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Early Iron Age Burials in Southeastern Zhetysu: The Geoarchaeological Evidence
ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY OF EURASIA Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/3 (2011) 57–69 E-mail: [email protected] THE METAL AGES AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD
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A. Gass Exzellenzcluster TOPOI 264, Research Group A-I – Central Places and their Environment, Hittorfstr. 18, Berlin, 14195, Germany E-mail: [email protected]
EARLY IRON AGE BURIALS IN SOUTHEASTERN ZHETYSU: THE GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Preliminary results of the geoarchaeological studies at the Early Iron Age (Saka) elite burial grounds in southeastern Zhetysu, Kazakhstan, are outlined. The reconstructed climates and landscapes of the region are relevant for the economy practiced by the early nomads. Kurgans, mounds on the periphery of the burial grounds, and ritual roads – the earliest ones in Western Central Asia – are described in detail. Saka burial grounds, which are situated in the northern foothills of the Trans-Ili Alatau, appear to have marked the boundary of the sacral tribal territory of the Saka. Keywords: Kazakhstan, Zhetysu, Early Iron Age, Saka, burial ground.
Introduction Southeastern Zhetysu is the region where the concentration of the Saka elite burial mounds – kurgans – is maximal. However, only very few among the hundreds of kurgans have been excavated. The most intense excavations were conducted in the 1960s and 1970s (Akishev, Kushayev, 1963; Akishev, 1978), and isolated mounds were excavated in the ¿rst decade of the 21st century (Samashev, Grigoryev, Zhumabekova, 2005; Samashev et al., 2006). Because the most advanced methods have not been applied to archaeological research in that region, one of the objectives of the present project, which has been implemented since 2008*, is to introduce these *In 2008, the interdisciplinary project “Archaeological and Geoarchaeological Investigations in Southeastern Zhetysu, Kazakhstan” was elaborated at the Exzellenzcluster 264 TOPOI (Berlin, Germany). Under the project, which focuses on the Early Iron Age elite burial grounds, excavations are
methods. Because the project is ongoing, results outlined in the present publication are tentative. In addition, it was intended to apply the GPS system (Garmin model) to assess the coordinates of both known and newly discovered burial grounds and to process this data topographically based on the results of aerospace surveys using the GIS software. The questions to be resolved under the project were as follows. With which environments are the Saka elite being conducted with the use of methods employed in physical geography. Institutions and persons engaged in the project include the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, Berlin (H. Parzinger; collaborators, M. Nawroth, and R. Boroffka), the German Archaeological Institute, Berlin (A. Nagler), Institute for Physical Geography, Free University of Berlin (B. Schütt, K. Singer, and M. Blättermann), and the Department of Iron Age Studies at the A.Kh. Margulan Institute of Archaeology of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty (Z. Samashev; collaborator, B. Nurmukhanbetov).
Copyright © 2011, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2011.11.004
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burial grounds associated? Are there any regularities in the spatial distribution of these burial grounds? Are there any regularities in the arrangement of kurgans within cemeteries with regard to the size and shape of the mounds? How did migration processes affect the opening up and exploitation of new territories? Were the “royal” Saka mounds in Zhetysu merely burial places or was their function broader? Geographical characteristics Zhetysu (seven rivers; Russ., Semirechye) is a geographical and historical province in Central Asia. At the present, most of Zhetysu falls into the Republic of Kazakhstan. However, its southernmost and southeastern peripheries are incorporated into the Republic of Kyrgyzstan and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. Zhetysu with its seven main rivers (Ili, Karatal, Sarkand, Bien, Aksu, Lepsa, and Baksan) stretches from the mountain ridges of the Northern Tien Shan, TransIli and Dzhungar Alatau in the south to lakes Balkhash, Sasykol, and Alakol in the north. The project study area encompasses the southeastern portion of Zhetysu located in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Its northern border goes along the Ili River or Lake Kapchagai. It is delimited by the Trans-Ili Alatau (including the Keghen Plateau) in the south, by the Bolshaya and Malaya Almatinka Rivers in the west, and by the eastern extremity of the Trans-Ili Alatau in the east. The study area incorporates four landscape zones (Fig. 1). There, over a short distance (27 km as the bird
Àies, from the high mountains of the Northern Tien Shan to the southern boundary of the Àatlands), signi¿cant changes in altitude can be observed (Talgar Peak, 4975 m; the southern boundary of the Àatlands, 973 m). The mountains of the Northern Tien Shan change into loess piedmonts; then alluvial sediments which merge into the Àatlands. Zhetysu has three climatic zones (Fig. 2). The highmountain zone in the Tien Shan is characterized by a nival climate with a rather short summer and high precipitation level. The frozen precipitation rate is much higher than that of melting and evaporating. A moderate continental climate dominates the piedmont zone. The amount of precipitation is smaller, the summer is longer, and the winter is milder than in the high-mountain zone. The climate in the steppe zone is extreme continental with a hot summer, cold winter, and low precipitation. A sparse cloud cover causes drastic Àuctuation in day and night temperatures. A small amount of precipitation and consequent low humidity are the principal characteristics of this climatic zone. These features have contributed to the appearance of various vegetation zones over a relatively small area in the northern foothills of the Tien Shan, providing an opportunity for their combined exploitation and thus advantageous for agriculture. The piedmont zone with its rich soil and mild winters as well as the use of irrigation systems during the hot summer months has provided excellent conditions for agriculture. Supposedly, the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau served as a nodal point both for sedentary and nomad populations.
Fig. 1. Landscape zones of Zhetysu. Photograph provided by M. Blaettermann.
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Fig. 2. Climatic zones of Zhetysu. Photograph provided by M. Blaettermann. 1 – extreme continental climate; 2 – moderate continental climate; 3 – nival climate.
General characteristics Early Iron Age burial grounds containing the kurgans of Saka elite were reexamined, measured, and documented. We regard as elite burials those at least 2 m high and at least 30–40 m in diameter (Fig. 3). As has been found in the course of mapping, all the examined necropolises are located on riverbanks – on the second or third Àuvial terrace along the piedmonts of the Trans-Ili Alatau (i.e., actually at the landscape juncture of alluvial sediments and the Àat surface). They are oriented to the north, located 0.5–3.0 km from the piedmonts, and occupy the most fertile land. The high concentration of burial sites containing large kurgans can also be observed on the Keghen Plateau and in the highmountain valleys of the Trans-Ili and Kungei Alatau. Normally, only one burial ground is located within one watershed area. Almost all the examined necropolises were placed on western riverbanks. The exception is the cemetery near the Turgen Village, which is located on both sites of the Turgen River. Thus, rivers served as natural landscape borders between sacral areas of “royal” burial grounds.
