- Email: [email protected]
Ecological crises and early human migrations in the Black Sea area
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
Ecological crises and early human migrations in the Black Sea area Pavel Markovich Dolukhanov, Khikmatulla A. Arslanov School of Historical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Armstrong Building, Newcastle upon Tyne NE17RU, UK Available online 4 September 2007
Abstract Study has revealed the role of environmental control on prehistoric human migrations in the Black Sea area, from the initial spread of anatomically modern humans until the establishment of farming communities. The massive outflow of population occurred during the critical periods, in an environment of cold and dry climate signalled by the regressions of the Black Sea. The expansion of farming proceeded during warm and wet periods coeval with the rise of the Black Sea level. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The evolution of early human groups in the Black Sea area occurred under the backdrop of major environmental changes that included the climatic change and fluctuations of the sea-level. The present paper is aimed at assessing the impact of the dynamic environment on the movements and subsistence of early human groups in that area, ranging from the initial settlement of anatomically modern humans (AMH) until the establishment of farming communities. The study area chosen was the northern part of Black Sea basin including the Pontic Lowland, the Crimea and the Caucasus’ littoral. For all these areas both palaeoenvionmental and archaeological and evidence is currently available. 2. Methods of investigation The present study tests a hypothesis, according to which the changes in subsistence and large-scale migrations were triggered by environmental crises. The ensuing scarcity of food resources caused the outflow of surplus population into the areas better provided for human subsistence. The main instrument of investigation consists in interfacing the palaeoenvironmental and archaeological evidence. The palaeoenvironmental setting of the Late Pleistocene is reconstructed primarily based on globalCorresponding author. Tel./fax: +44 191 2811676.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P.M. Dolukhanov).
scale climatic oscillations (Dansgaard/Oeschger [D/O] events) identifiable in Greenland and Antarctica ice cores. Another palaeotemperature proxy consists of Heinrich events, abrupt episodes identifiable in layers of ice-rafted detritus at intervals in sediment cores from the North Atlantic (Bond et al., 1992; Hemming, 2004). Pollen analysis constitutes a sensitive instrument for reconstruction of past environments on regional scales. This includes the modelling of past climate with the use of the concept of biomes (Huntley and Allan, 2003). The pollen sequence with high-resolution radiocarbon dates of Dziguta River, near Sukhumi, Abkhazia (Dolukhanov et al., 2006) provides a basis for detailed reconstruction of Late Pleistocene climates in the Black Sea area. The loess-palaeosol sequences of the periglacial zone of East European Plain provide an instrument for correlating the local and global-scale changes during the Late Pleistocene (Velichko et al., 1984). Holocene climate and vegetation are reconstructed based on the pollen evidence from radiocarbon-dated peat deposits in the North Pontic Lowland. The data on the Late Pleistocene and Holocene fluctuations of the Black Sea levels are based on recently summarized palaeo-oceanological, geological, seismic and radiometric evidence (Yanko-Hombach et al., 2006). The main references used were the sea-level curves by Izmailov (2005), based on the investigations of the Anapa Bay on the Caucasus’ littoral. Archaeological evidence includes data on the geographic setting of the sites in relation to landscape features, and on
1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.08.035
ARTICLE IN PRESS 36
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
the subsistence pattern of related communities. The latter includes data on hunting, gathering and stock-breeding (with the use of faunal evidence), and on early farming (mostly with the use of archaeobotanic evidence, in several cases supplemented by biochemical data). Prehistoric migrations are assessed based on the stylistic similarities of archaeological assemblages. In certain cases it was possible to use craniometric data obtained for skeletal remains from prehistoric burial sites. 