts of a ‘single till’ have quite different ice-flow directions (Rose, 1992; Hamblin et al., 2005) (see below). Nevertheless, systematic regional studies of glacial deposits such as that of Harmer (1928) and Madgett and Catt (1978), or a clear understanding of the glaciogenic processes responsible for till deposition (Hart and Roberts, 1994; Lunkka, 1994; Lee and Phillips, 2008; Lee, 2009) do enable glacial deposits to play a very important part in the reconstruction of patterns of landscape development. River deposits have much less variability and have been the subject of considerable work by Hey (1965), Gibbard (1985) and Bridgland (1986, 1994). The relative lack of variability reflects the disintegration of the less durable rocks by bedload and saltation transport along the river channel, so that a pattern of rock types related to the catchment bedrock geology can develop with frequencies reflecting the proximity to the source rock and the durability of the rock type. Following this principle is has been possible to identify distinctive lithological signatures for fluvial deposits along a catchment such as the Bytham (Rose, 1987), and between catchments such as the Thames and Medway in Essex (Bridgland, 1980; Bridgland et al., 2003). Glacial meltwater deposits typically differ from those deposited from subaerial river catchments (Rose and Allen, 1977). This is due, primarily, to the inclusion of quantities of non-durable lithologies eroded by glacial processes and derived from glacial sediments, and the relatively short distances that glaciofluvial materials were transported prior to deposition, so that comminution of the nondurable lithologies is restricted. The result is that these deposits may also have a distinctive lithological signature, quite different from that of adjacent river deposits. This property was one of the criteria used for differentiating the preglacial Thames deposits (Kesgrave Sands and Gravels) from the Anglian age glaciofluvial meltwater deposits (Barham Sands and Gravels) in East Anglia (Rose and Allen, 1977). In a similar fashion Lee et al. (2004a) was able to identify the onset of glaciation within the Bytham River catchment in the region of Bungay, from the first appearance of substantial quantities of heavy minerals derived from the glacial source regions in Scotland as opposed to heavy minerals derived primarily from the Bytham river catchment in midland and eastern England. Despite the convenience of this lithostratigraphic method, care needs to be taken to understand the processes involved in the deposition of any particular sediment body as non-durable lithologies can be eroded from the river channel, or introduced into the channel by mass flow from the river bank or valley side and transported limited distances before deposition, producing a signal that could be interpreted as glaciofluvial. This situation has been observed in the second aggradation deposits of the Bytham River at Warren Hill northeast of Newmarket where chalk has been incorporated from the channel and valley side and mixed with fartravelled rocks from midland England. The ability to distinguish between glaciofluvially and subaerially sourced drainage is further confused when a subaerial river catchment has been glaciated and subsequent river erosion entrains glaciogenic deposits. For this reason, this methodology is most effective in resolving elements landscape development in the early Middle Pleistocene. In the Thames catchment, for instance, Gibbard (1977, 1985) was able to differentiate pre-Anglian deposits from the Anglian age Maiden-

J. Rose / Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 120 (2009) 3–33

head Formation and, for the pre-Anglian deposits of the same system Whiteman and Rose (1992) were able to differentiate the earlier Sudbury Formation from the later Colchester Formation on the basis of the proportions of far travelled materials and the weathered state of the quartzose clasts. Shallow marine sediments have similar characteristics to the preglacial subaerial river deposits, reflecting persistent reworking of the sediment body and disintegration of the less durable materials. Hence the Wroxham Crag of northeastern East Anglia is, in the main, lithologically similar to the source materials transported by the Bytham and Thames river systems (Rose et al., 2001). Consequently these deposits have similar stratigraphic significance to the preglacial river deposits. In contrast, slope and beach deposits within the area covered by this paper are of limited lithostratigraphic value because they have either a very variable lithological signature or are very limited in extent. In particular, slope deposits vary according to source material. Beach, estuarine and nearshore deposits can be lithologically distinctive (Gale et al., 1988; West and Whiteman, 1986) but are very patchy in distribution. Thus, unless these deposits are separated by uplift, as in West Sussex (Bates et al., 1997), they are likely to suffer from substantial reworking, and their stratigraphic significance can be very difficult to disentangle (Hoare et al., 2009). Slope, estuarine and some beach deposits do, however, benefit from the likelihood of containing organic material which may have palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic significance (West, 1980a). 2.4. Morphostratigraphy Morphostratigraphy is effective where landforms are well developed by powerful processes and not subsequently modified by other less powerful processes. Moraine ridges, raised beaches, glaciofluvial and fluvial river terraces and lake shorelines can be analysed and traced across substantial regions. Morphostratigraphic differentiation is based on relative position on the landscape, so that moraine ridges increase in age proportional to the distance from the source of the glacier or ice sheet, and raised beaches, shorelines and terraces increase in age proportional to their height above the presently forming landform. Complications to these simple rules cause the burial or erosion of landforms and make the application of morphostratigraphy more difficult or impossible. Ages can be placed on the landforms by appropriate dating methods of which radionuclide cosmo dating has made a significant contribution in recent years (Rinterknecht et al., 2006). The relative degrees of modification by lower energy subaerial processes since formation have been used to determine the relative ages of landscapes, such as the differentiation of the Last and earlier glaciations into the ‘older-’ and ‘newer-drift’ (Wright, 1937). Morphostratigraphy has restricted value for the Early and Middle Pleistocene of eastern England, because most landforms that would have stratigraphic significance (moraine ridges, river terraces) have been degraded beyond recognition by surface and soil forming processes. Nevertheless, two features do require consideration: the Cromer Ridge, and staircases of river aggradations. The Cromer Ridge is unique in the region under consideration in that it demonstrates a relief that does not relate to surface runoff— in other words it is not composed of river valley and intervening ridges, but of a ridge that is independent of the drainage and has an internal composition that indicates a powerful glacial force from the north (Hart, 1990). Outwash fans or sandar at the west end of the ridge, and an associated esker also appear to be part of this glaciogenic landform complex, and can be used in infer an icemarginal position and subglacial and proglacial meltwater flow (Sparks and West, 1964; Gale and Hoare, 2007). The unique survival of these landforms may also have temporal significance and is discussed below.

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The staircases of river aggradations have stratigraphic significance derived from the relative elevation of the body of sediment along the catchment long profile (Gibbard, 1985; Lee et al., 2006). The stratigraphic significance is not derived from the details of the landform, as with typical morphostratigraphy, because in the region under consideration these landforms are so heavily degraded that surfaces cannot be recognised except by the presence of a palaeosol. The ability to use this method arises from the fact that uplift in interior England has elevated and separated the terraces over time, and the relative elevation is an indication of the relative age (Maddy, 1997; Westaway et al., 2002). The fact that the river deposits may contain a distinctive lithology or biostratigraphy, or materials suitable for dating means that this type of morphostratigraphy can be reinforced by additional stratigraphic methods, enhancing the quality of the results and interpretation (Schreve, 2001a,b; Schreve et al., 2007; Howard et al., 2007). This methodology has been very effective in resolving the stratigraphy of the Thames (Gibbard, 1977, 1985; Bridgland, 1994), Solent (Allen and Gibbard, 1993; Westaway et al., 2006) and Bytham (Lee et al., 2006) rivers, all of which have survived through a long part of Quaternary time. In the areas of eastern and Midland England where glaciation has destroyed the landscape the aggradation/incision system only represents the period since the last ice cover (Maddy et al., 1991; Howard et al., 2007). Palaeosols link morphostratigraphy with lithostratigraphy and provide a key, in lithostratigraphic successions, to the existence of former land surfaces (Rose et al., 1985b). Soil properties have played a key part in identifying both mediterranean and permafrost type climates within the British Early and Middle Pleistocene (Rose et al., 1976, 1985a,b; Kemp, 1985a,b; Candy et al., 2006; Candy, 2006; Candy, 2009), although they have been less important in identifying cool temperate climate conditions as these do not have the same survival potential as the permafrost structures and coherent argillic horizons that formed in periglacial and mediterranean soils, respectively. Palaeosols also have the potential of demonstrating climate change through the microscopic study of soil structures (Kemp, 1987a,b; Kemp et al., 1993). In this way it has been possible to determine patterns of landscape development in eastern England when both sediment and landform evidence is not available. 2.5. Climatic stratigraphy Although the above review gives the impression of abundant methods of dating, correlating and resolving Quaternary stratigraphy and landscape change, the reality is that the scarcity of sites for successful dating and the complexity of the lithological, geomorphological and biological models means that debate remains rampant and numerous problems remain to be solved. It is in these circumstances that a climatic stratigraphic scheme has been developed in which the litho-, bio- and morphostratigraphy have been linked to climatic episodes, and a sequence of climatic changes (essentially glacial/interglacial cycles) have been developed to form the basis of the stratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. As outlined above, climatic stratigraphy developed around glacial/interglacial cycles defined by pollen stratigraphy related to intervening lithostratigraphy, and these building blocks led to the development of the stratigraphy proposed in Mitchell et al. (1973) and to a large degree Bowen (1999a). However, as stressed by Bowen (1978) the long marine core records provide a better proxy for climate stratigraphy, with the terrestrial stratigraphy being seen as a part of an integrated Earth system. The result is that today, Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) derived from ocean cores, provide the template for global climate change (Rose et al., 2006) and the issue is not so much how to correlate with the global signal