All Early Iron Age burial grounds with the kurgans of the Saka elite were made after the same pattern. On the average, the kurgans form from one to seven chains. Each chain contains from three to twenty kurgans arranged along the north–south line (with a small deviation). The earthen mounds above the kurgans were made in a similar way. Almost all of them have the shape of a truncated cone with steep slopes. The southern slope is gentler than others. The stone lining can seldom be traced on the surface. Almost all the kurgans show evidence of looting. In terms of location and outward shape, the kurgans of Zhetysu resemble those of the Northern Pontic region (Mozolevsky, Polin, 2005; Polin, 2007) described in classical sources such as Herodotus. Judging from these descriptions, the shape of the “royal” burials is similar to that of sanctuaries, in particular, of the Ares sanctuary (Gerodot, 2006, § 62: 276–277). At the same time, the “royal mounds” were collective commemoration places, which were highly relevant to the identity of the Scythians and of the Saka in particular (Ibid., § 71: 279–280; Book 4; § 127: 300–301). Thus the Saka kurgans of Zhetysu,
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Fig. 3. Studied burial grounds and settlements in southeastern Zhetysu.
therefore, were not only cemeteries of tribal chiefs, but also sacred places of ritual identity. In southeastern Zhetysu, one and the same principle was normally used in the construction and arrangement of kurgans within a burial ground. However, each third site examined by us contains subsquare kurgans with a
Fig. 4. Saka elite necropolises with additional architectural elements.
pyramidal mound (Fig. 4). Also, each third examined necropolis comprises kurgans with a ritual road. Almost each fourth burial ground has kurgans surrounded by stone rings. Some sites (e.g., Asy Zaga) contain both ritual roads and kurgans with a pyramidal mound. Here follows the description of three burial grounds – Issyk, Turgen, and Asy Zaga. The Issyk burial ground. The site is located at 43° 23ƍ30.09Ǝ N, 77° 23ƍ 30.75Ǝ E, at an elevation of 835 m a.s.l. The north to south extension is 2.7 km; the west to east extension is 2.3 km. The burial ground is located approximately 40 km northeast of the town of Issyk (Kaz., Esik), on the modern left bank of the Issyk River. The northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau range to the south of the burial ground. The site is famous throughout the world due to the “Golden Man” (Fig. 6) discovered there in the 1970s (Akishev, 1978; Parzinger, 2004: 55–57; Samašev, 2007). Before the discovery of the royal burial 5 in the Arzhan-2 kurgan, the Republic of Tuva, in 2001, which contained more than 9300 artifacts including 5700 golden ones (ýugunov, Parzinger, Nagler, 2003; 2007; 2010), the Issyk burial was the richest among known Early Iron Age burials east of the Urals. Regrettably, this burial ground, which
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Fig. 5. Issyk burial ground. Northern view.
has acquired world fame, is currently being destroyed by construction works. Today it comprises 52 kurgans of large and medium sizes (Fig. 7). The diameter of the earthen mounds varies from 16 to 145 m; their height is 2–8 m. The burial ground is formed of six or seven chains of kurgans extending from the north–west to the south– east and running parallel to the river. Due to construction works conducted in the necropolis, it is impossible at the moment to establish the exact number of chains. Every mound has one or several looters’ holes. The kurgans have a round, hemispheric shape and a slightly Àattened top. Three sides of the mounds are rather steep, while the fourth, mostly southern slope is gentle. No other outward architectural features of mounds have been revealed. Turgen burial ground (Fig. 8). The site is located at 43° 26ƍ 37.29Ǝ N, 77° 35ƍ 59.99Ǝ E, at an elevation of 826 m a.s.l. The north to south extension is 6.7 km; the west to east extension is 4.1 km. The Turgen burial ground is located 17.8 km east– northeast of the Issyk necropolis, on both banks of the Turgen River. The western portion of the cemetery (on the left bank of the Turgen) is situated 1.5 km north of the Turgen Village, while its eastern portion occupies the territory of the Karakemer Village and vineyard lying to the north of it. At the present, the burial ground contains 33 kurgans of large and medium size (Fig. 9). Twenty of them form two chains on the left bank of the river. The third chain comprising at least 13 kurgans* is located on *Because of construction works on the right bank, it is impossible to determine the exact number of kurgans.
Fig. 6. “Golden Man.” Reconstruction by K.A. Akishev (after (Samašev, 2007)).
the other bank. The chains of kurgans are oriented along the north–south line and run parallel to the river. The diameter of the kurgans varies from 22 to 70 m and their height reaches 9–10 m. All mounds display evidence of looting. The kurgans have a round, hemispheric shape and a slightly Àattened top. The southern sides of 27 kurgans are more gently sloping. Kurgans 7, 16, and 17 (according to our tentative numeration) were partially or completely excavated*; kurgan 23 was partially destroyed**. So it is impossible to determine which side of these kurgans was sloping. *B. Nurmukhanbetov conducted rescue excavations at endangered sites in 1992 (Nurmukhanbetov, Chentsov, Zhaksylakov) and in 1997 (Nurmukhanbetov). **According to B. Nurmukhanbetov, in the 1980s, a cinema with an asphalt parking lot was constructed on the surface of kurgan 23. A short time later, the cinema was demolished. In 2009, traces of the cinema’s foundation and of the abandoned parking lot were visible on the kurgan’s surface.
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Scale 1:2500
Fig. 7. Plan of the Issyk burial ground (SPOT).
Fig. 8. Turgen burial ground. Southern view.
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Scale 1:2500
Fig. 9. Plan of the Turgen burial ground (SPOT).
Fig. 10. Turgen kurgan 3. East–southeastern view.
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Kurgan 12 had a subsquare shape. It looked like a platform with a Àat top. A ring of white and red river-worn stones encircles kurgan 4 at a distance of 16 m from its base. In the northeastern sector, between the ring and the kurgan’s base, a stone mound (12 m in diameter and up to 0.2 m in height) was discovered. This feature possibly represents a small kurgan. Kurgan 3 (70 m in diameter and 7 m in height) seems to be the most interesting (Fig. 10). It has a hemispheric mound, round in plan, a heavily flattened top, and a gently sloping southern side. Small and mediumsized gray stones covered the entire mound. A looters’ hole is located on the kurgan’s top. On the periphery, 41 constructions encircle the kurgan. These are oval or
elliptic accumulations of stones, 1.5–6.3 m in diameter, slightly rising above the modern surface (Fig. 11). A ritual road is located 30 m from the kurgan’s base. Its width averages 3 m; its outer diameter is 139 m (Fig. 12). The exterior boundary of the road is marked by large red stones. The inner space is ¿lled with whitishgray river-worn stones of medium size. A stone ring (up to 200 m in diameter) made of large and medium-sized gray stones lies 26 m from the ritual road and 61 m from the kurgan’s base (Fig. 13). Thus, kurgan 3 represents a ritual complex composed of at least four main elements: the mound, stone structures on the kurgan’s periphery, ritual road, and stone ring. The coloration of the constructions is noteworthy (red, white,
looters’ hole mound stone structure on the kurgan’s periphery ritual road stone ring
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Fig. 11. Plan of Turgen kurgan 3 (after (Nurmukhanbetov, 1998)).