3. Results 3.1. Initial settlement of AMH (45–27 ka) The penetration of early AMH and their replacement of Neanderthal groups in the studied area occurred during MIS 3 (60–25 ka). The highest density of Mousterian sites attributed to Neanderthals is present in the eastern Carpathian valleys, the Crimea and Caucasus. The radiometric dates obtained in Crimea show that the Neanderthal settlements have the age of about 28 ka (Marks and Chabai, 1998). In northern Caucasus (Mezmaiskaya Cave), the Neanderthals survived until 29 ka (Golovanova et al., 1999). Radiometric ages indicate that the earliest manifestations of Upper Palaeolithic (UP) attributable to anatomic modern humans in the Crimea date to 38 ka. During a prolonged period of time (38–28 ka), these industries apparently coexisted with the Mousterian ones, implying a possible cohabitation of Neanderthals with AMH. The age of early UP (Aurignacian) in Moldavia (Mitoc) is estimated as 33–32 ka (Haesaerts et al., 2003; Noiret, 2004). Similar ages were yielded by the early UP level at Mezmaiskaya Cave in Northern Caucasus (Golovanova et al., 1999). As shown by currently available evidence, MIS3 was a prolonged interval of the Last Ice Age with a limited occurrence of ice sheets, not extending beyond Fennoscandia (van Andel, 2003). The climate remained generally cool, although several mild episodes occurred. Oscillations identified in Antarctic ice cores (D/O events) include a mild phase at 45 ka BP; ‘transitional’ (44–37 ka BP); ‘early cold’ (37–27 ka BP); and LGM (27–16 ka BP). This time-span included several Heinrich events: H6 (60 ka); H5 (45 ka); H4 (38 ka); H3 (31 ka); and H2 (24 ka). Modelling based on the concept of biomes (Huntley and Allan, 2003) indicates that the vegetation during both the colder and milder episodes consisted mainly of herbaceous cold-resistant plants with a limited expansion of forests restricted to northeast Europe. The cold phases were characterized by the further reduction of trees and by the predominance of steppe-like herbaceous vegetation with low biological productivity. This general pattern is generally in agreement with currently available data from the sequence of organic deposits in the Dziguta valley (Dolukhanov et al., 2006). The radiocarbon-dated pollen sequence shows two colder
intervals (44–41 and 38–27 ka), and three intervals with the indices of a milder and wetter climate (48–44, 41–38, and 32–27 ka). The vegetation of the colder episodes features the dominance of pine forests with the occasional occurrence of alder in the lower areas. The milder episodes are dominated by fir forest with beech and alder, and alder forest with the participation of hornbeam, elm, and lime. The initial penetration of AMH occurred during the ‘Pre-Neoeuxinian’ regression of the Black Sea basin, when its level was below 120 m (Konikov, 2006). The basin had a character of a mega-lake, effectively separated from the Mediterranean Sea. Subsequently, the Tarkhankutian transgression occurred, when the sea-level rose up to 30 m and the connection with the Mediterranean Sea was temporarily re-established (Chepalyga, 2002). 3.2. Upper Palaeolithic (27–16 ka) The industries of advanced UP type in the area coincided with MIS 2–3, which included the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 27–16 ka). The sites of that age were predominantly located in the valleys of small rivers in the northern and middle part of the Pontic Lowland. Anetovka, a large site dated to 18 ka BP, was occupied by specialized bisonhunters and combined the functions of a tool-making workshop, butchering site, and a cult centre (Stanko et al., 1989). Another site of similar age, Amvrosievka, was a short-lived kill-site of bison-hunters (Krotova, 1999). According to ‘meso-scale’ simulations (Barron et al., 2003), the south-eastern segment of Europe experienced sharp seasonal variations, with mean July temperature above +18 1C, and that of January, in the order of 20 1C. The vegetation reconstruction shows the predominance of ‘temperate grassland-steppe tundra’. In the Dziguta sequence this period reflects the domination of pine forests with a quasi-total disappearance of fir, alder trees and broad-leaved species, and expansion of herbs including Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae This period marked a maximum regression in the Neoeuxinian basin with a level at about 100 m below the present one (Chepalyga, 2002; Konikov, 2006). The greater part of the north Pontic shelf, including the Azov Sea, was exposed forming a loess-covered, low-lying plain with numerous lakes and meandering rivers. 3.3. Late Glacial (16–10 ka) During the final stages of the Last Ice Age large settlements disappeared and smaller sites arose in the southern part of the Pontic Lowland. Bol’shaya Akkazha, located on a terrace of a small river west of Odessa, is a typical site of that age. Its animal remains consist of fragmented bones of bison. The stone inventory includes a numerous microlithic tools, with backed and truncated blades (Stanko et al., 1989; Sapozhnikov, 2005). Palaeotemperature proxies suggest a global-scale rise of temperature following the H1 event at 15.7 ka. The Dziguta
