Earth Science Education in Kenya

Journal of African

Pergamon

Earth

Sciences,

Vol. 26,

No. 4. pp. 795-803,

1999

0 1999

Published by Elsevier Science Ltd All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0899.5362/99 5. see front matter

Pll:SO899-5362(99)00051-2

Earth Science Education in Kenya N. OPIYO-AKECH Department

of Geology,

University

and J. 0. BARONGO of Nairobi,

PO Box 30197.

Nairobi,

Kenya

ABSTRACT-The University of Nairobi is currently the only University in Kenya which offers degree level courses in the earth sciences. The Department was founded in 1961, became part of an autonomous University in 1970, awarded its first degrees in 1972 and awarded its first Geology degrees in 1978. The Department currently offers a four-year B.Sc. course - delivered as part of a course unit system - and an M.Sc. programme in Geology. Students are admitted to the University after eight years of primary and four years of secondary schooling. Graduates find employment either in government departments or in the private sector. The Department currently has 15 academic staff who are involved in a variety of research projects. Currently, there are collaborative links with Universities in Germany, Sweden and South Africa. Q 1999 Published by Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved. RBSUMB-L’Uiversite de Nairobi est actuellement la seule du Kenya a proposer des tours en sciences de la terre. Le Departement fut fonde en 1961, devint composante d’une Universite autonome en 1970, delivra les premiers diplomes en 1972 et les premiers diplomes en Geologic en 1978. Le Departement offre actuellement un tours de BSc. en quatre ans - delivre comme partie d’un systeme unique de tours - et un programme de deuxieme cycle (M.Sc.) en Geologic. Les etudiants sont admis a I’Universite apres huit ans d’ecole primaire et quatre ans d’ecole secondaire. Les diplomes trouvent un emploi soit dans les departements du gouvernement, soit dans le secteur prive. Actuellement, le Departement a un personnel de 15 enseignants qui sont impliques dans une grande variete de projets de recherche. II existe aussi des liens de collaboration avec des Universites d’allemagne, de Suede et d’Afrique du Sud. o 1999 Published by Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved. (Received

2812198: revised

version

INTRODUCTION

AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The University of Nairobi is the only institution in Kenya which offers courses in earth sciences to degree level. The Department of Geology is one of the oldest departments of the Faculty of Science. From 1956, it offered sub-degree courses principally for engineering students in the then Royal Technical College. In 1961, the Royal Technical College became a constituent college of the University of East Africa and started running full degree courses in Geology. The University of East Africa had colleges in Kampala, Uganda, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya. When the University of East Africa was dissolved in July 1970, these three East African countries then set up their own national universities. The three colleges (Nairobi,

received

1O/3/98:

accepted

23/l

l/98)

Dar-es-Salaam and Makerere) attained autonomous university status in July 1970. From the time Nairobi University attained full university status, the courses offered for both undergraduate and postgraduate students have been modified and varied over the years, dependent on the needs of the country and changes in trends in Earth Science Education worldwide. Earth Science Education is also provided by the Kenya Polytechnic, which offers diploma level courses for technicians. The structure of the course incorporates foundation studies in basic sciences, mathematics and communication skills. Specialist training to enable the technicians to work on their own follows this broad-based training in earth

Journal of African Earth Sciences 795

N. OPIYO-AKECH sciences. The course aims at preparing the students for employment as competent technicians able to work independently and supervise others in a majority of earth science-related tasks, including geological fieldwork, laboratory work, mineral evaluation, exploration and mining. Until 1975, university education and training at the Kenya Polytechnic was fully funded by the Government. It was in 1975 that a cost-sharing scheme was introduced with the Government providing automatic loans to all needy students who required such loans. The Government, however, continued to meet the bulk of the costs. With the rising costs and the poor state of the Kenyan economy, the Government has tended to shift the burden of education to the students and their parents or guardians. Until 1985, receiving a loan to subsidise the contribution made by the Government was a routine matter. After 1985, it started becoming more difficult to obtain a loan and some of the students have been affected by this change in the economic climate. Thus, students from poor families are facing great economic hardships that in certain cases affect their performance.