Fig. 12. Ritual road (western portion). Turgen kurgan 3. Southern view.
Fig. 13. Stone ring (western portion). Turgen kurgan 3. Southern view.
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Fig. 14. Asy Zaga burial ground. Southern view.
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Fig. 16. Asy Zaga kurgan 1. Western view. Fig. 15. Plan of the Asy Zaga burial ground.
gray). It apparently had some meaning, possibly, of ritual character. Kurgan 3 undoubtedly took the dominant position in the burial ground; colored stones made the entire structure even more monumental. Asy Zaga burial ground (Fig. 14, 15). The site is located at 43° 30ƍ 18.13Ǝ N, 78° 20ƍ 26.32Ǝ E, at an elevation of 840 m a.s.l. The north to south extension is 1.4 km; the west to east extension is 0.5 m. The necropolis is located near the village of Kyzylsharyk, 14 km south– southeast of the town of Chilik, on the right bank of the Asy River. The southern
Fig. 17. Ritual road (southwestern portion). Asy Zaga kurgan 1. Eastern view.
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sides of all the mounds are gently sloping; the periphery is intact. The burial ground consists of six kurgans arranged along the north–south line. The distinguishing feature of this necropolis is the large sizes of mounds varying from 40 to 148 m in diameter and from 2.5 to 21 m in height. Kurgan 1 is the largest and, probably, dominant in the burial ground: it is 21 m in height and 148 m in diameter (Fig. 16). If the outer diameter of the ritual road is considered, the diameter is 252 m. The kurgan marks the highest point of the necropolis. It stands separately, to the northwest of other kurgans. Small and mediumsized stones of lining are visible on the earthen mound. The hemispheric mound, round in plan, has a Àat top
Fig. 18. Asy Zaga kurgan 2. Western view.
Fig. 19. Asy Zaga kurgan 3. Western view.
Fig. 20. Asy Zaga kurgan 4. West–northwestern view.
and a gently sloping southern side. Two large looters’ holes are situated in the central and northern portions of the mound. A ritual road 5 m wide is located 47 m from the kurgan’s base. A line of round (average size, 60 by 40 by 30 cm) stones of reddish-pink tint border the road. Its inner space is ¿lled with rammed clay and stones. Inside the delimited area, between the ritual road and the mound, 21 round stone structures, 1.5–5.0 m in diameter, are situated. Most probably, these structures are small kurgans, but further excavations are needed to test this. Kurgan 2 is the smallest in the burial ground (Fig. 18). Its hemispherical mound with a heavily Àattened top reaches 3 m in height and 40 m in diameter. Isolated small stones lie on its surface. A looters’ hole is located in the center. The southern side of the mound is gently sloping. Kurgan 3 is subsquare in plan, with a mound shaped as a truncated pyramid (Fig. 19). The kurgan is 4 m high; its sides are 56 m long. A ritual road, whose course follows the outline of the mound, is located 17 m from the kurgan’s base. Each of its sides measures 95 m on average. The corners of the mound are roughly oriented to the four cardinal points. The entire surface of the mound is covered with crushed stones of reddish tint. A large looters’ hole is located in the center of the kurgan. The remains of a krepidoma lie in the northwestern corner of the mound. The southern slope is gentler than the others. The ritual road surrounding this kurgan is 2.5 m wide. Structurally, it is similar to the road of kurgan 1, but differs in size and shape. The road around kurgan 1 is well preserved, while the road around kurgan 3 has only the western and northern parts preserved, with fragments or isolated stone lines remaining of the eastern and southern parts. Kurgan 4 is 5 m in height and 62 m in diameter (Fig. 20). The hemispherical earthen mound with Àattened top is covered with small and medium-sized white stones. The stones are absent on the upper portion of the mound. In the central portion of the kurgan, a deepening is observed. It is probably the result of looting. The south–southwestern side of the kurgan is gentler than the others. A 2 m wide ritual road with outer diameter of 106 m lies 20 m from the kurgan’s base. It has been only partially preserved. Four small stone structures interpretable as small kurgans are located on the north–northwestern periphery of the kurgan, between the mound and the ritual road.
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Kurgan 5 is 6 m in height and 72 m in diameter (Fig. 21). The slopes of a round, hemispherical mound with a Àattened top are covered with medium-sized stones. No stones have been found on the top. Evidence of looting is absent. The southeastern side of the kurgan is gently sloping, as opposed to the others. Kurgan 6 is 5 m in height and 68 m in diameter (Fig. 22). The entire surface of the kurgan, which is hemispherical and round in plan, is covered with scattered stones of medium and small sizes. No stones are visible on the Àattened top. A looters’ hole is present in the center of the kurgan. The southern slope is gentler than the others. A kind of “step” (52 m long, 22 m wide, and up to 0.5 m high) made of earth, clay, and crushed stones rises above the modern surface at the northern side of the kurgan’s base. Since kurgan 6 is the outermost one, with the area to the south being tilled, it can be conjectured that the rest of the structure was demolished, and the “step” represents the remnants of the destroyed kurgan’s platform. Architectural design per se can hardly account for either the subsquare plan of the pyramidal kurgans or the presence of ritual roads. So far, surveys in southeastern Zhetysu did not provide a solution to this problem (Samashev et al., 2009). Further excavations will hopefully make the meaning of the kurgans’ shape and the reason behind the presence or absence of ritual roads more apparent. Our tentative conclusion is that these unusual features were motivated by the religious beliefs of the Saka and by associated rites.
Fig. 21. Asy Zaga kurgan 5. Northwestern view.
Fig. 22. Asy Zaga kurgan 6. West–northwestern view.