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(although this does remain an issue in many cases) but to understand the regional variations from the global model. In addition to providing a template for climate change, the long climatic records have the advantage that they can be linked to a numerically calculated orbital timescale (Shackleton et al., 1990; Bassinot et al., 1994), and thus, numerically calculated ages can be placed on climatic events, both changes and extremes. Hitherto the most useful climatic signal is that of Bintanja et al. (2005) which is an integration of fifty-seven sediment records and presented in terms of the deviation of mid-latitude, Northern Hemisphere temperature from the present (Fig. 4). This record can be correlated with a numerically calculated July insolation record for 658N which can provide a timescale for the global climate changes (Bassinot et al., 1994; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005). These changing climatic signals can therefore provide a framework against which the regional or local signal can be correlated. The most obvious method of linking the two is by numerical ages derived from dating methods, but as outlined above, very few dates are available. A number of terrestrial climatic signals have the potential for correlation against distinctive characteristics (peaks) of the marine isotope curve. For eastern England, glacier expansion, high sea-level, river aggradation and temperate climate vegetation and fauna, all have the potential of relating to a warming or cooling peak. However, none of these provide a robust unique signal that may be given a temporal status and their greatest value is to provide a stacked sequence that would allow wiggle matching or counting forwards or backwards from a distinctive MIS signal or age determination. Thus, high sea-levels and temperate climate vegetation and fauna have the potential to mimic the warm climate events (odd number MIS events except MIS 3), but sea-level records are subject to reworking by the recurring geomorphic event (unless uplift can separate shorelines as in West Sussex (Bates et al., 1997), and vegetation and fauna have poor preservation potential, and without a litho- or morphostratigraphic framework they cannot indicate any sequential development. Glacial deposits are distinctive and spatially extensive, but suffer from reworking by succeeding glacial events, except at chance localities. River aggradations and incision in the lower parts of large, uplifting catchments offer the greatest potential for deriving a sequence of distinctive climatic events. This climatically driven process is a simplified version of the Bridgland Model for river aggradation history (Bridgland, 1994; Rose, 2006). By this simplified model, sediment aggradation in the lower parts of river catchments is attributed to net deposition during MI cold stages due to a supply of coarse-grained sediment from the upper parts of a catchment, transported by rivers with high stream-power. Net incision in the lower parts of the large catchments is attributed to the temperate episodes when sediment is locked-up by vegetation, stream power is lower and available river energy is concentrated on river channel erosion (Rose, 2006). Thus in a typical eccentricity cycle (c. 100 ka), aggradation is dominant in the lower parts of the catchment during the cold episodes when physical disruption of the land surface was dominant and peak discharges from snow or ice melt were high. In contrast, the periods of incision in the lower parts of the catchment take place when vegetation cover is thick, soils are deep, interception is high and coarse-grained sediment and high discharges are rare. In a catchment not experiencing uplift, the rivers rework existing deposits over time and only chance fragments survive, but with persistent uplift the deposits are separated by altitude and hence have a good chance of survival. This scheme has been tested by independent dating and comparison with mammal and mollusc assemblage stratigraphy in the lower part of the River Thames, and appears, as a result of rigorous testing, to validate the process (Shreve, 2001a,b; Bridg-

Fig. 4. A 1070-ka time series of Northern Hemisphere, showing modelled surface air temperature deviation from the present for the area over the continents between 408 and 808N. Taken from Bintanja et al. (2005), Nature, with modifications. Also shown are the MIS stages (and substages for MIS 5e, 7a and e, and 15a and 15e) taken from Bassinot et al. (1994) back to MIS 22 and from Lisiecki and Raymo (2005) prior to MIS 22. The column to the right of the MIS numbers indicates the likelihood of net aggradation or net incision in the lower parts of large catchments, based on the premise that periglacial processes would generate high peak discharges and course grained sediment.

land and Schreve, 2001, 2004). The likelihood of when periods of net aggradation and incision should have place are indicated in Fig. 4. It is important to stress that this model only applies to the lower parts of large river systems which integrate all the catchment processes. This model does not apply in localities where complex response determines erosion and deposition due to factors such as

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Fig. 5. The history of river aggradation and incision in the upper part of the Wensum catchment, northwest Norfolk. The river activity has been allocated to British Quaternary Stages on the basis of pollen assemblage stratigraphy, and was assumed to cover all the temperate and cold stages and sub-stage within the interval between the Hoxnian Stage and the Holocene. Taken from Rose (1995) and based on West (1991).

local relief, local tectonics or the input of substantial quantities of glaciofluvial material. Thus, for instance, this scheme does not apply in the upper part of river systems or of small rivers, and it does not apply with the MIS 12 terraces in the Middle Thames (Maddy and Bridgland, 2000a,b), where there is glaciofluvial input of material from the Anglian (MIS 12) Stage glaciers and possibly also glacio-isostatic crustal deformation. In order to place this concept in perspective, it is helpful to note that the detailed work on the Wensum river system northwest of Norwich (West, 1991; Rose, 1995) (Fig. 5) which is in the upper part of the river catchment. Here the river re-works its own sediments at roughly the same level (within 7 m) throughout the late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene (Fig. 5) and the patterns of river aggradation and incision in this area clearly demonstrate the effects of autogenic processes and complex response, independent of sea-level and tectonic activity (Schumm and Parker, 1973, Rose, 1995). What this means is that changes in the behaviour of the river (aggradation, incision, minimal fluvial activity with biological processes dominant), are a function of factors such as climate which controls discharge, vegetation cover which controls discharge and sediment supply, local relief which controls slope and channel and hillside sediment supply, and antecedent relief which controls slope. Thus, for instance, periods of dense vegetation cover can lead to a lock-up of sediment, local channel incision and local downcutting, but deposition of the eroded sediment downstream. Equally an increase in vegetation cover can lead to the local build-up of organic deposits on a floodplain behind channel-side leve´es, or in ox-bow lakes, even while the active channel is incising. Climatic change from warm-with-vegetationcover, to cold-with-bare-frost-disturbed slopes can lead initially to incision, in response to peak snow-melt discharges, but after a period of time, this can be followed by aggradation as sediment is transferred from the valley sides to the channels by gelifluction. Another scenario must involve the effects of tributary valleys. For

instance fan development in the main valley by a steeper tributary stream can lead to steepening of part of the main channel downstream of the fan, and a reduction in gradient of the main channel upstream of the fan. These changes will, therefore, cause incision through and upstream of the fan and deposition downstream. Likewise a progressive sorting of the sediments within the channel can lead to adjustment of the stream long profile by incision and aggradation. These permutations are numerous, hence the term ‘complex response’ (Schumm and Parker, 1973). However, all these processes and responses are relatively smallscale and typical of the order of the changes recorded in the Wensum. They do not relate to uplift or to sea-level change and cannot be used as a general model of climate-driven river activity. This fine-resolution study provides a clear illustration of the behaviour of the upper parts of river systems. It emphasises the difference with the lower parts of large rivers where all elements of complex response are integrated and generalised into substantial body of sediment or, alternatively, into net erosion. The features described in the upper Wensum are typical terraces formed by complex aggradations and incisions and are not the aggradations used as an eccentricity-scale morphostratigraphic method. The full Bridgland Model attempts to take issues of complex response into consideration (Bridgland, 2006). 3. Tectonic context The tectonic setting for the region is the western edge of the North Sea basin (Caston, 1979) and there are two tectonic styles. (1) Early and early Middle Pleistocene folding involving both differential subsidence and uplift. (2) Late Middle Pleistocene uplift, increasing inland to the central England watersheds. This means that the effects of Quaternary neotectonics varies across the region with, over the Early and Middle Pleistocene, predominant subsidence at the east coast, uplift in central and western East Anglia and, remarkably, very little change in the area of West

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Runton, Happisburgh. It is assumed that this region has acted as a hinge or pivot over a long period of Quaternary time. Work by the British Geological Survey (Hamblin et al., 1997), inferred faulting of the Early and Middle Pleistocene sediments, and hitherto unpublished work has revealed what a appears to be a early Middle Pleistocene fault at Salhouse northeast of Norwich. The form of the Early and early Middle Pleistocene deformation is shown in Figs. 6 and 11 which record contours at the base of the shallow marine deposits (Crags) (Zalasiewicz et al., 1988). The western edge of these deposits runs approximately north–south from Weybourne, through Norwich to around Diss. To the west the Chalk outcrops. To the east of this boundary the crag thickens to maximum values in basins at Stalham, Bungay and Stradbroke, all of which have a base at about 30 m OD. The maximum thickness is however around Winterton and Lowestoft where the western edge of the North Sea Basin proper extents below 50 m OD. A number of ridges separate the small basins as, for instance to the west of Reedham and east of Stradbroke. This distribution means that the base of the Crag sediments rises from below 50 m OD to above 10 m OD at a number of localities at the western margin (20 m OD recorded at Chapel Hill, south of Norwich (Read et al., 2007)). As there is no evidence for global sea-level significantly

higher than the present throughout the period in which the Crags were deposited (Funnell, 1995), this means that in addition to deformation forming basins and ridges in the east, uplift has raised the general elevation of the land in the west where the base of the Crag is >10 m OD. Local studies in the area between Norwich and Bungay/Beccles (Rose et al., 2002) and in the region just south of Norwich (Read et al., 2007) have attempted to unravel the nature of this neotectonic activity. In the former area, shallow marine sediments reach an elevation of between 20 and 25 m OD, and the succession and elevation of these deposits indicates both uplift and subsidence before a final period of uplift (Rose et al., 2002, pp. 65– 66). In the latter area the shallow marine sediments reach an elevation of 28.5 m OD and the evidence of shallow marine deposits suggests uplift in excess of 30 m since deposition, which, at this locality, was at c. 600/500 ka BP (Read et al., 2007), indicating a net uplift rate of about 1 m per 19 ka. These studies need to be placed in context with evidence from the Cromer Forest-bed sites around the coast (West, 1980a; Parfitt et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2006). At these sites there is abundant evidence to indicate that the upper limits for sea-level have not extended much above the present (Table 2). Although it is difficult to make direct comparisons with the inland sites because of the

Table 2 Evidence of sea-level and sea-level change during the Cromerian Complex and ‘Pre-Pastonian’. Area Site (localities defined in West, 1980a)

Biozone (after West, 1980a)

Sediment type

Skelding Hill Beeston BV to BC Beeston BR-S Beeston BQ Beeston BW Beeston BE West Runton BCa West Runton BZb West Runton BQ West Runton WRAYa West Runton 25m W* West Runton 50 m W* West Runton 105m W*