GEOLOGY COURSES AT THE UNIVERSITY

OF NAIROBI

The Department of Geology was formed in the Faculty of Science in 1961 but continued offering service courses to the various departments of the University of East Africa. A first year course was mounted in the Faculty of Science to be taken in combination with the other science subjects. This scheme combined Geology with two other subjects: Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics or Geography. When the colleges attained autonomous univer-sity status in July 1970, there was a move to upgrade Earth Science Education in Kenya. By 1972, the Department of Geology was offering a three year undergraduate programme leading to the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.1 degrees. Postgraduate programmes leading to the Master of Science (M.Sc.1 and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees were also mounted. Postgraduate diploma and service courses that were required in other departments of the University were also offered. The programme of geology courses for the B.Sc. and B.M. degree courses was based on the B.Sc. (General) degree with a 3-2-2 subject combination. Geology, therefore, constituted at most for one third of the course content. The programmes for the B.Sc. and B.Ed. degrees were changed in the 1975/76 academic year and the

796 Journal of African Earth Sciences

and J. 0. BARONGO courses are now based on the Course Unit System to enable students either to specialise in Geology (3-21 and 3-l-l 1 or follow a more general (3-2-2) education. For students who wished to major in Geology, appropriate courses in Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics were recommended. The first B.Sc. (Geology) students graduated from the University of Nairobi in 1978.

CURRICULUM AND COURSE CONTENT Undergraduate courses in the Department of Geology The Department of Geology currently offers an undergraduate programme for a B.Sc. degree based on a course unit system. The programme allows students to specialise in Geology. Students wishing to specialise in geology are advised to select, apart from geology courses, appropriate courses in Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics in the 1st and 2nd years. The student must register for all geology course units offered in the third and fourth years of the B.Sc. programme. The course units are listed in Table 1. Postgraduate programmes The Department also offers a postgraduate programme leading to a M.Sc. degree in Geology. This programme extends for two academic years and consists of course work and submission of a thesis. The Department’s Ph.D. programme in any field of geosciences consists of research work and the submission of a thesis. It can be undertaken either on a full-time or part-time basis. M. SC. programme in Geology To register for the M.Sc. programme in Geology, candidates must be in possession of a B.Sc. degree in Geology with at least Second Class Honours (Upper Division) or equivalent. They must also adequately fulfil the general university and Faculty of Science regulations, which govern the M.Sc. programmes in the University of Nairobi. Candidates who wish to specialise in Geophysics or Seismology, besides being graduates in Geology, must also have studied Physics and/or Mathematics to at least second year level of the University of Nairobi fouryear B.Sc. programme or equivalent. Course s true ture and duration The M.Sc. programme in Geology consists of coursework, examination and submission of an acceptable thesis. It is of two years duration and offers a total selection of 32 course units (see Table 2). In the first year, candidates undertake an approved programme of six units leading to any of

Earth Science Education in Kenya Table 1. Course Units by year, taken by Geology undergraduates Course Code

Title

SGLI 01 SGLI 02 SGLI 03

Materials of the Earth Earth Processes Introduction to Paleontology

SGL201 SGL202 SGL203 SGL204

Principles of Mineralogy Systematic Mineralogy Structural Geology Geostatistics

at the University

of Nairobi

Number of Units* FIRST YEAR CORECOURSES 1 1 1

SECOND YEAR CORECOURSES

THIRD YEAR CORECOURSES SGL301 SGL302 SGL303 SGL304 SGL305

Igneous Petrology Metamorphic Petrology Sedimentary Petrology Stratigraphy Global Tectonics THIRD YEAR ELECTIVE COURSES

SGL306 SGL307 SGL308 SGL309 SGL310 SGL311 SGL312

Palzeontology Historical Geology Introduction to Field Mapping Introduction to Geophysics Photogeology and Remote Sensing Surveying for Geoscientists Introduction to Geological Thermodynamics

SGL401

Field Geology (5 weeks field mapping)

SGL402 SGL403 SGL404 SGL405 SGL406

Ore Deposits Industrial Rocks and Minerals Exploration Geochemistry Exploration Geophysics Hydrogeology

SGL407 SGL408 SGL409 SGL410 SGL411 SGL412 SGL413

FOURTH YEAR ELECTIVE COURSES Engineering Geology Marine Geology Environmental Geology Geology and Mineral Resources of Kenya Mineral Exploration and Mining Seismology Project in Geology

FOURTH YEAR COMPULSORY COURSE 1

FOURTH YEAR CORECOURSES

‘1

Unit comprises

2 hrs of lectures

and 3 hrs of practicals

per week

for 14 weeks.