Ritual roads The presupposition that Turgen kurgan 3 and Asy Zaga kurgans 1, 3, and 4 were Fig. 23. Zhoan Tobe kurgan 1. Plan and cross-section of the ritual road surrounded not by double stone rings, but (eastern portion). Locus 31. rather by ritual roads is supported by the results of excavations of kurgan 1 at Zhoan Tobe. This burial site is located 12 km northeast of the Chilik Village and 17 km north–northeast sections of the road, the technique of road building can be of the Asy Zaga burial ground examined by the joint reconstructed (Fig. 23)*. German-Kazakhstan archaeological expedition in 2008 (Ibid.). At Zhoan Tobe, as with Asy Zaga, the northern *The author is indebted to Z. Samashev, A. Nagler, kurgan was the largest. It also was surrounded by a H. Parzinger; M. Nawroth, and R. Boroffka for their permission to publish this photograph. ritual road. Due to the excavations conducted at several
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The examined ritual road around Zhoan Tobe kurgan 1 is the ¿rst evidence of the road-building tradition existing in Western Central Asia in such an early time period (Ibid.). The technology was well-developed: the route of the future road was leveled, rammed, and paved with medium-sized stones. Thus a base for the road was created. It was bordered with a line of large, elongate stones. Then a layer of clay mixed with stone chippings was put on the base and rammed (Ibid.). Necropolises as sacral areas of Saka clans It is not clear why several groups of mounds with burials of the Saka elite existed in a relatively small area. One reason may be that a single group of elite kurgans was a clan cemetery situated on the territory controlled by the respective clan. However, since no burial mounds of earlier periods have been found in southeastern Zhetysu and most sites studied in this region are dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC (Parzinger, 2006: 659– 662), it might be concluded that they were constructed almost synchronously – over 180–200 years in the 5th– 3rd centuries BC. It also might be hypothesized that several tribes existed, who roughly at the same time delimited their territories by erecting elite kurgans. However, these presuppositions can be refuted by simple calculations. The length of the examined area on the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau (without regard to high-mountain valleys) constitutes approximately 200 km. Twelve burial grounds with elite Saka kurgans located at about the same distance from each other have been recorded there. The “domain” of one tribe in the surroundings of a necropolis stretched for 16.7 km. Such a territory was clearly insuf¿cient for nomadic migrations. In our view, the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau were not the principal area of Saka clans, tribes, and tribal unions. The kurgans for “chieftains” were erected there. It was the place where the Saka buried their “kings.” Every clan or a tribe had a piece of the “sacral territory,” where the chains of kurgans were made. With time, such chains formed a necropolis. The “sacral territory” was delimited by natural boundaries, in this case, by rivers. It is hardly possible at the moment to determine which lands were regarded sacral – on the same bank where the burials grounds were located, or on the opposite one. Conclusions Field studies in southeastern Zhetysu, in the transitional zone between the piedmont and the plain, have revealed several Early Iron Age (Saka) sites including large elite kurgans. Kurgans form chains mostly oriented along the
north–south line. Each necropolis may contain one or several such chains. Some regularities can be traced in the spatial distribution of the burial grounds and in the arrangement of their inner space. The mounds were constructed according to a single principle. Almost all of them are round, with a Àattened top, and with one, usually southern, gently-sloping side. In terms of shape, the kurgans of the Saka elite resemble those of European Scythia and generally correspond to Herodotus’ descriptions of Scythian sanctuaries, in particular, of the Ares sanctuary (Gerodot, 2006, Book 4, § 62: 276–277)*. Parallels with other Scythian-type sites similar to those of the Saka should be noted, for instance, the Scythian sanctuary and burial ground at Baikara, Northern Kazakhstan (Parzinger et al., 2003) and a large “royal” kurgan-sanctuary Barsuchy Log in Khakassia (Parzinger, Nagler, Gotlib, 2007). It can be suggested that Saka large elite mounds reproduced the sanctuary of Ares, one of the chief gods of the Scythian pantheon, at least in shape. In many cultures, the top members of the elite were buried in sanctuaries or temples (Stadelmann, 1985; Hesberg, Panciera, 1994; Brandenburg, 1972; Heidenreich, Johannes, 1971; Gersman, 2008). The same tradition might have been practiced by the Scythians and culturally related peoples (Mozolevsky, Polin, 2005: 198). It is not clear if the large elite mounds, marking the burials of top-ranking Saka, were actual sanctuaries or if they merely reproduced sanctuaries or temples in shape. The presence of ritual roads and ditches encompassing what might be the sacral space suggests that the elite mounds were indeed sanctuaries. These facts shed new light on the Saka culture. The Early Iron Age nomads were not only pastoralists and excellent warriors, but, judging by the distinct layout of the mounds and by their monumental size, were also designers and architects who used a sophisticated system of logistics. Also, they were engaged in road construction; the ritual roads they built are unique in Western Central Asia As a next step, we will process the data and classify it. Based on this classi¿cation, a theoretical model of Early Iron Age landscapes of southeastern Zhetysu will be elaborated. References Akishev K.A. 1978 Kurgan Issyk. Iskusstvo sakov Kazakhstana. Moscow: Iskusstvo. *Some researchers argue that the modern shape of the kurgans resulted from “natural” processes (Rudenko, 1918: 4; Mozolevsky, Polin, 2005: 236–237).
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Akishev K.A., Kushayev G.A. 1963 Drevnyaya kultura sakov i usunei doliny reki Ili. Alma-Ata: Izd. AN KazSSR. Brandenburg D. 1972 Samarkand. Studien zur islamischen Baukunst in Uzbekistan (Zentralasien). Berlin: Hessling. ýugunov K.V., Parzinger H., Nagler A. 2003 Der skythische Fürstengrabhügel von Aržan 2 in Tuva. Vorbericht der russisch-deutschen Ausgrabungen 2000–2002. Eurasia Antiqua, Bd. 9: 113–162. ýugunov K.V., Parzinger H., Nagler A. 2007 Der Fürstenkurgan Aržan 2. In Im Zeichen des goldenen Greifen. Königsgräber der Skythen. Ausstellungskatalog. Berlin, 6. Juli bis 1. Oktober 2007; München, 26. Oktober 2007 bis 20. Januar 2008, Hamburg, 15. Februar bis 25. Mai 2008. München et al.: Prestel. ýugunov K.V., Parzinger H., Nagler A. 2010 Der skythenzeitliche Fürstenkurgan Aržan 2 in Tuva. Archäologie in Eurasien 26. Steppenvölker Eurasiens 3. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern. Gerodot. 2006 Istoriya, G.A. Stratanovsky (trans., comments). Moscow: AST. Gersman G. 2008 Saint-Denis und der Totenkult der Restauration. Von der Rückeroberung eines königlichen Erinnerungsortes. In Kulturelles Gedächtnis und interkulturelle Rezeption im europäischen Kontext, E. Dewes, S. Duhem (eds.). Berlin: Akademie, pp. 139–158. Heidenreich R., Johannes H. 1971 Das Grabmal Theodorichs zu Ravenna. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. Hesberg H. von, Panciera S. 1994 Das Mausoleum des Augustus: der Bau und seine Inschriften. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistorische Klasse. München: Verlag der Bayerischen Akad. der Wiss. (Abh. N.F. 108). Mozolevsky B.N., Polin S.V. 2005 Kurgany skifskogo Gerrosa IV v. do n.e. Kiev: Stilos. Nurmukhanbetov B.N. Turgenskii kulturno-landshaftnyi kompleks. In Baipakov K.M., Maryashev A.N. Otchet o rabotakh Yuzhno-Kazakhstanskoi kompleksnoi arkheologicheskoi ekspeditsii v 1997 g. Archives IA MON RK, D. 2496. Nurmukhanbetov B.N., Chentsov S.P., Zhaksylakov S.D. Okhrannye arkheologicheskiye raboty MP “Atalyk” 1992 g. po dogovoram s Ministerstvom kultury Respubliki Kazakhstan. Arhives IA MON RK. Inv. 2, D. 2379. Parzinger H. 2004 Die Skythen. München: Verlag C.H. Beck.