Pa1b

Stone bed and clay Gravel and sand Gravels and clay

West Runton WRCNA West Runton WRF West Runton WRBN Overstrand OB Overstrand boreholes Overstrand b/hole 1B Trimingham BHT16 Mundesley MU Mundesley MAK Mundesley MAM Mundesley MAU Mundesley MB Mundesley MAT Paston PE Paston-Mundesley Happisburgh HC, HA Happisburgh HC Happisburgh HF Corton CL, CK Corton Corton borehole 3/11 Bacton BH Pakefield Pakefield borehole PL Pakefield Covehithe Easton Bavents

PaIII PaII PaII Pre-Pa a CrIIIa CrIIIb CrIIIb CrIVa PaII, III Cr? and Pa II, III PaII, III Pa II Pre-Pa a CrIIIb and PaIVb PaII, IVb Pre-Pa a PaIb CrIIIa CrIIIb CrIVa CrIIIb CrIIIb Pre-Pa a PaIVa PaII, III, IVa PaI-IV Pre-Pa a PaII CrIIIa CrIIb PaII CrIVa PaII Pre-Pa a Ba, Lu 4b Ba, Lu 4b

Trans-gression contact level m OD

Reg-ression contact level m OD

Maximum elevation of marine sediment m OD

5.1

6.5–9.5 4.4–7.8 4.4–6.2

c. 4.8 c. 5.7 Stone bed Marine gravel Marine gravel Marine gravel

3.4 5.1 4.3 2.0 7.5

Gravel and sand Sand Gravel and sand Sand Sand Brackish mud Stone bed c. 5.3 Sand and clay Stone bed Sand and clay Marine gravel Marine gravel Brackish mud

3.0–4.9 4.4 5.0–6.7 5.0 3.9 c. 1.5 1.9 c. 2.5 2.0 to 1.2 4.2 9.0 to 1.5

c. 2.0 2.6 2.9 3.7 2.5

Stone bed and clay

11.5 to

4.8

2.0 Sand and clay Clays Sand and clay Tidal mud Marine gravel Marine clay Sand and clay Marine sand and clay Marine laminated clay Clay Sand and clay Clay Clay

3.2 to 2.4 1.5 to 2.4 16.6 to 3.0 0.5 c. 0.5 c.

6.0 to 6.7 c. 2.0–4.0

4.0

2.9 to 2.2 5.7 to 3.0 10.0 to 5.0 4.0–6.0

Derived from West (1980a, Tables, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41). Although the Stage names derived from pollen assemblage stratigraphy no longer have any chronostratigraphic significance, they allow the sea-level or sea-level change to be related to a particular ecological system and possibly a climatic signal. The previously assumed ages of the ‘Cromerian’, ‘Beestonian’, ‘Pastonian’ and ‘Baventian’ stages are shown on Figs. 1 and 2. Sites which show a tendency towards marine conditions but do not actually include marine sediments (such as Pakefield PC) are not included. The list is organised according to location from east to west. *West of the datum point at West Runton—defined in West (1980a).

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Fig. 6. The extent of marine sediments (Crag) in northern and central East Anglia, with the contours at the base of these sediments showing the nature of deformation in the region. The distribution of the marine sediments is taken from Zalasiewicz et al. (1988).

lack of any fine-resolution dating, it is possible to state that while uplift of c. 30 m has taken place around Norwich, there has been very little change in elevation around West Runton, Happisburgh or Lowestoft. Clearly, significant subsidence in the Lowestoft area occurred before the deposition of this Cromer Forest-bed. Uplift can also be estimated from the elevation of river aggradations. The pre-glacial Bytham River in central East Anglia (Fig. 7) provides evidence for the elevation of the aggradations that have been uplifted through Quaternary time. The maximum recorded elevation is in the order of 50 m OD in the area north of Bury St. Edmunds (Fig. 7). This surface is c. 40 m above the surface of the Castle Bytham aggradation that formed in MIS 12 around 430 ka. The age of the oldest terrace is very hard to determine but could be in the order of c. 1 Ma, implying an uplift of around 1 m per 15 ka. With the quality of the information used to determine the rates, this is comparable with the value from near Norwich, bearing in mind that more rapid uplift would be expected near Bury which is closer towards the centre of uplift. These aggradation levels are different from those proposed by Westaway (2009), but as those aggradation/ terrace groupings are unconstrained by palaeosol surfaces, and are mixed with glaciofluvial and postglacial aggradations/terraces of the River Waveney system (Coxon, 1993), the interpretations presented in that paper are not suitable for further consideration. The explanation for this tectonic activity is far from clear (Watts et al., 2000; Blundell, 2002; Westaway et al., 2002), but the proposals of Westaway, as applied to the Thames catchment,

appear to explain the geomorphological evidence within the region considered by this paper. In this case the tectonic signal described above is explained by the mobility of the upper mantle and the link between regional erosion in catchment headwaters, lowland and offshore sedimentation and Quaternary sea-level changes (Westaway et al., 2002). Recently, an alternative explanation for the tectonic pattern described above has been published by Leeder (2008). In this paper, the case is made that uplift of the form described above can be explained by erosion (c. 100 m) of the Wash and Fen Basin by Middle Pleistocene glaciation (ascribed to the Anglian Stage (MIS 12) following Perrin et al., 1979). This is a most interesting explanation using the process of erosional isostasy, and certainly accommodates aspects of the regional variations in uplift across northern and central East Anglia, but it is difficult (at the present stage of knowledge) to apply this explanation to the uplift evidence from other parts of Britain, such as the Thames basin (Westaway et al., 2002), or continental Europe (Antoine et al., 2007). Clearly this is an issue of considerable importance that is worthy of further research. Hopefully this work will involve further explanation of crustal geophysics and be constrained by independent dating methods. Thus, regional tectonics play an important role in determining the location and scale of uplift, stability and depression across eastern England and the details of the Early Pleistocene structural basins and ridges and the patterns of uplift of Middle Pleistocene river systems.

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Fig. 7. The aggradations of the Bytham River. Taken from Lee et al., Journal of Quaternary Science (2006), with modifications. The location of the sediment bodies is shown by a vertical line and the sites with evidence of a land surface, such as a palaeosol are shown with a horizontal mark. These palaeosols are critical for determining the surface of the aggradational sediment correlating the sediment bodies.

4. The period of major rivers and oscillating sea-levels The Early and early Middle Pleistocene deposits comprise river gravels and sands, sometimes containing organic remains, especially in the deposits long known as the Cromer Forest-bed (Funnell et al., 1979; West, 1980a), and shallow marine sands, gravels, silts and clays, often with a high marine shell and occasional terrestrial and marine mammal content (Mathers and Zalasiewicz, 1988; Zalasiewicz et al., 1988). These two depositional assemblages are the product of terrestrial and shallow marine processes that dominated eastern England prior to lowland glaciation (although there is a period of overlap as discussed below). The river systems were typically large relative to rivers flowing across Britain at the present day. They are eastward flowing (Figs. 8 and 11) and preserve evidence of both cold and temperate environments. The shallow marine deposits represent both estuarine and offshore environments and were also formed in both temperate and cold climate environments. Associated with both of these deposits are palaeosols, formed on land surfaces after the depositional processes had ceased (Rose et al., 1985b). 4.1. The shallow marine systems The shallow marine deposits, which are found in the eastern part of the region, consist from the older to younger, of the Red Crag, Norwich Crag and Wroxham Crag. The Red Crag is restricted to the southeastern part in the area (Fig. 8A) and consists of a basal gravel overlain by very shelly sands, except where these are decalcified. The Norwich Crag (Fig. 8A) is predominantly of sands with sands and gravels and silty sands and clays. The type section is at Bramerton (Fig. 3) and this has recently been described by Funnell et al. (1979) and Rose et al. (2002), although recent studies by Riches et al. (2008) have shown that the earlier descriptions and interpretations of this site are incomplete. The Norwich Crag sands are typically a yellowish brown with sedimentary cross-bedding

that indicates bimodal flow directions. At localities where the sediments are not decalcified there may be abundant marine mollusca and foraminifera, but terrestrial animal and plant remains are also found (Taylor, 1823; Woodward, 1881). The Norwich Crag is defined lithostratigraphically by its predominantly flint-rich clast content. Typically there is >95% local material which takes the form of either chattermarked flint or angular/sub-angular flint. The remaining rocks are typically traces of white vein quartz and white quartzite (Figs. 9 and 10). The lithological properties of the Norwich Crag are attributed to deposition by tidal currents in shallow seas or estuaries. The material constituting these deposits is predominantly local rocks derived from rivers that have transported terrestrial materials from the adjacent land areas, or from coastal erosion. The terrestrial component is clearly demonstrated by the presence of far-travelled palynomorphs from pre-Quaternary rocks that indicate an influx of suspended sediment from all parts of the river catchments (Riding et al., 1997, 2000). The extent of the Norwich Crag and the associated major rivers is shown on Fig. 8A. Although this figure shows a coastline it should be remembered that the Norwich Crag formed over a long period that will include a great number of climatically and tectonically driven sea-level changes and the shoreline is only indicative of the coastline zone. The major rivers associated with the Norwich Crag (Ancaster and Bytham rivers) are inferred from the palynomorph content and there are no terrestrial deposits in the area that can be correlated directly with the Norwich Crag. The reason for this is that the river deposits were most probably fine-grained and hence have low preservation potential. The Wroxham Crag overlies the Norwich Crag and the boundary is represented by a sharp lithological switch, such as that at Dobbs Plantation (Rose et al., 2001) (Fig. 9). The flint-dominated lithology in the gravel fraction changes to a lithological assemblage with significant quantities of far travelled rocks. The far travelled rocks include vein quartz, quartzite, cherts from Carboniferous, Jurassic

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Fig. 8. Early Pleistocene and early Middle Pleistocene fluvial and offshore palaeogeography of midland and eastern England and the adjacent North Sea basin. The heavy lines indicate main drainage trajectories based on long-established valley systems and Early and early Middle Pleistocene sediments. Over this period, eastern England acted as a depositional centre for drainage from the Thames, Bytham and Ancaster catchments. The distribution of lithostratigraphic units is given, along with the location of outcrop of distinctive indicator lithologies that were transported by the river systems to the coastal zone. (A) Shows the drainage system and extent of coastal deposits at the time of deposition of the Red and Norwich Crag Formations. (B) Shows the drainage system and extent of coastal deposits at the time of the deposition of the Dobb’s Plantation and How Hill Members of the Wroxham Crag Formation. (C) Shows the drainage system and extent of coastal deposits at the time of deposition of the Mundesley Member of the Wroxham Crag Formation. Taken from Rose et al. (2002), Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association.