Journal of African Earth Sciences 797

N. OPIYO-AKECH

and J. 0. BARONGO

Table 2. Course outline for postgraduate students COURSE CODE SGL501 SGL502 SGL503 SGL504 SGL505 SGL506 SGL507 SGL508 SGL509 SGL510 SGL511 SGL512 SGL513 SGL514 SGL515 SGL516

COURSE TITLE Mineralogy and Crystallography Advanced Igneous Petrology Sedimentary Petrology and Sedimentology Advanced Metamorphic Petrology Isotope Geology Geological Thermodynamics Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics Advanced Photogeology and Remote Sensing Advanced Hydrogeology Advanced Engineering Geology Advanced Stratigraphy Palynology Micropalaeontology Oceanography Advanced Marine Geology Applied Geomorphology

the following areas of specialisation: mineralogy and petrology, economic geology, environmental geology, engineering geology, hydrogeology, petroleum geology, marine geology, photogeology and remote sensing, geochemistry, geophysics, seismology and paleeontology. This part of the programme comprises lectures, field and laboratory work, and guided library reading as appropriate. In the second year, a candidate undertakes a research project in any one area of specialisation leading to the submission of a thesis to be examined according to the existing regulations of the University of Nairobi. This includes moderation by an external examiner.

STUDENTS Entry requirements The minimum entry requirement for B.Sc. courses is either an Advanced Level (A-level) pass in Chemistry and a Subsidiary Level pass in Physics or an Advanced Level pass in Physics and a Subsidiary Level pass in Chemistry. Students who did not intend to proceed beyond first year geology could be admitted on the basis of an Ordinary Level (O-level) pass in Chemistry and Physics. A remedial course was available to entrants who were not in possession of the required qualification in chemistry.

798 Journal of African Earth Sciences

COURSE CODE SGL517 SGL518 SGL519 SGL520 SGL521 SGL522 SGL523 SGL524 SGL525 SGL526 SGL527 SGL528 SGL529 SGL530 SGL531 SGL532

COURSE TITLE Advanced Environmental Geology Geological Field Mapping Geographical Information System (GIS) Ore Deposits Industrial Rocks and Minerals Metallogeny, Metallogenic Epochs and Provinces Ore Mineralogy and Ore Microscopy Mining Geology Applied Geochemistry Petroleum Geology Exploration Geophysics Advanced Seismology Solid Earth Geophysics Geophysical Interpretation Methods of Geophysical Analysis Inverse Theory for Geophysical Applications

In 1983, the Government decided to change the education system from the 7-4-2-3 where a student graduating from the University must have had seven years of primary education, four years of secondary education and passed the Ordinary Level (O-level) examinations. The student then must have had a further two years for and passed A-level examinations before being admitted to the University for a three-year degree course. The normal University entry age from this system of education was 19 years. The new educational system introduced by the Government in 1983 is an 8-4-4 system where a student has eight years of primary education and a further four years of secondary education before being admitted to the University for a four-year degree course. The first group of students in this new system was admitted to the University together with the last group of A-level students in 1991. The last A-level students graduated from the University in 1995 and the first 8-4-4 students graduated from the University in 1996. With the introduction of the 8-4-4 system in the University, there was a necessity to change the syllabi and entry requirements. The normal university entry age from this system of education was 18 years. A comparison of the numbers of students entering the University to study Geology under the 7-4-2-3 and the 8-4-4 systems is given in Table 3a, b.

Earth Science Education in Kenya General entry requirements in the 8-44 system Candidates must meet the minimum general University and Faculty admission requirements. Candidates for the Faculty of Science must have passed at least three subjects from either of the following alternatives (A or B) listed below, with the minimum grades shown, in order to be considered for course registration by reluctant departments: ALTERNATIVE Chemistry Biology Physics Geography Mathematics

A C+ C+ C+ C+ C+

ALTERNATIVE Physical Sciences Biological Sciences Geography Mathematics

B C+ C+ c+ c+

Regulations for geology students i) For students to finally graduate in Geology, they must take all geology units in the first year and all units in the second year. ii) Students intending to specialise in Geology at third and fourth year levels of the B.Sc. programme are strongly advised to take courses in the Departments of Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics in their first and second years of the degree programme. iii) Students who wish to qualify as professional geologists must register for the specialised degree programme by taking a minimum of 10 units in the third and fourth years, including the compulsory fourth term SGL401 (5 weeks of field mapping). iw) Students pursuing a General degree programme in Geology may register only for the core courses in their third and fourth years of the B.Sc. programme.

TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT The Departmental facilities consist of laboratories in mineralogy and petrology, paleeontology, geochemistry, seismology, geophysics, cartography and thin sectioning. They include a seismological network, microcomputers and related peripherals, a seismic project 4-wheel drive vehicle, optical microscopes, a terrameter and field camping equipment. The geochemical laboratory is equipped with a modern Chem Tech Analytical CTA 2000 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer and a Buck Scientific 2 10 VGA Atomic Absorption/Emission Spectrophotometer. All examinations are moderated and examined by an external examiner. For postgraduate students the final thesis is also examined by an external examiner who is a specialist in the field of study being undertaken by the student.

The following assessment regulations apply to undergraduate students: i) continuous assessment and a three hour paper exam in each course unit at the end of the second semester; iii for each course unit, continuous assessment carries 30% and the examination 70%; iii) pass mark for each course unit is 40% for undergraduate students and 50% for postgraduate students; iw) a candidate is required to pass each of the six course units before he/she is allowed to proceed to the second year; v) a candidate who fails with not less than 40% in not more than two units may be allowed by the Senate on the recommendation of the Board of Examiners to take supplementary examinations in the two course units failed; vi) a candidate who sits for supplementary examination only attains a pass mark (40%) or a fail; vii) a candidate who fails in more than one unit with a mark less than 40% or fails supplementary examinations shall be discontinued; vi) a candidate who, without good cause, fails to attend two thirds of all scheduled lectures, seminars or other prescribed course exercises throughout the academic year shall be excluded from sitting in scheduled examinations; and ix) candidates are required to submit a research proposal for approval by the Department at the end of the second semester examinations.

STAFF Since 1978, the University of Nairobi embarked on a rigorous staff development programme. This was necessitated by a lack of academic staff and the need to replace the expatriate staff with local staff. Faculty of Science regulations are such that before one is appointed as a lecturer, one must have obtained a Ph.D. Staff development was initiated from the undergraduate level, where promising students were offered postgraduate scholarships for their M.Sc. degrees. Successful candidates were then appointed as tutorial fellows and on obtaining their Ph.D. were appointed as lecturers. This has, for now, been placed in abeyance, as staffing levels have reached the desired limits and the University can no longer guarantee employment to new graduates. The staffing level in the Department increased steadily from the 1970s and peaked in 1992 (see Table 4a). With the introduction of other state universities offering subjects that require input from geologists, some of the lecturers have moved to the new universities. There is a recent move to start

Journal of African Earth Sciences 799

N. OPIYO-AKECH Table 3a. Student

and J. 0. BARONGO

numbers in the 7-4-2-3 system No. of Students

Year of Study

1”’ Year

No. of Students

2”d Year

Degree awarded RSc.

in 3’d Year after 3’d Year

R&_&en.]

R Frl

1970

32

1971

18

1972

35

12

24

1973

17

24

14

1974

18

20

19

4

27

1975

18

15

9

9

1976

22

13

9

3

1977

21

22

16

6

1978

20

18

4

15

2

1979

26

16

9

4

1

8

1

1980

65

26

7

1981

34

38

26

1982

31

23

37

1983

43

30

23

1984

32

37

33

1985

18

24

37

1986

33

14

22

1987

30

28

14

1988

38

25

25

1989

21

30

28

1990

31

17

30

1991

11

21

17

1992

18

8

19

1993

22

15

7

1994

20

15 20

1995

new geology departments in these new universities. The Department of Geology at the University of Nairobi currently has 15 academic members of staff, a drop of two from 1997. Thirteen of these members of staff have doctoral degrees from various institutions from a variety of countries. The remaining two have submitted their Ph.D. theses for examination. The Department currently has 15 technical members of staff (see Table 4b), with qualifications ranging from Higher National Diploma to Certificate in Laboratory Techniques.

EXTERNAL LINKS Members of the academic staff and postgraduate students are involved in research projects in various fields of geology.

800 Journal of African Earth Sciences

Among the Department’s academic projects, the main one is seismology. It started in 1990 as a result of an agreement of co-operation between the University of Nairobi and the University of Karlsruhe, Germany. The GTZ and DAAD of Germany, with the University of Nairobi providing office facilities and personnel, sponsor this programme. One of the achievements of the project is the establishment of a seismological network covering various parts of the country. The network is used to monitor seismic activities within the Rift Valley and its environs. Part of this network is the WWSSN station belonging to the U.S. Geological Survey located at Kilimambogo Hill some 50 km to the east of Nairobi. The network has now been extended to most parts of the country. Postgraduate students are using some of the data collected as research material for their theses.