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Parzinger H. 2006 Die frühen Völker Eurasiens. Vom Neolithikum bis zum Mittelalter. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. Parzinger H., Nagler A., Gotlib A. 2007 Die Fürstengräber der Tagar-Kultur. In Zeichen des goldenen Greifen. Königsgräber der Skythen. Ausstellungskat. Berlin, 6. Juli bis 1. Oktober 2007; München, 26. Oktober 2007 bis 20. Januar 2008, Hamburg, 15. Februar bis 25. Mai 2008. München et al.: Prestel, pp. 102–115. Parzinger H., Zajbert V., Nagler A., Plešakov A. 2003 Der große Kurgan von Bajkara. Studien zu einem skythischen Heiligtum. Archäologie in Eurasien 16. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern. Polin S.V. 2007 Fürstenkurgane in der ukrainischen Steppenzone. In Zeichen des goldenen Greifen. Königsgräber der Skythen. Ausstellungskat. Berlin, 6. Juli bis 1. Oktober 2007; München, 26. Oktober 2007 bis 20. Januar 2008; Hamburg, 15. Februar bis 25. Mai 2008. München et al.: Prestel, pp. 256–267. Rudenko S.I. 1918 Otchet o raskopkakh Prokhorovskikh kurganov. In Rostovtsev M.I. Kurgannye nakhodki Orenburgskoi oblasti epokhi rannego i pozdnego ellinizma. Materialy po arkheologii Rossii, No. 37: 1–12. Samašev Z. 2007 Die Fürstengräber des Siebenstromlandes. In Zeichen des goldenen Greifen. Königsgräber der Skythen. Ausstellungskat. Berlin 6. Juli bis 1. Oktober 2007; München, 26. Oktober 2007 bis 20. Januar 2008; Hamburg, 15. Februar bis 25. Mai 2008. München et al.: Prestel, pp. 162–170. Samashev Z., Grigoryev F., Zhumabekova G. 2005 Drevnosti Almaty. Almaty: KazIzdat KT. Samashev Z., Dzhumabekova G., Nurpeisov M., Chotbaev A. 2006 Drevnosti Almaty: Kurgany Boroldaya. Almaty: Grapho-art. Samashev Z., Nagler A., Parzinger H., Navrot M. 2009 Sovmestnye germansko-kazakhskiye issledovaniya bolshikh sakskikh kurganov Semirechya. In Pyataya Kubanskaya arheologicheskaya konferentsiya: Materialy konf. Krasnodar: pp. 350–352. Stadelmann R. 1985 Die ägyptischen Pyramiden: vom Ziegelbau zum Weltwunder. Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchges.
Received June 24, 2010.
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A. Gass Exzellenzcluster TOPOI 264, Research Group A-I – Central Places and their Environment, Hittorfstr. 18, Berlin, 14195, Germany E-mail: [email protected]
EARLY IRON AGE BURIALS IN SOUTHEASTERN ZHETYSU: THE GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Preliminary results of the geoarchaeological studies at the Early Iron Age (Saka) elite burial grounds in southeastern Zhetysu, Kazakhstan, are outlined. The reconstructed climates and landscapes of the region are relevant for the economy practiced by the early nomads. Kurgans, mounds on the periphery of the burial grounds, and ritual roads – the earliest ones in Western Central Asia – are described in detail. Saka burial grounds, which are situated in the northern foothills of the Trans-Ili Alatau, appear to have marked the boundary of the sacral tribal territory of the Saka. Keywords: Kazakhstan, Zhetysu, Early Iron Age, Saka, burial ground.
Introduction Southeastern Zhetysu is the region where the concentration of the Saka elite burial mounds – kurgans – is maximal. However, only very few among the hundreds of kurgans have been excavated. The most intense excavations were conducted in the 1960s and 1970s (Akishev, Kushayev, 1963; Akishev, 1978), and isolated mounds were excavated in the ¿rst decade of the 21st century (Samashev, Grigoryev, Zhumabekova, 2005; Samashev et al., 2006). Because the most advanced methods have not been applied to archaeological research in that region, one of the objectives of the present project, which has been implemented since 2008*, is to introduce these *In 2008, the interdisciplinary project “Archaeological and Geoarchaeological Investigations in Southeastern Zhetysu, Kazakhstan” was elaborated at the Exzellenzcluster 264 TOPOI (Berlin, Germany). Under the project, which focuses on the Early Iron Age elite burial grounds, excavations are
methods. Because the project is ongoing, results outlined in the present publication are tentative. In addition, it was intended to apply the GPS system (Garmin model) to assess the coordinates of both known and newly discovered burial grounds and to process this data topographically based on the results of aerospace surveys using the GIS software. The questions to be resolved under the project were as follows. With which environments are the Saka elite being conducted with the use of methods employed in physical geography. Institutions and persons engaged in the project include the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, Berlin (H. Parzinger; collaborators, M. Nawroth, and R. Boroffka), the German Archaeological Institute, Berlin (A. Nagler), Institute for Physical Geography, Free University of Berlin (B. Schütt, K. Singer, and M. Blättermann), and the Department of Iron Age Studies at the A.Kh. Margulan Institute of Archaeology of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty (Z. Samashev; collaborator, B. Nurmukhanbetov).
Copyright © 2011, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2011.11.004
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burial grounds associated? Are there any regularities in the spatial distribution of these burial grounds? Are there any regularities in the arrangement of kurgans within cemeteries with regard to the size and shape of the mounds? How did migration processes affect the opening up and exploitation of new territories? Were the “royal” Saka mounds in Zhetysu merely burial places or was their function broader? Geographical characteristics Zhetysu (seven rivers; Russ., Semirechye) is a geographical and historical province in Central Asia. At the present, most of Zhetysu falls into the Republic of Kazakhstan. However, its southernmost and southeastern peripheries are incorporated into the Republic of Kyrgyzstan and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. Zhetysu with its seven main rivers (Ili, Karatal, Sarkand, Bien, Aksu, Lepsa, and Baksan) stretches from the mountain ridges of the Northern Tien Shan, TransIli and Dzhungar Alatau in the south to lakes Balkhash, Sasykol, and Alakol in the north. The project study area encompasses the southeastern portion of Zhetysu located in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Its northern border goes along the Ili River or Lake Kapchagai. It is delimited by the Trans-Ili Alatau (including the Keghen Plateau) in the south, by the Bolshaya and Malaya Almatinka Rivers in the west, and by the eastern extremity of the Trans-Ili Alatau in the east. The study area incorporates four landscape zones (Fig. 1). There, over a short distance (27 km as the bird
Àies, from the high mountains of the Northern Tien Shan to the southern boundary of the Àatlands), signi¿cant changes in altitude can be observed (Talgar Peak, 4975 m; the southern boundary of the Àatlands, 973 m). The mountains of the Northern Tien Shan change into loess piedmonts; then alluvial sediments which merge into the Àatlands. Zhetysu has three climatic zones (Fig. 2). The highmountain zone in the Tien Shan is characterized by a nival climate with a rather short summer and high precipitation level. The frozen precipitation rate is much higher than that of melting and evaporating. A moderate continental climate dominates the piedmont zone. The amount of precipitation is smaller, the summer is longer, and the winter is milder than in the high-mountain zone. The climate in the steppe zone is extreme continental with a hot summer, cold winter, and low precipitation. A sparse cloud cover causes drastic Àuctuation in day and night temperatures. A small amount of precipitation and consequent low humidity are the principal characteristics of this climatic zone. These features have contributed to the appearance of various vegetation zones over a relatively small area in the northern foothills of the Tien Shan, providing an opportunity for their combined exploitation and thus advantageous for agriculture. The piedmont zone with its rich soil and mild winters as well as the use of irrigation systems during the hot summer months has provided excellent conditions for agriculture. Supposedly, the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau served as a nodal point both for sedentary and nomad populations.