ARTICLE IN PRESS P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
sequence shows a gradual spread of beech-fir forest with considerable areas taken up by mixed deciduous forests dominated by alder in the interval of 14–12 ka. This was interrupted by a short-lived expansion of pine forest, with reduced areas of fir forest and a small proportion of beech at 11–10 ka. According to Chepalyga (2002, 2006), this period included an episode (17–14 ka BP), when the water of the Caspian Sea spilled into the Black Sea causing a rise of the sea. According to this writer, this had a catastrophic character and had a profound impact on the movement and cultural contacts of prehistoric populations. 3.4. Mesolithic (10,250–7700 BP or 10,000–6500 BC) With the beginning of the Holocene, Mesolithic sites appeared in the North Pontic area. They developed in an environment of growing scarcity of hunting resources, as the bison, the principal Palaeolithic hunting prey, became largely exterminated. Mesolithic groups targeted less numerous herds of wild horse (or tarpan) and antelopesaiga, or more solitary animals such as aurochs. Fishing and gathering increasingly supplemented the hunting of land mammals. Stable isotope analysis of human bone from Mesolithic cemeteries on the Dniepr shows a shift to an increased consumption of plant food (Lillie, 1996). This was confirmed by archaeological evidence: Korobkova (1993) has identified at Mirnoe prismatic blades with microscopic traces of linear use-wear, which she and Stanko (1982) view as evidence of ‘reaping knives’ used for harvesting edible plants. Pashkevich (1982, p. 136) has found the grains of several potentially edible plants in the deposits of Mirnoe: white goosefoot (Chenopodium album), black bindweed (Polygonum convoluvulus), vetch (Vicia hirsuta) and sorel (Rumex acetosa). Mesolithic sites are preferably located in the valleys of smaller rivers in the southern part of the Pontic Lowland. Numerous Mesolithic sites are found on the Danube– Dniestr interfluve in the western segment of the Pontic Lowland. The largest sites (Mirnoe 1 and Beloles’e) which lie on the shores of estuaries in the present-day coastal area, were supposedly base-camps inhabited on a yearround basis. Stanko (1982) suggests that the Mirnoe community consisted of 20–25 individuals, representing three or four nuclear families each with four to six individuals. Smaller sites in a similar setting supposedly belonged to task groups, budding off from the main settlement. The location of several sites at higher elevation in the foothills implies seasonal transhumance. Mesolithic settlements are also located in the terraced valleys of the major rivers (the Dniepr, Dniestr and Severskiy Donets). A dense cluster of sites is found in the middle reaches of the Dnieper at Igren’, Oskorivka, Vasylivka, Yamburg and other places. At the start of the Holocene, summer temperatures in Europe rose by at least 6 1C (Isarin and Bohnke, 1999). In the Dziguta sequence, the pollen spectra dated to 10–9 ka
37
show a decline of pine, and an expansion of alder forests with an increased participation of elm, lime, and chestnut. The growing abundance of herbs, notably Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Rosaceae, and Asteraceae is remarkable. During that period the sea-level experienced fluctuations ranging between 55 and 20 m below present. A considerable part of the continental shelf remained exposed, and the shoreline was located in places 80–100 km seaward of its present position The stone inventories of Mesolithic sites feature a direct continuity in relation to the preceding period, with an increased frequency of microliths. Based on stylistic and technological criteria, two ‘archaeological cultures’ were identified in the steppe area. The Kukrekian is typified by the ‘Kukrekian armature’, a truncated, notched and ventrally retouched blade, and was first recognized at the open-air site of Kukrek in the Crimean steppe. Later, implements of this type were identified at other sites in the Crimea, on the Dniepr River (Igren 8) and in various areas of the Pontic Lowland. Another culture, Grebenikian, as exemplified by Mirnoe, Girzhevo and other sites, is yet another culture grouping, predominantly in the Odessa District (Stanko, 1982; Telegin, 1982). Large communal cemeteries, unknown in earlier periods, reflect new social realities in the Ukrainian Mesolithic. A group of impressive cemeteries, Vasylivka, Volos’ke and others, lies near the Dniepr Rapids, south of Dnipropetrovsk (Stolyar, 1959; Telegin, 1982). Individuals within the same cemeteries are associated