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Fig. 9. The boundary between the Norwich Crag, which has a small proportion of far travelled clasts, and the Wroxham Crag which has a higher proportion of far-travelled rocks. This figure shows the frequency distribution of Carboniferous chert, Triassic quartzose rocks, Rhaxella chert, flint and other lithologies in the sediments at Dobb’s Plantation pit near Wroxham, Norfolk. Taken from Rose et al. (2001), Quaternary International.

and Cretaceous sources and igneous and metamorphic rocks, although the proportion of the last two types is very small. The Wroxham Crag is subdivided into three members on the basis of the far-travelled rock content, with the older Dobbs Plantation Member having c. 10% white vein quartz and quartzite and the younger How Hill Member having c. 30–40% white quartz and quartzite. The Mundesley Member is the youngest with a lower proportion of far travelled rocks (Rose et al., 2001, 2002) that appear to be due to derivation from a tributary catchment rather than the main river. The distribution of these Members, the contrasting lithologies and the lithological groupings can be shown on Figs. 8–10. The Wroxham Crag occurs in the same region as the Norwich Crag, except that it is far more extensive and above the Norwich Crag. Historically it was known as the Weybourne Crag (Wood and Harmer, 1872; Woodward, 1882) and the Bure Valley Beds (Baden-Powell and West, 1960; Funnell, 1961, 1980; Cambridge, 1978a,b). The new name was introduced to give a consistent term that could be defined adequately within the type area around Wroxham north of Norwich (Rose et al., 2001). The Wroxham Crag is characterised by interbedded sand and gravels with silt and clay beds and laminations in its upper part. Frequently the cross-bedding dip has a bimodal orientation. Where the deposit is not decalcified it contains a shallow marine and estuarine molluscan fauna characterised by the presence of Macoma balthica (Cambridge, 1978a,b). The coarser units of this

deposit reflect deposition associated with the main tidal-current channels and bars, while the finer fractions are considered to represent still water deposition in the less active parts of estuaries. In places, palaeosols are developed on the surface of the marine deposits indicating periods when the sea-level has fallen and these shallow marine deposits were exposed to atmospheric and surface processes. At some localities, such as Trimingham the soils are represented by ice-wedge casts and involutions indicating cold climate and even permafrost conditions (Briant et al., 1999), whereas at other localities such as West Runton (Gammage, 2004) and Aldeby red argillic soils indicate the effects of seasonal warmth and moisture. These, are typical of the Valley Farm Soil of Suffolk that formed in a mediterranean style climate (Rose and Allen, 1977; Kemp, 1985a,b). This variety of climatic signals indicates the fact that the Wroxham Crag developed over a wide range of climates, and the presence of reversed and normal magnetism in the deposit confirms that it formed over a long period of Quaternary (Van Montfrans, 1971; Hallam and Maher, 1994; Maher and Hallam, 2005b; Lee et al., 2006). The Wroxham Formation is the shallow marine lithostratigraphic unit, equivalent to the terrestrial Cromer Forest-bed Formation. The Wroxham Crag is defined by its lithological content, whereas the Cromer Forest-bed is defined by its biological content, typically the pollen assemblages (West and Wilson, 1968; West, 1980a). The Wroxham Crag is more extensive throughout

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Fig. 10. Bivariate plot of lithological properties of clast assemblages from the Norwich Crag, Wroxham Crag (Dobbs Plantation and How Hill Members), Bytham Sands and Gravels and glaciofluvial gravels (Corton Sands, Leet Hill Sands and Gravels, Aldeby Sands and Gravels). The variables used are percentage flint which is mainly from East Anglia on the vertical axis, and percentage quartzite, vein quartz and schorl from the Midlands on the horizontal axis. The three groups can be seen clearly although there is a small area of overlap due, largely, to glaciofluvial processes entraining Wroxham Crag or Bytham Sands and Gravels. This problem of overlap of clast signature can largely be overcome by study of the heavy minerals (Lee et al., 2004a,b).

East Anglia than the Cromer Forest-bed because it was developed in spatially extensive shallow marine environment rather than along linear floodplains. The extent of the Wroxham Crag and the associated river patterns is shown on Fig. 8B and C and, as with the Norwich Crag, it is associated with a changing coastline driven by climate change (glacio-eustacy) and long term tectonic deformation. The periods of relatively low sea-level or uplifted land level are illustrated by the palaeosols and terrestrial Cromer Forest-bed units, while the Wroxham Crag represents periods of high sea-level or low land level caused by tectonic subsidence (Rose et al., 2002; Read et al., 2007). 4.2. The major river systems The Cromer Forest-bed is associated with fluviatile deposition by two river systems: the Ancaster River in the north of the region and the Bytham River in central East Anglia (Figs. 8 and 11). The Ancaster River was identified and reconstructed in Clayton (2000) using a quantitative reconstruction of rockhead relief (Fig. 11). Support for this geomorphological reconstruction is shown by the pebble content of the fluvial Cromer Forest-bed and shallow marine Wroxham Crag deposits exposed along the north Norfolk coast, which are dominated by white quartzite and vein quartz, with significant quantities of Carboniferous chert, all indicating derivation from the region of what is now the southern Pennines (Walsh et al., 1972). Hitherto no high-level terraces of the Ancaster River have been discovered and this is attributed largely to extensive glacial erosion of the higher land in the area that is now

the North Sea, north of the north Norfolk coastline. Terraces are not present in the Ancaster Gap largely due to the confined nature of this feature, in a similar fashion to the way that terraces formed by the River Thames do not survive in the region of the Goring Gap. The Bytham River was first identified by Hey (1965) who noted an increase in frequency of vein quartz and quartzite rocks in the area of central East Anglia in deposits that are now known as Kesgrave Sands and Gravels (deposited by the River Thames). He considered that this pattern indicated the position of a tributary river that flowed into the River Thames from Midland England. Further details about the form of this river were published by Clarke and Auton (1982) as a result of the British Geological Survey Mineral Assessment project. The wider significance of these deposits was explained by Rose (1987) who traced the vein quartz and quartziterich deposit across midland England to the sites already identified in East Anglia. The recognition of a single geomorphological and lithological unit that had formed before lowland glaciation, and was either buried or eroded by glaciation provided a link between two parts of England, as well as the identification of the largest abandoned Quaternary river system in Britain. Subsequent work on the Bytham River (Rose, 1989a, 1994; Ashton et al., 1992; Lewis, 1993; Bateman and Rose, 1994; Brandon, 1999; Lewis et al., 1999; Rose et al., 1999; Stephens et al., 2008) confirmed a major valley draining from the area of Stratford-upon-Avon through the regions of Coventry, Leicester, Melton Mowbray, Bury St. Edmunds, Diss and Lowestoft to the region of the present North Sea. The course of the Bytham River throughout the Early and early Middle Pleistocene is shown on Figs. 7, 9, 11 and 20.

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Fig. 11. Rockhead topography of east midland and eastern England. The western part of this figure is derived from Clayton (2000, Fig. 6) and represents the reconstructed preAnglian relief. The elevations represent the mean altitude for each kilometre square. The eastern part of the area is derived from Zalasiewicz et al. (1988, Fig. 1) and represents the contours on the base of the shallow marine Crag deposits. These two elevation levels do not match as they represent different properties, but they do give the bestavailable indication of rockhead relief for the area. Also shown are the main trajectories of the Ancaster, Bytham and Thames rivers. The position of the present coastline is given for location.

Detailed work by Lewis (1993), Rose (1994), Rose et al. (1999) and Lee et al. (2004a,b) revealed a number of river sediment aggradations beneath the glacial deposits in central East Anglia, and these have been attributed to river development associated with progressive tectonic uplift of the region (Fig. 7). As discussed in the stratigraphy section of this paper it is possible to use a simplified version of the Bridgland Model for river aggradation/ incision history (Bridgland, 1994; Rose, 2006) to estimate the age of these aggradations. The lowest and youngest aggradation is attributed to MIS 12 because in the area of Castle Bytham in south Lincolnshire the Bytham River valley can be shown to be blocked, over-ridden and then obliterated from the landscape by Anglian (MIS 12) age glaciers (Rose, 1989b). This aggradation is the distinctive signal that is linked to the MIS timescale, and using the principles set out in Section 3 of this paper, the six aggradations of

the Bytham River can be allocated to MIS stages 12 to around 20. The reason for the caution about the ages of the earliest aggradations can be seen in Fig. 4. The duration of the cold episodes suitable for aggrading a substantial body of sediment is limited, relative to the duration of the cold episodes in most of the Middle Pleistocene, and the robustness of the simplified Bridgland Model is therefore diminished. Typically the Bytham River sediments (Bytham Sands and Gravels) are quartz- and quartzite-rich gravels dominated by white coloured clasts in the oldest aggradations and by brown clasts in all the four younger aggradations (Fig. 10) (Rose et al., 2002). This lithological content, along with the palynomorphs in fine grained units (Riding et al., 1997, 2000) confirm that the river system flowed from west Midland England, through East Anglia to the region that is now the North Sea. In most places the gravels are

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Fig. 12. The major changes in the landscape of eastern Britain and northern Europe following lowland glaciation. (A) The landscape before lowland glaciation. (B) The landscape following lowland glaciation. This figure shows the changes from a landscape in which Britain is linked to the Continent, and is drained by large rivers such as the Baltic River in Europe and the Thames and Bytham in England, to a landscape in which Britain regularly becomes an island and is drained by much smaller rivers. This change also sees the Southern North Sea Delta cease to operate as a single aggrading system due to the absence of sediment from the Baltic River and the absence of sediment from the small British rivers. The pattern of the Baltic (Eridanos) River is taken from Overeem (2002) and Overeem et al. (2002) and the maximal limit of glaciation is taken from Ehlers and Gibbard (2004).