Fig. 1. Landscape zones of Zhetysu. Photograph provided by M. Blaettermann.
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1
2
3
Fig. 2. Climatic zones of Zhetysu. Photograph provided by M. Blaettermann. 1 – extreme continental climate; 2 – moderate continental climate; 3 – nival climate.
General characteristics Early Iron Age burial grounds containing the kurgans of Saka elite were reexamined, measured, and documented. We regard as elite burials those at least 2 m high and at least 30–40 m in diameter (Fig. 3). As has been found in the course of mapping, all the examined necropolises are located on riverbanks – on the second or third Àuvial terrace along the piedmonts of the Trans-Ili Alatau (i.e., actually at the landscape juncture of alluvial sediments and the Àat surface). They are oriented to the north, located 0.5–3.0 km from the piedmonts, and occupy the most fertile land. The high concentration of burial sites containing large kurgans can also be observed on the Keghen Plateau and in the highmountain valleys of the Trans-Ili and Kungei Alatau. Normally, only one burial ground is located within one watershed area. Almost all the examined necropolises were placed on western riverbanks. The exception is the cemetery near the Turgen Village, which is located on both sites of the Turgen River. Thus, rivers served as natural landscape borders between sacral areas of “royal” burial grounds.
All Early Iron Age burial grounds with the kurgans of the Saka elite were made after the same pattern. On the average, the kurgans form from one to seven chains. Each chain contains from three to twenty kurgans arranged along the north–south line (with a small deviation). The earthen mounds above the kurgans were made in a similar way. Almost all of them have the shape of a truncated cone with steep slopes. The southern slope is gentler than others. The stone lining can seldom be traced on the surface. Almost all the kurgans show evidence of looting. In terms of location and outward shape, the kurgans of Zhetysu resemble those of the Northern Pontic region (Mozolevsky, Polin, 2005; Polin, 2007) described in classical sources such as Herodotus. Judging from these descriptions, the shape of the “royal” burials is similar to that of sanctuaries, in particular, of the Ares sanctuary (Gerodot, 2006, § 62: 276–277). At the same time, the “royal mounds” were collective commemoration places, which were highly relevant to the identity of the Scythians and of the Saka in particular (Ibid., § 71: 279–280; Book 4; § 127: 300–301). Thus the Saka kurgans of Zhetysu,
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0
52 km
Fig. 3. Studied burial grounds and settlements in southeastern Zhetysu.
therefore, were not only cemeteries of tribal chiefs, but also sacred places of ritual identity. In southeastern Zhetysu, one and the same principle was normally used in the construction and arrangement of kurgans within a burial ground. However, each third site examined by us contains subsquare kurgans with a
Fig. 4. Saka elite necropolises with additional architectural elements.
pyramidal mound (Fig. 4). Also, each third examined necropolis comprises kurgans with a ritual road. Almost each fourth burial ground has kurgans surrounded by stone rings. Some sites (e.g., Asy Zaga) contain both ritual roads and kurgans with a pyramidal mound. Here follows the description of three burial grounds – Issyk, Turgen, and Asy Zaga. The Issyk burial ground. The site is located at 43° 23ƍ30.09Ǝ N, 77° 23ƍ 30.75Ǝ E, at an elevation of 835 m a.s.l. The north to south extension is 2.7 km; the west to east extension is 2.3 km. The burial ground is located approximately 40 km northeast of the town of Issyk (Kaz., Esik), on the modern left bank of the Issyk River. The northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau range to the south of the burial ground. The site is famous throughout the world due to the “Golden Man” (Fig. 6) discovered there in the 1970s (Akishev, 1978; Parzinger, 2004: 55–57; Samašev, 2007). Before the discovery of the royal burial 5 in the Arzhan-2 kurgan, the Republic of Tuva, in 2001, which contained more than 9300 artifacts including 5700 golden ones (ýugunov, Parzinger, Nagler, 2003; 2007; 2010), the Issyk burial was the richest among known Early Iron Age burials east of the Urals. Regrettably, this burial ground, which
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Fig. 5. Issyk burial ground. Northern view.
has acquired world fame, is currently being destroyed by construction works. Today it comprises 52 kurgans of large and medium sizes (Fig. 7). The diameter of the earthen mounds varies from 16 to 145 m; their height is 2–8 m. The burial ground is formed of six or seven chains of kurgans extending from the north–west to the south– east and running parallel to the river. Due to construction works conducted in the necropolis, it is impossible at the moment to establish the exact number of chains. Every mound has one or several looters’ holes. The kurgans have a round, hemispheric shape and a slightly Àattened top. Three sides of the mounds are rather steep, while the fourth, mostly southern slope is gentle. No other outward architectural features of mounds have been revealed. Turgen burial ground (Fig. 8). The site is located at 43° 26ƍ 37.29Ǝ N, 77° 35ƍ 59.99Ǝ E, at an elevation of 826 m a.s.l. The north to south extension is 6.7 km; the west to east extension is 4.1 km. The Turgen burial ground is located 17.8 km east– northeast of the Issyk necropolis, on both banks of the Turgen River. The western portion of the cemetery (on the left bank of the Turgen) is situated 1.5 km north of the Turgen Village, while its eastern portion occupies the territory of the Karakemer Village and vineyard lying to the north of it. At the present, the burial ground contains 33 kurgans of large and medium size (Fig. 9). Twenty of them form two chains on the left bank of the river. The third chain comprising at least 13 kurgans* is located on *Because of construction works on the right bank, it is impossible to determine the exact number of kurgans.