with distinct burial rites, suggesting cultural homogeneity. Still more importantly, the skeletons belong to at least three distinct physical types (Gokhman, 1966, 1986; Potekhina, 1999). A first group of individuals with broad and high-relief faces is viewed by Gokhman (1966, p. 187) as belonging to the autochthonous ‘Cro-Magnon’ population stemming from the Upper Palaeolithic of Central and Eastern Europe. A second group was found only at Volos’ke cemetery and includes individuals with very narrow and long faces typical of the ‘Mediterranean race’. The third type, found at Vasylievka 1 and among the dead buried in extended supine postures at Vasylievka 3, features narrow faces and protruding jaws. At Volos’ke, and at Vasylievka 1 and 3, there are numerous cases of ribs and verteberae penetrated by flint arrowheads, indicating death by violence. 3.5. Early Neolithic (9000–6700 BP or 7100–5700 BC) The emergence of the Neolithic was marked by profound changes in the subsistence and settlement pattern of Prehistoric populations. Early Neolithic settlements in the Balkans (of Protosesklo-Karanovo I-II and Starcˇevo-Cristype) with stable food-producing economies are found predominantly in the fertile intermontane depressions and on the terraces of the Middle and Lower Danube basin. Simultaneously, several Early Neolithic cultures (BugDniestrian, Surian, Rakushechnyi-Yarian, the Azov-Dnieprian) developed in the Northern Pontic area. Their
ARTICLE IN PRESS 38
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
subsistence was essentially based on fishing, hunting and food-gathering with elements of agriculture (predominantly in the contact zone with farming cultures). The spread of Neolithic coincided with a marked increase of rainfall in the entire Mediterranean area (Rohling and de Rijk, 1999). Judging from pollen records in the North Pontic Lowland (Kremenetsky, 1991), this period coincided with the spread of mixed coniferous–deciduous forests on the slopes and their intensification in the valley plains. The forest-steppe with isolated stands of oak, elm, lime and maple became dominant on the plateau. In the Black Sea basin the Early Neolithic coincided with the fluctuating rise of sea-level, which nevertheless remained far below its present position. During the Late Bugazian phase (7330–7050 BC), sea-level reached the level of 16–17 m. After the subsequent fall, at the Vityazevian phase (7040–5740 BC) the level rose again and attained 9 to 10 m. 3.6. Later Neolithic–Chalcolithic (5500–4000 BC or 6600–5200 BP) This period corresponds to the large-scale spread of agricultural Linear Pottery Culture (LBK) in Central Europe. Its easternmost expansion reached the Pontic Lowland with numerous sites appearing in the middle stretches of the Dniester and on the banks of smaller rivers in Moldavia. The easternmost site, Mainova Balka, is found in the Southern Bug catchment, north of Odessa. Several distinct cultural entities are recognized further east; they include the later stages of the Bug-Dnestrian, the Azov-Dnieprian (‘Mariupol’), the Low Don sites, and the Crimea’s ‘Steppe Neolithic’. Their subsistence was predominantly based on hunting, fishing and food-collecting. The massive spread of farming indicated by PrecucuteniEarly Tripolye communities occurred between 5200 and 4500 cal BC. Large settlements with stable food-producing economies arose on elevated levels within the Prut, Dniester and Southern Bug catchments. Agricultural settlements of Gumelnitsa-Bolgrad type emerged at that time in hitherto poorly inhabited steppe area of the littoral east of the Danube Delta. As shown by the pollen evidence (Kremenetsky, 1991), this period features the maximum proliferation of deciduous forests with oak, elm, lime and maple. The spread of farming communities proceeded against the backdrop of a considerable rise of the Black Sea level. The Vitayzian transgression occurred at ca. 6800–5800 BC when the sea reached the level of 8 m. During the subsequent Djemetinian transgression (4600–4200 BC), the sea-level attained its present position. 4. Discussion The above-cited data confirm previously made observations (Greenbaub et al., 2005) suggesting the correlation