heavily decalcified so that sedimentary structures are diffuse. However, where structures are visible, cross-bedding and subhorizontal bedding is typical, indicating deposition at the front and surface of mid-channel and channel-side bars of a braided river system. Where decalcification has not occurred, such as at Warren Hill (Figs. 3 and 20) the sedimentary structures are exceedingly well developed and at this locality they indicate bar-foresets and point-bar structures formed in deep water with abundant sediment supply derived by valley side erosion and long distance transport from west midland England. Ice wedge casts, often intraformational, are common features throughout the Bytham Sands and Gravels indicating that at least some of the aggradation took place in a permafrost climate (Lewis, 1989, 1993). Fine-grained Bytham River sediments are quantitatively small but not rare. Fine grained and organic deposits have been recorded at Waverley Wood (Shotton et al., 1993; Keen et al., 2006; Coope, 2006) and Brandon in Warwickshire (Maddy et al., 1994) Brooksby in Leicestershire (Engineering Geology, 1985a,b,c; Rice, 1991; Brandon, 1999; Coope, 2006; Stephens et al., 2008), Witham on the Hill in Lincolnshire (Gibbard and Peglar, 1989), High Lodge (Ashton et al., 1992; Rose, 1992; Coope, 2006) and Pakefield (Parfitt et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2006; Coope, 2006) in Suffolk and Norton Subcourse in Norfolk (Lewis et al., 2004). These finer grained and organic materials represent, respectively, overbank sedimentation by a single-thread river channel system or pool/channel infills on the surface of the floodplain or between bars on the channel-track. Palaeobotanical proxies indicate that the climate at the time these sediments formed ranged from cool temperate (Coope, 1992, 2006) to mediterranean (Coope, 2006; Candy et al., 2006) and the river flowed through a landscape with a dense and prolific biomass. Further evidence for temperate climate conditions is recorded by palaeosols at the surface of the Bytham River deposits. At a number of sites in East Anglia including Ingham (Read, 1994) argillic soils are developed at the surface of the gravels, and at Pakefield a carbonate soil has revealed structures and oxygen stable signatures that indicates a mediterranean style climate (Candy et al., 2006). In summary, the Bytham River represents what was once one of the largest rivers in Britain that flowed eastwards from the west Midlands to the region of the present North Sea. Surviving sediments indicate deposition over a period in excess of 0.5 Ma, but

the origin clearly goes back to pre-Quaternary times although none of the fine-grained material transported at this time has survived. The system experienced progressive uplift in the inland regions, like all the other rivers of southern and central England. Like the Ancaster River, the Bytham River drained into the contemporary North Sea and supplied coarse-grained material to the shallow marine environment to provide a sediment source for the Wroxham Crag. In the lower part of the Ancaster and Bytham Rivers the temperate climate, fine-grained fluviatile and estuarine sediments formed on low energy floodplains and survive as the Cromer Forest-bed. The Bytham River ceased to exist when the landscape in which it flowed was overridden by lowland glaciation during the Anglian stage of MIS 12, although it was modified by glaciofluvial activity prior to this stage (Rose et al., 1999). It appears that the Ancaster River ceased to exist at an earlier stage when northern East Anglia was overridden by the Happisburgh Glaciation of MIS 16. 5. Major landscape changes Glaciation of lowland eastern and midland England resulted in major landscape changes. The landscape of the major rivers and shallow marine deposits was either eroded or buried, and replaced by glacial terrain (Rose et al., 1985a). This was part of a continentalwide change. The Baltic/Eridanos River which previously flowed from western Russia and Scandinavia to the North Sea was replaced by the Baltic Sea (Overeem, 2002; Overeem et al., 2002) (Fig. 12); the southern North Sea Delta, which had contributed to the stack of sediment between Britain and Denmark ceased to operate (Cameron et al., 1992) and was replaced by a number of smaller sediment sources and with sediment redistribution rather than accumulation (Cameron et al., 1984) and the landbridge between Britain and the Continent was replaced by sea and the formation of the Straits of Dover (Gibbard, 1988, 1995). The eroded areas, such as the Fen Basin, the Wash, Vale of Belvoir and North Sea north of northwest Norfolk remain basins today or have now become part of the shallow coastal region. The Chalk escarpment that trends south from the northwest Norfolk coast towards the Chiltern Hills is much degraded relative to the relief on Fig. 11. The remainder of East Anglia and much of midland England is covered with relatively thick glaciogenic deposits and after

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glaciation these areas must have been a typical glacial landsystem with drumlins and flutes across most of the deformable tills, moraine ridges in some places, subglacial meltwater tunnel valleys, and ice-stagnation topography with kames and kettle holes in others. These glacially formed landforms have been degraded by subsequent subaerial erosion so that, in almost all cases (with the exception of the Cromer Ridge), the glaciogenic relief is not recognisable. Woodland (1970) has argued convincingly that there is a system of buried tunnel valleys within the glacial limits across East Anglia, and Huuse and Lykke-Andersen (2000) and Lonergan et al. (2000) have demonstrated the presence of similar features across large parts of the glaciated bed of the North Sea. The tunnel valleys in East Anglia have a pattern and long profile that reflects the hydraulic gradients and pressure regimes of the subglacial rivers and it is these valleys that have created the present valley positions and hence the present drainage pattern, which consists of a number of small rivers radiating east, southeast and south from the Fen Basin (Rose et al., 1985b). These postglacial rivers are small and have complex networks compared to the preglacial Ancaster and Bytham rivers. At no locality does the preglacial river system influence the river that developed after glaciation. The parallelism of the rivers Soar in Leicestershire and Lark and Waveney in Norfolk and Suffolk, with the course of the pre-glacial Bytham River is simply coincidental where subglacial erosion or meltwater incision has cut valleys across or along the preglacial valley and this subglacial valley has subsequently been used by subaerial drainage across the postglacial landscape. There is no generic relationship between the preglacial and postglacial systems. The major landscape change is replicated by a major change in the nature of the Quaternary sediments. The early and early Middle Pleistocene preglacial deposits are extensive, and individually cover relatively large areas with relatively uniform lithologies. Major discontinuities are caused by subsequent erosion rather than the processes of formation. Thus the Norwich Crag and Wroxham Crags have a distinctive range of geometric, lithological and sedimentological properties and are extensive throughout northeastern and eastern East Anglia. Likewise the Bytham and Ancaster river deposits have a uniform lithology in the form of well-organised river landforms and sediments. In the case of the Cromer Forest-bed, first appearances may give the impression of complexity, but these deposits are simply the normal expression of a large, well-organised low energy river system with floodplains, channels, abandoned channels and estuarine marshes. The complexity with the Cromer Forest-bed is with the stratigraphy, which covers about 500,000 years (Preece and Parfitt, 2000), not the sedimentology. The characteristics of these preglacial deposits contrast strikingly with the glaciogenic and subaerial deposits and landforms formed during and after glaciation. These glacial and postglacial landforms and sediments are relatively small units, complex in form and complex in sedimentology and lithology. For instance, and most obviously, the tills are diamictons of variable thickness, texture and structure composed of a variety of materials (Allen et al., 1991; Hart and Roberts, 1994; Pawley et al., 2004; Phillips et al., 2008). Even where deposits from this period are extensive, covering a wide region, and there are persistent trends such as with the chalky Lowestoft Till (Perrin et al., 1979), any section reveals a very complex form that needs detailed study before interpretation is possible (Rose, 1974; Whiteman, 1986; Hart and Roberts, 1994; Lee, 2009). Likewise the sand and gravel deposits are no longer uniform across large distances but are now discontinuous and variable in lithology, with a mixture of all the materials that were transported by the glacier, often including very ‘weak’ rock types such as shale and chalk that would be broken-up by persistent fluvial transport (Langford et al., 2008). Structures in these deposits typically indicate evidence of lateral deformation or

collapse (Coxon, 1993), and the texture can vary rapidly across sections. Lake deposits, such as those at Hoxne (West, 1956; Singer et al., 1993) and Marks Tey (Turner, 1970), are typical of the smallscale, complex landscape and associated sedimentary systems that were formed by glaciation. Postglacial river systems are not only smaller and less well organised than their preglacial counterparts, but the sedimentology and the geometry of their sedimentary bodies is much more complex, and hence form far less coherent parts of the landscape system. Thus, there are no well-developed extensive river aggradations in the small rivers that cross the region, and the sand and gravel deposits that do exist are variable in thickness and extent. 6. Timing of the major landscape changes The timing of these major landscape changes is an issue of some importance for understanding the Quaternary history of eastern England because it represents the change from well organised landform systems to the variable power systems of glacial/ interglacial cycles that have created the type of landscape we live in today. Traditionally, the first lowland glaciation of East Anglia has been attributed to the MIS 12 (Anglian Glaciation) (Shackleton and Turner, 1967; Mitchell et al., 1973; Perrin et al., 1979; Bowen, 1999) about 430,000 years ago (Bassinot et al., 1994) and this view has persisted (Gibbard in Clark et al., 2004). The reasons for dating the earliest glacial deposits in eastern England to MIS 12 are that these deposits are observed to overly the Cromer Forest-bed and to be overlain by Hoxnian age organic deposits, and the Cromerian and Hoxnian deposits at the time were attributed on the basis of the available dating methods to MIS 13 and 11 respectively (Bowen et al., 1986, and see Rose, 1989c for a summary of this evidence). These ages have since been validated by a detailed study at Sidestrand, north Norfolk where an AAR study of calcite mollusca from organic deposits above and below tills have places both the Anglian and Happisburgh age glaciations in MIS 12 (Preece et al., in press). Nevertheless, there is a substantial body of observable lithological evidence that leads to the suggestion that the first lowland glaciation of eastern England, and hence landscape change, occurred in MIS 16 (Happisburgh Glaciation) (Hamblin et al., 2000, 2001, 2005; Lee et al., 2004a,b, 2006) about 630,000 years ago (Bassinot et al., 1994). The reasons for proposing that glaciation occurred earlier than MIS 12 comes about because of fieldwork done in East Anglia by the British Geological Survey (BGS) lead by Brian Moorlock and Richard Hamblin and by fieldwork and laboratory work done in the same region by a group from Royal Holloway University of London (RHUL) (Jim Rose, Jonathan Lee, Jerry Lee, Becky Briant, Steven Pawley, Ian Candy). These two projects were collaborative, although most work was done separately. In northern East Anglia the BGS had determined that the traditional representation of the glacial deposits as interdigitating chalky till (Lowestoft Till) and sandy till (North Sea Drifts or Cromer Tills) (Perrin et al., 1979) was not supported by field and section mapping. Fieldwork revealed three distinct units: a lower sandy till, a middle chalky till, and an upper sandy till (traditionally called the Lower, Middle and Upper Cromer Tills of Perrin et al. (1979), or Happisburgh/Corton, Wolcott and Bacton Green tills of Lee et al., 2003) (Fig. 13). This suggested, to those involved in the mapping, that there may be three separate glaciations, as opposed to the traditional view of one single glacial event with different ice-sources causing interdigitating till lithologies where the glaciers converged (Fig. 13) (Harmer, 1909; Perrin et al., 1979). At Leet Hill, between Beccles and Bungay, Bytham River deposits are overlain by glaciofluvial sands and gravels associated with a sandy till, and finally a chalky till (Rose et al., 1999).