Fig. 6. “Golden Man.” Reconstruction by K.A. Akishev (after (Samašev, 2007)).
the other bank. The chains of kurgans are oriented along the north–south line and run parallel to the river. The diameter of the kurgans varies from 22 to 70 m and their height reaches 9–10 m. All mounds display evidence of looting. The kurgans have a round, hemispheric shape and a slightly Àattened top. The southern sides of 27 kurgans are more gently sloping. Kurgans 7, 16, and 17 (according to our tentative numeration) were partially or completely excavated*; kurgan 23 was partially destroyed**. So it is impossible to determine which side of these kurgans was sloping. *B. Nurmukhanbetov conducted rescue excavations at endangered sites in 1992 (Nurmukhanbetov, Chentsov, Zhaksylakov) and in 1997 (Nurmukhanbetov). **According to B. Nurmukhanbetov, in the 1980s, a cinema with an asphalt parking lot was constructed on the surface of kurgan 23. A short time later, the cinema was demolished. In 2009, traces of the cinema’s foundation and of the abandoned parking lot were visible on the kurgan’s surface.
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Scale 1:2500
Fig. 7. Plan of the Issyk burial ground (SPOT).
Fig. 8. Turgen burial ground. Southern view.
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Scale 1:2500
Fig. 9. Plan of the Turgen burial ground (SPOT).
Fig. 10. Turgen kurgan 3. East–southeastern view.
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Kurgan 12 had a subsquare shape. It looked like a platform with a Àat top. A ring of white and red river-worn stones encircles kurgan 4 at a distance of 16 m from its base. In the northeastern sector, between the ring and the kurgan’s base, a stone mound (12 m in diameter and up to 0.2 m in height) was discovered. This feature possibly represents a small kurgan. Kurgan 3 (70 m in diameter and 7 m in height) seems to be the most interesting (Fig. 10). It has a hemispheric mound, round in plan, a heavily flattened top, and a gently sloping southern side. Small and mediumsized gray stones covered the entire mound. A looters’ hole is located on the kurgan’s top. On the periphery, 41 constructions encircle the kurgan. These are oval or
elliptic accumulations of stones, 1.5–6.3 m in diameter, slightly rising above the modern surface (Fig. 11). A ritual road is located 30 m from the kurgan’s base. Its width averages 3 m; its outer diameter is 139 m (Fig. 12). The exterior boundary of the road is marked by large red stones. The inner space is ¿lled with whitishgray river-worn stones of medium size. A stone ring (up to 200 m in diameter) made of large and medium-sized gray stones lies 26 m from the ritual road and 61 m from the kurgan’s base (Fig. 13). Thus, kurgan 3 represents a ritual complex composed of at least four main elements: the mound, stone structures on the kurgan’s periphery, ritual road, and stone ring. The coloration of the constructions is noteworthy (red, white,
looters’ hole mound stone structure on the kurgan’s periphery ritual road stone ring
0
6m
Fig. 11. Plan of Turgen kurgan 3 (after (Nurmukhanbetov, 1998)).
Fig. 12. Ritual road (western portion). Turgen kurgan 3. Southern view.
Fig. 13. Stone ring (western portion). Turgen kurgan 3. Southern view.
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Fig. 14. Asy Zaga burial ground. Southern view.
0
80 m
Fig. 16. Asy Zaga kurgan 1. Western view. Fig. 15. Plan of the Asy Zaga burial ground.
gray). It apparently had some meaning, possibly, of ritual character. Kurgan 3 undoubtedly took the dominant position in the burial ground; colored stones made the entire structure even more monumental. Asy Zaga burial ground (Fig. 14, 15). The site is located at 43° 30ƍ 18.13Ǝ N, 78° 20ƍ 26.32Ǝ E, at an elevation of 840 m a.s.l. The north to south extension is 1.4 km; the west to east extension is 0.5 m. The necropolis is located near the village of Kyzylsharyk, 14 km south– southeast of the town of Chilik, on the right bank of the Asy River. The southern
Fig. 17. Ritual road (southwestern portion). Asy Zaga kurgan 1. Eastern view.
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sides of all the mounds are gently sloping; the periphery is intact. The burial ground consists of six kurgans arranged along the north–south line. The distinguishing feature of this necropolis is the large sizes of mounds varying from 40 to 148 m in diameter and from 2.5 to 21 m in height. Kurgan 1 is the largest and, probably, dominant in the burial ground: it is 21 m in height and 148 m in diameter (Fig. 16). If the outer diameter of the ritual road is considered, the diameter is 252 m. The kurgan marks the highest point of the necropolis. It stands separately, to the northwest of other kurgans. Small and mediumsized stones of lining are visible on the earthen mound. The hemispheric mound, round in plan, has a Àat top
Fig. 18. Asy Zaga kurgan 2. Western view.
Fig. 19. Asy Zaga kurgan 3. Western view.
Fig. 20. Asy Zaga kurgan 4. West–northwestern view.
and a gently sloping southern side. Two large looters’ holes are situated in the central and northern portions of the mound. A ritual road 5 m wide is located 47 m from the kurgan’s base. A line of round (average size, 60 by 40 by 30 cm) stones of reddish-pink tint border the road. Its inner space is ¿lled with rammed clay and stones. Inside the delimited area, between the ritual road and the mound, 21 round stone structures, 1.5–5.0 m in diameter, are situated. Most probably, these structures are small kurgans, but further excavations are needed to test this. Kurgan 2 is the smallest in the burial ground (Fig. 18). Its hemispherical mound with a heavily Àattened top reaches 3 m in height and 40 m in diameter. Isolated small stones lie on its surface. A looters’ hole is located in the center. The southern side of the mound is gently sloping. Kurgan 3 is subsquare in plan, with a mound shaped as a truncated pyramid (Fig. 19). The kurgan is 4 m high; its sides are 56 m long. A ritual road, whose course follows the outline of the mound, is located 17 m from the kurgan’s base. Each of its sides measures 95 m on average. The corners of the mound are roughly oriented to the four cardinal points. The entire surface of the mound is covered with crushed stones of reddish tint. A large looters’ hole is located in the center of the kurgan. The remains of a krepidoma lie in the northwestern corner of the mound. The southern slope is gentler than the others. The ritual road surrounding this kurgan is 2.5 m wide. Structurally, it is similar to the road of kurgan 1, but differs in size and shape. The road around kurgan 1 is well preserved, while the road around kurgan 3 has only the western and northern parts preserved, with fragments or isolated stone lines remaining of the eastern and southern parts. Kurgan 4 is 5 m in height and 62 m in diameter (Fig. 20). The hemispherical earthen mound with Àattened top is covered with small and medium-sized white stones. The stones are absent on the upper portion of the mound. In the central portion of the kurgan, a deepening is observed. It is probably the result of looting. The south–southwestern side of the kurgan is gentler than the others. A 2 m wide ritual road with outer diameter of 106 m lies 20 m from the kurgan’s base. It has been only partially preserved. Four small stone structures interpretable as small kurgans are located on the north–northwestern periphery of the kurgan, between the mound and the ritual road.