between the global and regional patterns of climate changes, on the one hand, and marine records indicative of sea-level changes, on the other. Major drops in sea-level occurred during the prevalence of cold and arid climate in the catchment area. Conversely, the transgressions coincided with marked increases of temperature and precipitation. Thus, the fluctuations of the Black Sea levels were effectively controlled by the global climate changes in climate, with the higher sea-level corresponding to the increased inflow of water during the milder and wetter episodes, and the low levels occurring during the colder and drier stages. Further south, in the monsoon-affected area of Western Asia and North-Eastern Africa, the cold episodes in the upper latitude corresponded to the establishment of a hyperarid climate (Abdulkader et al., 2000). The colder phases generally feature reduced biological productivity. The scarcity of food resources created the situation of overpopulation, which triggered the migrations into the areas richer in food. Based on these observations, major human migrations that occurred in the area during Late Pleistocene and Holocene can be considered. According to reliable evidence, the early forms of Homo sapiens attested in Africa have radiometric ages between 250 and 90 ka (Rightmere and Deacon, 1991; Clark, 2003; McDougall et al., 2005). This is well in accord with the genetic evidence that modern humans developed from a comparatively small population in Africa south of the Sahara 150–100 ka ago (Stringer and Andrews, 2005). The ‘out of Africa’ theory suggests that the wide expansion of AMH resulted from a demographic explosion (Rogers, 1995; Excoffier, 2002), the mechanism for which remains unclear. One of the possible explanations resides in an ecological stress that might result from a hyperacid climate in monsoon-affected areas. Such crises that coincided corresponded with cold episodes in northern latitudes (Heinrich events) might have caused growing scarcity of food resources, a lowering of carrying capacity and the budding off of a surplus population. The expanding AMH groups reached the Levant by 120–100 ka. They contacted there the Neanderthals, and copied their advanced Mousterian technology. This resulted in the development of ‘transitional’ industries (Ahmarian, Bachokirian, Szeletian, etc.), that at a later stage further developed into the Aurignacian technocomplexes. Further spread into Europe was stimulated by the onset of hyperarid conditions in the Levant corresponding to H6 (60 ka). The large-scale proliferation in Northern Eurasia occurred during a cold and dry phase comparable with H5 (45 ka). The rapid expansion of AMH groups (which might have reached the speed of 0.4 km/yr; Mellars, 2006), was facilitated by their greater adaptability to open spaces (Davies and Gollop, 2003), their communication and cognitive skills, and advanced social organization. The radiocarbon age of early UP cultures in Western Europe
ARTICLE IN PRESS P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
(Chatelperronian and Aurignacian) lies in the range of 40–35 ka (Gravina et al., 2005). Still earlier readings are available for early UP industries (Szeletiasn and Jerzmanovician) in Central Europe: 452–32 ka. In their initial expansion AMH reached the Altai Mountains in southern Siberia, where early UP industries are radiocarbon-dated to 444,000 and 43,20071500 (Derevianko, 2001; Derevianko and Shunkov, 2004). Importantly the radiocarbon dates of that order should be viewed as minimal assessment of ages due to low radiocarbon content in the dated samples (Pettitt et al., 2003). The initial spread of AMH into the Black Sea area occurred during the cold event coeval with H5 (ca. 45 ka), and proceeded during the phase of ‘transitional’ climate. The Black Sea remained an isolated basin (with only occasional connections with the Mediterranean basin); there were no large water barriers impeding free movements of the humans along this basin, using the exposed Black Sea shelf (Fig. 1). In the adverse LGM environment, the greater part of Central and Western Europe, including southern Germany and Britain became virtually depopulated (Housley et al., 1997; Street and Terberger, 2000). The surplus population moved to the east where the megafauna was better preserved. The high frequencies of radiocarbon-dated sites in the ‘periglacial’ zone of East European Plain suggest considerable increases in population densities in the intervals of 29–26 and 24–18 ka (Dolukhanov et al., 2001). Part of the population moved to the south and penetrated the North Pontic Lowland (Fig. 2). The settlements of bison-hunters arose in deep river valleys protected from the adverse effects of climate. Lithic industries of these sites reflect the gradual increase of Gravettian elements in the predominantly ‘Aurignacoid’ substratum (Sapozhnikov, 2005). This might be viewed as an improvement of hunting armament in an environment of growing scarcity of wildlife resources. This, as well as the subsequent development of the microlithic technology,
39
Fig. 2. UP settlement of the Black Sea area. Key: blue areas: clusters of sites; arrows: directions of migrations.
Fig. 3. Late Glacial settlement of the Black Sea area. Key: yellow areas: clusters of sites; arrows: directions of migrations.