Earth Science Education in Kenya Table 3b. Student

numbers in the 8-4-4 system of education No. of Students

No. of Students

Year of Study

I” Year

2”d Year

3’d Year

B.Sc. (Geol.) 4’h Year

1998

33”

55*

22*

16”

1997

66

22

16

32

1996

32

18

32

16

1995

36

32

16

14

1994

43

16

14

20

1993

18

14

20

1992

18

22

1991

28

*In session

Table 4a. List of academic

YEAR 1980 1981 1982 1983

members of staff Assoc. Prof.

Prof. 1 1 1 1

Senior Lecturer 1 1 1 2

Lecturer 3 3 3 3

Assistant Lecturer

2

1984

1

7

?

7

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

1 1” 1” + 1 I”

2 3 2 2 7 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4

3

2 1 1 1

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 *On contract;

+Visiting

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Professor;

*Visiting

??

4 + 3”” 4 4 9 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 8 6

Tutorial Fellow 3 5 3 2 4 3 3 3 4 5 3 3 3 3 1

1 1

lecturers.

The International Programme for Physical Sciences (IPPSI of Uppsala University has been supporting the seismology activities in the Department for many years. The support has mainly been concentrated on training in Sweden of staff and technicians attached to this project. The IGBP-START Secretariat and the regional off ice of the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Programme (GSHAP) are also based within the Department. An agreement of co-operation has been signed between the University of Nairobi and the University of Cape Town (South Africa) in which the two universities agreed to expand existing contacts and

strengthen their relationships in the scientific fields of scholarly activities. Under the same agreement, the Department of Geology, University of Nairobi, and the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Cape Town, agreed to establish collaborative research programmes which will comprise, but not be limited to, multi-disciplinary research on the East African Rifts and related regions.

EMPLOYMENT

OPPORTUNITIES

The geology graduates from the University of Nairobi obtain employment in various sectors. The main

Journal of African Earth Sciences 801

N. OPIYO-AKECH Table 4b. List of technical

YEAR 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 *Trainee

and J. 0. BARONGO

members of staff

Chief Technician 1 (Acting) 1 (Acting) 1 (Acting) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Senior Technician 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5

Technician 2 2 2 2 7 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 6 6 7 7

Junior Technician 2 2 2 2 7 2 4 4 4 2 + 5” 2 + 5” 2 + 5” 5 5 5 3 3 2 2

Laboratory Assistants

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

technicians

employer is the public sector, in which the various ministries and parastatals of the Government are the main employers. The ministries that employ the majority of geologists are: i) Ministry of Water Development (employed as hydrogeologists); $ Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (employed as geologists); ii) Ministry of Energy; where they are engaged in oil and geothermal exploration; and iv) Ministry of Works (Materials and Road Construction Departments). Other departments of the Government also employ geologists to a minor extent. These include: i) the Central Bank; ii) Customs Department; and iii) the Department of Trade and Industry. The other main employer for geology graduates is the private sector. In the recent past, there has been increased employment in the mining sector. The large mining companies have shown a lot of interest in the mineral resources of Kenya and have in the recent past employed the graduates. The large construction companies have also employed some of our graduates in the past. A number of the graduates have also ventured into private practice, particularly in the search for groundwater. They have been involved in site investigations for groundwater and dam site investigations.

802 Journal of African E8fth Sciences

A number of geology graduates have been absorbed back into the university system. In the other four universities in Kenya, these have been mainly in the related fields of environmental studies and physical geography. The other universities are in the process of preparing curricula that will incorporate geology, which will appreciably increase job opportunities.

GEOLOGICAL

SOCIETY

The Geological Society of Kenya is an umbrella organisation that caters for the needs of geologists and miners in Kenya. The Society is instrumental in championing for the rights, welfare and needs of its members. The Society has helped in focusing the attention of the authorities to the needs of geologists and miners. Through the initiatives of the Geological Society, the Government has provided for a scheme of service for geologists in the public service. The scheme has established standards for enhancement within the career grading structure on the basis of knowledge, experience, professional competence, proven ability, diligence and drive. The efforts and initiatives of the Geological Society of Kenya has enabled the Government and Parliament to enact the Geologists Registration Act of 1993. This is an Act of Parliament, which

Earth Science Education in Kenya provides for the registration of geologists as professionals and regulates their activities in Kenya. The Registration Board was set up in 1994 and has the responsibility of regulating the

activities and conduct of registered geologists. It is the Geologist’s Registration Board with input from the professional committee that establishes these standards and registers qualified geologists.

Journal of African Earth Sciences 803