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Fig. 13. Schematic representation of traditional interpretation of glacial deposits in midland England and northern East Anglia. This assumes a single (Anglian) glaciation with ice from Scotland contemporaneous with ice from Scandinavia. The cross section is designed to show the schematic arrangement of the glaciogenic units. The vertical scale in the cross section is greatly exaggerated to make these relationships clear.

Subsequent fieldwork demonstrated that abundant large erratics of material such as mica schist, granite, carboniferous limestone, and a variety of porphyries were found within the Bytham River deposits (Rose et al., 2000). These erratics were explained by glaciofluvial meltwater draining from an ice sheet into the Bytham River valley and mixing with the river sediments (Lee, 2001). This concept was subsequently supported by the discovery of clasts of sandy till within the Bytham River sediments along with the erratics (Lee et al., 2004a,b). The lithology of the till clasts could be compared with tills in the region and it was found that they compared with the lower sandy till identified by the BGS on the coast (specifically the Corton Till of the Happisburgh Formation). This meant that is was possible to correlate glaciation with the aggradations of the Bytham River.

The aggradation containing the erratics and till clasts is the Third Aggradation (Timworth Terrace) which indicates that the Bytham River experienced two periods of incision and two periods of aggradation after this glaciation had taken place (Fig. 14) (Lee et al., 2004a,b). This history of aggradation and incision can be related to a time-marker in the form of the First (lowest) Aggradation of the Bytham River (Castle Bytham Terrace), which was formed during the Anglian Glaciation prior to the Anglian ice reaching the region (Rose, 1989b). This means that there were two aggradations and two incision periods between the formation of the Third terrace and the arrival of the Anglian age ice (MIS 12) (Fig. 14). As the Bytham River was the largest river in England during the early Middle Pleistocene, and Leet Hill is in the lower part of this catchment, it is possible to apply the simplified

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Fig. 14. Stages of terrace development in the lower reaches of the Bytham River in eastern England. The patterns of change are related to the marine oxygen isotope curve (ODP 677; Shackleton et al., 1990), with episodes of coarse-grained river aggradation correlated with the cold stages and episodes of incision correlated with the vegetated temperate stages. On the basis of this model the Happisburgh Glaciation is dated to MIS 16 at about 630 ka BP. Taken from Lee et al. (2004a), Quaternary Science Reviews with modifications.

Bridgland Model for aggradation and incision and calculate the age of the aggradations on the assumption that each aggradation/ incision cycle represents c. 100 ka (Figs. 4 and 14). On this basis the aggradation that includes the till clasts at Leet Hill occurred in MIS 16, and by correlation with in situ tills along the Norfolk coast (Lee, 2001), the Happisburgh and Corton Till facies of the Happisburgh Formation are attributed to MIS 16. There is a weakness in this argument in that glaciofluvial deposition in the region of Leet Hill could have created a ‘complex response-style’ terrace. This possibility that has been considered, but is rejected because the sediment containing the erratic clasts is typically a subaerial river deposit (for detailed lithological description see Rose et al. (1999) and Lee et al. (2004a,b, 2008) with a flow direction along the valley. The overlying Leet Hill Sands and Gravels are, however outwash and indeed constitute the complex response component of the landscape with a drainage- and aggradationpattern determined by the glaciofluvial meltwater. By comparison with the ice volume curve for the early Middle Pleistocene (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1976; Funnell, 1995; Bintanja et al., 2005; and see Clark et al., 2006 for an elaboration of the topic) (Figs. 2, 4 and 14), MIS 16 is a period in which glacier volumes were exceptionally large. This is not direct evidence that the British Ice Sheet was also exceptionally large at this time, but equally there is

no reason why the British Ice Sheet should be anomalous. It is considered that the global ice volume signal gives a sound context for an expansion of the British ice sheet to lowland eastern England. However, this evidence is not part of the reasoning for proposing an MIS 16 glaciation, but it is complementary support. Additional evidence for a pre-MIS 12 glaciation in East Anglia is to be found in the Norwich area (Read et al., 2007) where Wroxham Crag with marine fauna is found between the sandy and chalky tills, which are correlated, respectively with the Happisburgh (MIS 16) and Lowestoft (MIS 12) tills. Unpublished evidence also exists from Fakenham Magna in the Bury St. Edmunds area where temperate-climate soil structures have been found in the upper part of the sandy till and do not exist in the overlying chalky till indicating a period of soil formation in an interval between the two tills. At another site (Culford) in the same area a palaeosol has been found between the two sets of glacial deposits and there is a record of a human artefact at the stratigraphic position of the soil (Wymer, 1985). The most convincing evidence however is at Pakefield near Lowestoft (Lee et al., 2006) where shallow marine sediments exist between glaciofluvial deposits of the Happisburgh Glaciation and chalky till of the Lowestoft Glaciation. The conclusion that is derived from the above is that lowland eastern England was glaciated before MIS 12 and the evidence

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indicates that this was most likely in MIS 16. This conclusion is contradicted by high quality work using AAR dating (Preece et al., in press) and First and Last Appearance biostratigraphy (Preece and Parfitt, 2000, 2008). Clearly a problem exists and some of the interpretations given above will need revision. At present it is difficult to say which, and further work is required. The implications for ‘major landscape change’ are significant as the multi-glacial model suggests that the changes occurred over a relatively long period of time, with the first changes and possible alteration of the Ancaster River in MIS 16 and the main changes with the erosion of the Wash and Fen Basin, the termination of formation of the Southern North Sea Delta and the formation of the Strait of Dover in MIS 12. The single-glacial model suggests that all occurred in MIS 12. Either way, these changes illustrate the power of glaciers in fundamentally changing the form and dynamics of the landscape of eastern England. 7. Glacial/interglacial cycles Following the first lowland glaciation (whatever its age), Britain, literally entered a period of glacial-interglacial cycles with powerful physically-driven processes operating in the periods of cold climate (glacials, essentially the even number MIS stages and MIS 3), and relatively low rates of landscape change, dominated by biological and chemical processes, in the cool temperate periods (interglacials, odd number MIS stages except MIS 3). 7.1. The temperate episodes Eastern and midland England has been the source of a remarkable number of detailed and highly informative papers on temperate climate conditions during the Quaternary (Jones and Keen, 1993), and to a large extent the significance of these was integrated into a ‘forest history’ in West (1980b). These papers used numerous proxies to determine the nature of the environment and climate, and whenever possible the sites were subject to dating using whatever methods were available. Nevertheless, despite the attempts of West (1980b) to integrate this evidence, little progress has been made in resolving the palaeoecology of the pre-Holocene temperate stages, primarily because of the attempt to use the evidence for stratigraphy rather than ecology. In recent years a number of site studies have attempted to evaluate the integrated palaeo-biogeography in a wider geographical and ecological context (see, for example: Preece et al., 2007) using, as far as possible, independent dating methods to establish the time framework and working with a wide range of biological proxies. However, there is as yet no region-wide integration of this type of information for temperate stages of the Early or Middle Pleistocene of Britain. Despite the fact that biological processes largely dominated landscape change during the temperate episodes, it is impossible to describe the regional biogeography of individual temperate episodes to the level of landscape mosaics. This is largely due to the practice, hitherto, of correlating like-with-like pollen assemblages and ascribing them to a particular temperate episode, thus invoking a circular argument (Thomas, 2001). However, this will remain the case until suitable, relatively fine resolution, independent dating methods are available. Currently, for the Middle Pleistocene, the work on amino-acid racemisation (AAR) by Preece and Penkman (2005) and Penkman et al. (2008), appears to offer the best potential for correlation, but even this can only be resolved to stages and some late Middle Pleistocene substages. Until methods of refining correlations to instantaneous points in time, such as by tephrochronology, or deriving a very fine resolution chronology (possibly by linking laminated sediments to U-Series age determinations), it will not be possible to understand the details