Fig. 1. Initial spread of AMH in the Black Sea area. Key: red areas: clusters of sites; arrows: directions of migrations.
resulted in the emergence of the specific mode of adaptation to the ‘temperate grassland-steppe tundra’, archaeologically recognized as the ‘steppe Palaeolithic province’ (Boriskovskij, 1993). During the Late Glacial period, in an environment of increasing temperature and rising sea-level, human groups moved further south and established settlements of smaller size along the river valleys in the Pontic Lowland (Fig. 3). The growing scarcity of wild-life resources stimulated improved technologies of hunting and the development of projectile points with the use of microlithic blades. Further increase in temperature and precipitation combined with sea-level rise marked the onset of the Holocene, and coincided with the establishment of
ARTICLE IN PRESS 40
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
Fig. 4. Mesoloithic settlement of the north-western Black Sea area.
Mesolithic settlements. This period featured an intense exploitation diversified wildlife by small-size social groups, with the emphasis on marine and estuarine resources (Fig. 4). At this stage, there was an increased social mobility, which included both seasonal transhumance and large-scale directed migrations (as signalled by the spread of ‘Kukrekian’ armaments). Notable changes are evident in the social structure with the emergence of large ‘communal’ cemeteries. The emergence agricultural communities and their spread into southeastern Europe occurred in an environment of considerable increase of rainfall which was an essential prerequisite for farming. The increased precipitation was signalled by a transgression of the Black Sea, which remained nonetheless below its present level. The expansion of early farming into the north-western Pontic area at 5200–4500 cal BC marked the establishment of Pre-Cucuteni-Early Tripolye settlements in Moldavia and Western Ukraine, and Gumelnitsa-Bolgrad sites in southern Bessarabia. This coincided with yet another wet phase, signalled by a marine transgression when the Black Sea reached its present level (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Fluctuations of the Black Sea area and chronology of prehistoric cultures. Key: red arrows-major transgressions; blue arrows—major regressions.
ARTICLE IN PRESS P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
5. Conclusions 1. Human migrations in the Pleistocene and early Holocene were triggered by situations of overpopulation and scarcity of food resources. 2. These situations generally arose during the phases of cold climate and diminished precipitation. 3. Regressions of the Black Sea coincided with the phases of cold climate and diminished precipitation; and the rises of the Black Sea level corresponded to the warmer climate and increased rainfall in the catchment area. 4. Observable changes in the environment, and related modifications in subsistence and population dynamics of prehistoric communities had a gradual and non-catastrophic character.
Acknowledgements The writers would like to express their deep gratitude to IGCP 521 Programme ‘‘Black Sea-Mediterranean Corridor during last 30 kyr: Sea level change and human adaptation’’ and to the Geological Society of London for sponsoring their participation at the IGCP 521 General Meetings in Istanbul (2005) and Odessa (2006), where their had an opportunity to discuss the main topics of this paper. References Abdulkader, M., Abed, A.M., Yaghan, R., 2000. On the Paleoclimate of Jordan during the last glacial maximum. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160, 23–33. Barron, E., van Andel, T.H., Pollard, D., 2003. Glacial environments II: reconstructing the climate of Europe in the last glaciation. In: van Andel, T.H., Davies, W. (Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 57–78. Bond, G., Heinrich, H., Broecker, W., Labeyrie, L., McManus, L., Andrews, J., Huon, S., Jantschik, R., Clasen, S., Simet, C., Tedesco, K., Klas, M., Bonani, G., Ivy, S., 1992. Evidence for massive discharges into the North-Atlantic Ocean during the last glacial period. Nature 360, 245–249. Boriskovskij, P.I., 1993. Determining Upper Palaeolithic historicocultural regions. In: Soffer, O., Praslov, N.D. (Eds.), From Kostenki to Clovis. Upper Palaeolithic—Palaeo-Indian Adaptations. Plenum Press, New York, London, pp. 143–148. Chepalyga, A.L., 2002. Chernoe more [The Black Sea]. In: Velichko, A.A. (Ed.), Dinamika Landshaftnyh Komponentov I Vnutrennih Basseinov Vostochnoi Evropy Za Poslednie 130000 Let [Dynamics of Landscape Components and Internal Basins of Eastern Europe in the Course of the Last 130,000 Years]. Geos, Moscow. Chepalyga, A.L., 2006. The late glacial great flood in the Ponto-Caspian basin. In: Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A.S., Panin, N., Dolukhanov, P., (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question. Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement, pp. 119–148. Clark, J.D., 2003. Stratigraphical, chronological and behavioural contexts of the Pleistocene Homo sapiens from middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423, 747–752. Davies, W., Gollop, P., 2003. The human presence in Europe during the Last Glacial period II: climate tolerance and climate preference of Mid- and Late Glacial hominids. In: van Andel, T.H., Davies, W.