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Kurgan 5 is 6 m in height and 72 m in diameter (Fig. 21). The slopes of a round, hemispherical mound with a Àattened top are covered with medium-sized stones. No stones have been found on the top. Evidence of looting is absent. The southeastern side of the kurgan is gently sloping, as opposed to the others. Kurgan 6 is 5 m in height and 68 m in diameter (Fig. 22). The entire surface of the kurgan, which is hemispherical and round in plan, is covered with scattered stones of medium and small sizes. No stones are visible on the Àattened top. A looters’ hole is present in the center of the kurgan. The southern slope is gentler than the others. A kind of “step” (52 m long, 22 m wide, and up to 0.5 m high) made of earth, clay, and crushed stones rises above the modern surface at the northern side of the kurgan’s base. Since kurgan 6 is the outermost one, with the area to the south being tilled, it can be conjectured that the rest of the structure was demolished, and the “step” represents the remnants of the destroyed kurgan’s platform. Architectural design per se can hardly account for either the subsquare plan of the pyramidal kurgans or the presence of ritual roads. So far, surveys in southeastern Zhetysu did not provide a solution to this problem (Samashev et al., 2009). Further excavations will hopefully make the meaning of the kurgans’ shape and the reason behind the presence or absence of ritual roads more apparent. Our tentative conclusion is that these unusual features were motivated by the religious beliefs of the Saka and by associated rites.
Fig. 21. Asy Zaga kurgan 5. Northwestern view.
Fig. 22. Asy Zaga kurgan 6. West–northwestern view.
Ritual roads The presupposition that Turgen kurgan 3 and Asy Zaga kurgans 1, 3, and 4 were Fig. 23. Zhoan Tobe kurgan 1. Plan and cross-section of the ritual road surrounded not by double stone rings, but (eastern portion). Locus 31. rather by ritual roads is supported by the results of excavations of kurgan 1 at Zhoan Tobe. This burial site is located 12 km northeast of the Chilik Village and 17 km north–northeast sections of the road, the technique of road building can be of the Asy Zaga burial ground examined by the joint reconstructed (Fig. 23)*. German-Kazakhstan archaeological expedition in 2008 (Ibid.). At Zhoan Tobe, as with Asy Zaga, the northern *The author is indebted to Z. Samashev, A. Nagler, kurgan was the largest. It also was surrounded by a H. Parzinger; M. Nawroth, and R. Boroffka for their permission to publish this photograph. ritual road. Due to the excavations conducted at several
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The examined ritual road around Zhoan Tobe kurgan 1 is the ¿rst evidence of the road-building tradition existing in Western Central Asia in such an early time period (Ibid.). The technology was well-developed: the route of the future road was leveled, rammed, and paved with medium-sized stones. Thus a base for the road was created. It was bordered with a line of large, elongate stones. Then a layer of clay mixed with stone chippings was put on the base and rammed (Ibid.). Necropolises as sacral areas of Saka clans It is not clear why several groups of mounds with burials of the Saka elite existed in a relatively small area. One reason may be that a single group of elite kurgans was a clan cemetery situated on the territory controlled by the respective clan. However, since no burial mounds of earlier periods have been found in southeastern Zhetysu and most sites studied in this region are dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BC (Parzinger, 2006: 659– 662), it might be concluded that they were constructed almost synchronously – over 180–200 years in the 5th– 3rd centuries BC. It also might be hypothesized that several tribes existed, who roughly at the same time delimited their territories by erecting elite kurgans. However, these presuppositions can be refuted by simple calculations. The length of the examined area on the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau (without regard to high-mountain valleys) constitutes approximately 200 km. Twelve burial grounds with elite Saka kurgans located at about the same distance from each other have been recorded there. The “domain” of one tribe in the surroundings of a necropolis stretched for 16.7 km. Such a territory was clearly insuf¿cient for nomadic migrations. In our view, the northern slopes of the Trans-Ili Alatau were not the principal area of Saka clans, tribes, and tribal unions. The kurgans for “chieftains” were erected there. It was the place where the Saka buried their “kings.” Every clan or a tribe had a piece of the “sacral territory,” where the chains of kurgans were made. With time, such chains formed a necropolis. The “sacral territory” was delimited by natural boundaries, in this case, by rivers. It is hardly possible at the moment to determine which lands were regarded sacral – on the same bank where the burials grounds were located, or on the opposite one. Conclusions Field studies in southeastern Zhetysu, in the transitional zone between the piedmont and the plain, have revealed several Early Iron Age (Saka) sites including large elite kurgans. Kurgans form chains mostly oriented along the
north–south line. Each necropolis may contain one or several such chains. Some regularities can be traced in the spatial distribution of the burial grounds and in the arrangement of their inner space. The mounds were constructed according to a single principle. Almost all of them are round, with a Àattened top, and with one, usually southern, gently-sloping side. In terms of shape, the kurgans of the Saka elite resemble those of European Scythia and generally correspond to Herodotus’ descriptions of Scythian sanctuaries, in particular, of the Ares sanctuary (Gerodot, 2006, Book 4, § 62: 276–277)*. Parallels with other Scythian-type sites similar to those of the Saka should be noted, for instance, the Scythian sanctuary and burial ground at Baikara, Northern Kazakhstan (Parzinger et al., 2003) and a large “royal” kurgan-sanctuary Barsuchy Log in Khakassia (Parzinger, Nagler, Gotlib, 2007). It can be suggested that Saka large elite mounds reproduced the sanctuary of Ares, one of the chief gods of the Scythian pantheon, at least in shape. In many cultures, the top members of the elite were buried in sanctuaries or temples (Stadelmann, 1985; Hesberg, Panciera, 1994; Brandenburg, 1972; Heidenreich, Johannes, 1971; Gersman, 2008). The same tradition might have been practiced by the Scythians and culturally related peoples (Mozolevsky, Polin, 2005: 198). It is not clear if the large elite mounds, marking the burials of top-ranking Saka, were actual sanctuaries or if they merely reproduced sanctuaries or temples in shape. The presence of ritual roads and ditches encompassing what might be the sacral space suggests that the elite mounds were indeed sanctuaries. These facts shed new light on the Saka culture. The Early Iron Age nomads were not only pastoralists and excellent warriors, but, judging by the distinct layout of the mounds and by their monumental size, were also designers and architects who used a sophisticated system of logistics. Also, they were engaged in road construction; the ritual roads they built are unique in Western Central Asia As a next step, we will process the data and classify it. Based on this classi¿cation, a theoretical model of Early Iron Age landscapes of southeastern Zhetysu will be elaborated. References Akishev K.A. 1978 Kurgan Issyk. Iskusstvo sakov Kazakhstana. Moscow: Iskusstvo. *Some researchers argue that the modern shape of the kurgans resulted from “natural” processes (Rudenko, 1918: 4; Mozolevsky, Polin, 2005: 236–237).
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Received June 24, 2010.