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of migration, colonisation and ecological mosaics for the Early and Middle Pleistocene. In view of the problems outlined above I will give little attention to landscape change during temperate periods of the late Middle Pleistocene. At the present time it is very difficult to correlate one site with another with confidence (especially from the Cromer Forest-bed). To compound this problem, very little quantitative information exists about the climate of theses temperate episodes. The recent papers by Coope (1992, 2001, 2006), Candy et al. (2006), Candy (2009), Candy and Schreve (2007) and Preece et al. (2007) provide valuable new information and are important markers for the future. For the purpose of this paper it is essential to understand that the temperate episodes of the Early and Middle Pleistocene in eastern England were dominated by relatively abundant biomass, both in the form of plants and animals, and these varied according to soil type, drainage and slope stability, and the duration of the vegetation development (West, 1980b; Stuart, 1982; Stuart and Lister, 2001; Schreve, 2001b). The abundant biomass was significant for physical processes in that it dampened down hydrological processes and enhanced the rates of chemical weathering and the development of deep, fine-grained soils. The presence of fauna was important, locally at least, in turning-over soils and leading to the entrainment of materials from the hillside, floodplain and channel. Temperate episodes are also, in this region, the periods of high sea-level (Table 2), although temperate climate coastal deposits are relatively rare, probably because of reworking and low survival potential, and the distribution of the largest extent of temperate climate estuarine deposits is determined either by glacial preservation (in the case of the estuarine parts of the Cromer Forest-bed) and the creation of extensive low relief by glaciers (in the case of the Nar Valley Beds and other marine deposits in the Fen Basin). 7.2. The cold episodes For the Middle Pleistocene, the original model of glaciation consisted of two lowland glacier expansions over northern East Anglia (West and Donner, 1956; Banham, 1968, 1988; West, 1977; Mitchell et al., 1973; Shotton, 1983; Straw, 1983) (Table 3). These glaciations were known as the Anglian Glaciation and the Wolstonian (Fig. 15A). As a result of detailed lithological and statistical work in midland and eastern England the glacial history was revised with the proposal that there was only one Middle Pleistocene glaciation in that region and that glaciation occurred during the Anglian Stage (Perrin et al., 1979; Sumbler, 1983) (Fig. 15B). This interpretation was reinforced with the recognition that some of the Wolstonian glacial deposits were ‘preglacial’ Bytham River deposits (Rose, 1987). This Anglian Glaciation was attributed to Scottish and Scandinavian ice streams that converged in the area of northeast East Anglia with interdigitation of the deposits around the margins of the convergence zone (Perrin et al., 1979; Hart and Boulton, 1991) (Fig. 13, Table 3). Subsequent work on the glacial deposits across the region led to a revision of this scheme resulting in a two phase glaciation similar to that of West and Donner (1956) (Rose, 1992) (Fig. 16), although maintaining the view that the these two ice flow directions were part of the same Anglian age glacial event (see Rose, 1989c for a review of this evidence). This scheme, in principle, persisted until Hamblin et al. (2000, 2005) presented the case that there had been multiple Middle Pleistocene glaciations and that these glaciation could be linked to MIS 16, 12, 10 and 6 (Table 3). Fig. 17 shows the proposed extent of ice cover during the different stages and Fig. 18 provides a schematic arrangement of the glacial deposits that underpin the revised interpretation.

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Table 3 Correlation of schemes for the glacial succession of northeast East Anglia and Midland England.

The possible Marine Isotope Stage for the respective glacial events is given.

In their revised model, Hamblin et al. (2000, 2005) presented a case for four glacial expansions across northern East Anglia during the Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 17, Table 3). The reasoning for these extra glaciations has been explained in part in the text above, but the important point to make is that all the proposals were based on new observations and not just re-interpretations of the existing

evidence. The links to the MIS stratigraphy was based on the most likely forcing control, supported by the terrace stratigraphy of the river systems of midland England and the Thames. This alternative Middle Pleistocene glacial history, with the main reasons for the case is given below, starting with the earliest glaciation. This work is ongoing, and the recent

Fig. 15. The traditional models of glaciation of the British Isles. (A) From West (1977) showing two Middle Pleistocene glaciations (Anglian and Wolstonian). (B) From Bowen et al. (1986) one major Middle Pleistocene glaciation (Anglian) and a tentative suggestion for additional Middle Pleistocene glaciations (Weltonian, Paviland).

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(Read et al., 2007) and by temperate climate soil features at other (unpublished) sites near Bury St. Edmunds. The presence of rocks and palynomorphs that could only have come from northern England provides new evidence that this till was deposited by ice that originated in Scotland, and not Scandinavia as previously proposed and the ice flow path to the site was from the north (Lee et al., 2004a,b) (Fig. 17). 7.2.2. Anglian glaciation—MIS 12 This glaciation is represented by the oldest yet known glacial deposit in midland England—a Trias-rich till (Thrussington Till) and the dark-grey chalk-free till of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire, and the chalky till (Lowestoft Till (part) and Walcott Till) in East Anglia. Originally the age was derived from relationship to the biostratigraphy, and is now derived from the relationship to the aggradations of the Lower Thames (Gibbard, 1977; Bridgland, 1994) and independent dating methods (Bowen, 1999a,b; Pawley et al., 2008; Preece et al., in press). The ice source was from the northwest and northern England and the ice flow path through East Anglia was westsouthwest to east-northeast in northern East Anglia, and northwest to southeast in southern East Anglia.

Fig. 16. A development of the traditional one stage model of Middle Pleistocene glaciation. (A) Main ice flow directions during the earlier stages of Anglian Glaciation; (B) Main ice flow pattern during the main stage of Anglian Glaciation. Taken from Rose (1992), with modifications.

luminescence dating study by Pawley et al. (2008) does not support the case for MIS 10 glaciation, and the AAR work of Preece et al. (in press) does not support the case for an MIS 16 glaciation. Nevertheless, the new observations do exist, and need consideration along with the dating results presented in Pawley et al. (2008) and Preece et al. (in press). 7.2.1. Happisburgh glaciation—MIS 16 Much of the evidence for this has been outlined, but the main reasons are the identification of a separate sandy till (Happisburgh and Corton Tills) beneath the chalky till. This is correlated with the Third Aggradation of the Bytham River and the till is separated from the overlying chalky till by marine deposits south of Norwich

7.2.3. Oadby glaciation—MIS 10 This glaciation is represented by the chalky till of midland England (Oadby Till) and the chalky till of part of East Anglia (Lowestoft Till (part)). In northeast East Anglia it is represented by the sandy Bacton Green Till. The age of this deposit is derived from the relationship of the Oadby Till to the aggradations of the Upper Thames (Sumbler, 1995, 2001), and the number of aggradations in the catchments of Midland England formed after this till was deposited (one less than in the Lower Thames) (Keen, 1999). The position of the southern margin in the Oxford region is determined by the limit of glacial deposits, but in the east the limit is not known as the till lithology in that region is very similar to the till lithology of the earlier Anglian glaciation. This means that both are chalky tills, but there are potential differences and this is an issue suitable for further investigation, in order to try to resolve some of the issues created by the different models of glaciation for eastern England. This glaciation is the ‘Wolstonian’ glaciation of Shotton (1983) although for different reasons. The Chalky Till at Wolston is the Oadby Till. The ice source is from northern Britain and it was this glaciation that flowed through and extended the low relief of the Wash and Fen Basin. Erosion of the Chalk on the area that is now the North Sea, east of the Lincolnshire coast, determines the chalk content and erosion of the Mesozoic mudrocks of Wash and

Fig. 17. Inferred glacial limits and ice flow paths for four Middle Pleistocene Glaciations in East Anglia. Taken from Hamblin et al. (2005), Netherlands Journal of Geosciences.

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Fig. 18. Representation of the distribution of lithologies that underpin the new model of glaciation for eastern and midland England. This scheme assumes four glaciations as shown in Fig. 17. The first three glaciations are interpreted as being sourced in Scotland—these deposited the Lower sandy till, The mixed Triassic, Pennine and Jurassic tills, the Triassic, Pennine and Jurassic tills, the Jurassic Chalky tills and the Chalky tills. The Very Chalky till and very coarse gravel and the Upper sandy till are attributed to a Scottish and Scandinavian ice source. The cross section is designed to show the schematic arrangement of the glaciogenic units. The vertical scale is greatly exaggerated to make these relationships clear. Colour is not used on the map because of overlaying till units. The different till on the map are shown by the symbols, which are also shown on the cross section.

Fen Basin determines the clay content. The sandy Bacton Green Till in northeast Norfolk represents a sandy facies due to the erosion of the ‘preglacial sands’ north of this part of the Norfolk coast, a property noted by Harmer as long ago as 1909. A hitherto unpublished organic deposit and palaeosol has been found between the chalk-free and chalky till at Clipsham in Rutland. The Anglian and Oadby glaciations as proposed here dismember the single Anglian Glaciation of Perrin et al. (1979) and, in effect,

return to the Lowestoft and Gipping glaciations of West and Donner (1956) for which Fig. 15A (West, 1977) may be a reasonable approximation! 7.2.4. Tottenhill glaciation—MIS 6 This glaciation is represented by a sand and gravel deposits at Tottenhill near King’s Lynn which are interpreted as the outwash plain of a glacier that entered the Wash and Fen Basin after it had been eroded in MIS 10 and variably filled with temperate climate

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marine sediments (West and Whiteman, 1986). The age of this glaciation in derived from the stratigraphy at Tottenhill (Gibbard et al., 1992) where glaciogenic sediments overlie an organic deposit dated to MIS 9 (Rowe et al., 1997) and there is evidence of just one temperate episode prior to the Holocene developed in the soil microstratigraphy, formed at the top of the glaciogenic deposits (Lewis and Rose, 1991). OSL ages recently determined by Steven Pawley also confirm this age (pers. comm.). Previously, sediments at Briton’s Lane near Sheringham in north Norfolk, with a relative abundance of Scandinavian-sourced erratics (Pawley et al., 2004, 2005; Hamlin et al., 2005) had been considered to be of MIS 6 age, but this has not been verified by OSL dating (Pawley et al., 2008). Also associated with this glaciation is the Cromer Ridge, associated outwash fans and esker. As discussed above these elements of the landscape retain traces of glacially constructed topography, and in this respect they are unique in Britain beyond the limit of the MIS 2 glaciation. While this is a type of morphostratigraphic interpretation has lost favour for very good reasons, there is no other reason than age as to why these landforms should retain glaciogenic topography and in this respect they are like the degraded, but recognisable constructional topography of the Netherlands and Northern Germany. This constructional topography is attributed to MIS 6 by a number stratigraphic and dating methods (Vandenberghe et al., 1993; Maarleveld, 1983; Meyer, 1983), and hence the Cromer Moraine is correlated with the Saalian moraines of northern Europe. Also associated with this glaciation are the scattered and highly variable glaciogenic deposits in northwest Norfolk including fragments of very chalky till and the ‘cannonshot gravels’ (West, 1991). All of these deposits rest upon a landscape that has been dissected by river erosion since the deposition of the chalky till. However, this explanation is very tentative indeed, and is simply placed here for the record. The name ‘Tottenhill Glaciation’ is used in this paper in the absence of any other suitable term. The site at Tottenhill has been the subject of a number of informative studies (West and Whiteman, 1986; Lewis and Rose, 1991; Gibbard et al., 1992; Rowe et al., 1997) and is the subject of ongoing stratigraphic, palaeoenvironmental and dating work by Steven Pawley. It would therefore seem to be a suitable locality for the designation of a type site. There is, so far, no evidence for an MIS 8 glaciation in eastern England.

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Fig. 19. Examples of struck flakes from early Middle Pleistocene river deposits (Hengrave and Pakefield). All these drawings were by the late John Wymer. The flake from Hengrave is from Rose and Wymer (1994), Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and History, and the flakes from Pakefield are from Parfitt et al. (2005), Nature.

8. Human occupance

their record on Fig. 21, to which further sites will be added as a result of work in progress. It can be seen that sites are concentrated predominantly along the Bytham River sediment track and the lower part of the Ancaster river catchment. Sites such as Happisburgh (Ashton et al., 2008), High Lodge (Ashton et al., 1992) and Pakefield (Parfitt et al., 2005) are of outstanding importance because they reflect the landscape in which the hominins lived and these sites are associated with abundant proxies of environment and climate. At the other sites the archaeology is part of the sediment, and the artefacts are simply transported clasts that have been deposited by the river amongst the other bedload. These sites tell us that hominins had existed before the material was deposited, but little more.

The nature of human occupance in eastern England in the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 12–6) is well known (Wymer, 1985), and the archaeology from sites such as Hoxne (Singer et al., 1993), Clacton (Singer et al., 1973), and Barnham (Ashton et al., 1998) represent major contributions to the understanding of humans in northern Europe. Consideration of this topic is beyond the scope of this paper, but an issue that has received considerable attention recently is the recognition that Humans existed in Britain substantially earlier than had previously been believed (Stringer, 2006). Traditionally, the site at Boxgrove had been seen as the evidence for the earliest evidence for Humans on the British land area (Roberts et al., 1994), around 500 ka, but there is now substantial evidence that humans were in East Anglia around the same time (Ashton et al., 1992) and indeed earlier (c. 750,000 and possibly earlier) (Rose and Wymer, 1994; Parfitt et al., 2005, 2006). Wymer (1985) also records a large number of sites that are now recognised as from this earlier pre-MIS 12 period. The type of evidence for earliest humans consists of flakes (Hengrave, Pakefield, Fig. 19) and hand axes (Happisburgh, Fig. 20). Supporting evidence also takes the form of butchered bone at Happisburgh (Parfitt, 2006). The abundance of sites is illustrated by

Fig. 20. A drawing of the handaxe from Happisburgh I by John Wymer. This site is described in detail along with a photograph of the same handaxe in Ashton et al. (2008).

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Fig. 21. The Bytham and Ancaster river systems with sites mentioned in the text and sites that have evidence of archaeology.

At present the evidence indicates that hominins lived in a landscape that was well vegetated and experienced both cool and warm temperate-style climates (Coope, 2006; Parfitt et al., 2005; Candy et al., 2006; Candy, 2009). Age estimates for the earliest humans, based on FAD/LAD biostratigraphy and river aggradation chronology show that they lived on the British land area in the early Middle Pleistocene during MIS 19/17, 15 and 13, and that humans must have lived in the landscape prior-to or during MIS 19/17, 15, and 13. A point of considerable relevance to understanding the landscape of eastern England is the reason why these sites survive in Britain and not elsewhere in northern Europe. The reason is that they are preserved beneath glacial deposits. The critical question that needs asking is why the glaciers failed to erode this landscape, as is usually the case. The fact that the buried Valley Farm and Barham Soils exist throughout East Anglia (Rose et al., 1976, 1999; Kemp, 1985a,b) provides abundant evidence that the glaciers did not erode the landscape they overrode. The explanation has to be found in the subglacial processes operating at the base of the glacier, and the only reasonable explanation that can be proposed is that the sites were locked in ‘rock-hard’ permafrost when the were over-ridden, combined with the fact that there must have been very high pore-water or atmospheric pressures at the base of the glacier after the overriding had taken place. The presence of permafrost at the time of the Anglian Glaciation is well documented (Rose et al., 1985a) and there may be similar evidence for permafrost in the landscape prior to the Happisburgh Glaciation (Whiteman, 2002). The existence of the high porewater or atmospheric pressures is less easy to demonstrate, but it may be explained if the glacier margin became frozen due to the extreme atmospheric cold of the local environment, and trapped in either air or water that decoupled the moving ice from the bed/land-surface. However, this model does not explain why the frozen margin did not disrupt the surface as the glacier moved forward, unless the ice continued to shear across its frozen base, which remained attached to the landsurface. In other parts of East Anglia there is considerable erosion, sometimes regional as in the region of what is now the Wash and

Fen Basin, and sometimes local as with the tunnel-valleys eroded by subglacial meltwater rivers (Woodland, 1970). In contrast to Britain much of the European landscape has been altered by the more extensive MIS 6 glaciation which eroded-out massive icetongue basins and formed massive push moraine ridges. 9. Conclusions: the main elements of landscape change and the driving forces for Early and Middle Pleistocene landscape development This narrative of landscape change, uplift and subsidence, shallow marine and river activity, glaciation, periglaciation and variable biomass distributions needs an explanation. This can be found in terms of two driving forces: tectonics and climate (humans only become a significant factor in the Holocene). Tectonics leave a mark in the Early and early Middle Pleistocene in the form of basin and ridge development and uplift and subsidence. This signal is best developed in the Early Pleistocene, a factor almost entirely due to the duration of the period and the absence of powerful surface processes to degrade the landscape and obscure the tectonically generated form. In the early Middle Pleistocene there is also evidence of faulting, basins and ridges, but this is obscured in most places by the effects of surface processes and the only significant features to develop are the uplifted river aggradations increasing in magnitude from negligible at the coast to c. 50 m in the middle part of the Bytham River catchment. Climate is the primary driving force of landscape change, and because the climatic patterns have changed over the Early and Middle Pleistocene the landscape developed is different at different times. The Early Pleistocene is dominated by c. 40 ka obliquity forcing, but retains also a 22 ka precession signal from pre-Pleistocene time. The low amplitude and high frequency precession cycles force small changes within an equable climatic range and therefore generate low physical energy levels and minimal physical work other than wave and current action along the coasts. Chemical and biological processes at this time are, in contrast, important, so that although coarse-grained materials were essentially local, fine-grained materials were washed from

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deep chemically weathered soils into the rivers and the marine system and they survive today as North Sea bottom sediments. On the land, only shallow marine sediments survive to any extent and these are relatively simple in their form and lithology, and extensive in character. The succeeding obliquity-driven system was characterised by a wider climate range and longer timescales over which distinctive climate types could operate. This forcing led to the development of much more powerful physical processes with, over at least parts of cold periods, permafrost and periglacial processes operating throughout the landscape, and glaciation operating in the western mountain ranges. River activity was dominant and effective with sufficient energy to entrain and transport vast quantities of coarsegrained material through the large catchments that existed at this time. This material was either stored in the lower parts of the catchment or deposited in the coastal zone to become the sediment supply for the shallow marine processes. Temperate climate episodes continued to be dominated by biological and chemical processes, but local relief-driven activity was, by this time, sufficiently important to entrain and transport sand-size material that constitutes the bulk of surviving Early and early Middle Pleistocene temperate climate sediments (although dark organic material may appear to be dominant). River and coastal sediments dominate this period of the late Early and early Middle Pleistocene and the sediment bodies are well organised and, before subsequent dissection, very extensive. The impact of eccentricity-forcing upon the climate system has a marked effect. Periods, sometimes quite long, of extreme cold resulted in lowland glaciation and the power of glaciers resulted in major changes in topography and the introduction of extensive glacial and periglacial diamictons over the landscape. Major changes of relief with new, steep slopes also introduced reliefdriven processes caused by out-of-equilibrium antecedent topography and the development of paraglacial activity. These highly complex landform and sediment systems then forced the activity of slope, soil, river and coastal processes so further complexities were developed and the whole surface system is characterised by initially small sediment bodies, high levels of fragmentation, and a very wide-range of process related materials. These properties characterize the late Middle Pleistocene through to the present day although with time following glaciation the landscape has become progressively better organised. Acknowledgments I would like to thank all those who have contributed to this work over many years, either as research colleagues in the field or as research colleagues who have challenged and debated the ideas outlined in this paper: Peter Allen, Nick Ashton, Rene´ Barendregt, Steve Booth, Becky Briant, David Bridgland, Ian Candy, Hilary Davies, Zoe Gammage, Richard Hamblin, Richard Hey, Roger Jacobi, Caroline Juby, Rob Kemp, Jerry Lee, Jon Lee, Mark Lewis, Simon Lewis, Tony Morigi, Brian Moorlock, Simon Parfitt, Adrian Palmer, Simon Parfitt, Steven Pawley, Bob Perrin, Richard Preece, Glynis Read, Pete Riches, Danielle Schreve, the late Nick Shackleton, Barbara Silva, Mark Stephens, Richard West, Colin Whiteman, and the late John Wymer. I would also like to thank Peter Allen and Ian Candy for reading through this paper and giving me considerable wise advice. References Allen, L.G., Gibbard, P.L., 1993. Pleistocene evolution of the Solent River of southern England. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 503–528. Allen, P., Cheshire, D.A., Whiteman, C.A., 1991. The tills of southern East Anglia. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L., Rose, J. (Eds.), Glacial Deposits in Great Britain and Ireland. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 255–278.

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