41
(Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscapes During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 131–146. Derevianko, A.P., 2001. The middle to upper Paleolithic transition in the Altai (Mongolia and Siberia). Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 2, 70–103. Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., 2004. Formation of the Upper Palaeolithic traditions in the Altai. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 5, 125–138. Dolukhanov, P., Sokoloff, D., Shukurov, A., 2001. Radiocarbon chronology of Upper Palaeolithic sites in Eastern Europe at improved resolution. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 699–712. Dolukhanov, P., Arslanov, Kh., Gey, N., 2006. Climate, Black Sea levels and human settlements in Caucasus’ Littoral 50,000–9000 before present. Quaternary International, in press. Excoffier, L., 2002. Human demographic history: refining the recent African origin model. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 12, 675–682. Gokhman, I.I., 1966. Naselenie Ukrainy V epohi mezolita I neolita (The Population of the Ukraine During the Mesolithic and Neolithic). Nauka, Moscow. Gokhman, I.I., 1986. Antropologicheskie osobennosti drevnego naselenija severa evropeiskoi chasti SSSR (Anthropological peculiarities of the population of the North of the European part of the USSR). In: Gokhman, I.I., Kozinysev, A.G. (Eds.), Antropologija sovremennogo i drevnego naselenija evropeiskoi chasti SSSR i puti ih formirovanija (Anthropology of the Present and Ancient Populations of the European Part of the USSR and Trajectories of its Formation). Nauka, Moscow. Golovanova, L.V., Hoffecker, J.F., Kharitonov, V.M., Romanova, G.P., 1999. Mezmaiskaya cave: a Neanderthal occupation in the Northern Caucasus. Current Anthropology 40, 77–86. Gravina, B., Mellars, P., Ramsay, C., 2005. Radiocarbon dating of interstratified Neanderthal and early modern human occupations at the Chatelperronian type-site. Nature 438, 1–6. Greenbaub, N., Porat, N., Rhodes, E., Enzel, E., 2005. Large floods during late oxygen isotope stage 3, southern Negev desert, Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews 35/78, 701–719. Haesaerts, P., Borziac, I.A., Chirica, V., Damblon, F., Koulakovska, L., Van der Plicht, J., 2003. The East Carpathian lœss record: a reference for the Middle and Late Pleniglacial stratigraphy in Central Europe. Quaternaire 14, 163–188. Hemming, S.R., 2004. Heinrich events: massive late Pleistocene detritus layers of the North Atlantic and their global climate imprint. Reviews of Geophysics 42, RG1005. Housley, R.A., Gamble, C.S., Street, M., Pettitt, P., 1997. Radiocarbon evidence for the Late Glacial human recolonisation of northern Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 63, 25–54. Huntley, B., Allan, J.R.M., 2003. Glacial environments III: Palaeovegetation patterns in late glacial Europe. In: Tjeerd, H., van Andel, T.H., Davies, E. (Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 79–102. Isarin, R.F.B., Bohnke, S.J.P., 1999. Mean July temperatures during the younger Dryas in North-Western and central Europe as inferred from climate indicator plant species. Quaternary Research 51, 148–157. Izmailov, Ya.A., 2005. Evolyucionnaya geografiya poberezhij Azovskogo i Cernogo morej. Anapskaya peresyp [Evolutionary Geography of the Azov and Black Sea. The Anapa Sand Barrier]. Sochi, Lazarev. Konikov, E.G., 2006. Sea-level fluctuations and coastline migrations in the North-Western Black Sea area over the last 18 kyr based on highresolution lithological-genetic analysis of sediment architecture. In: Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A.S., Panin, N., Dolukhanov, P. (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question. Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement, pp. 405–435.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 42
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
Korobkova, G.F., 1993. The technology and function of tools and the context of regional adaptations: a case study of the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic of the North-western Black Sea area. In: Soffer, O., Praslov, N.D. (Eds.), From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Palaeolithic— PalaeoIndian Adaptations. Plenum Press, New York, London, pp. 159–173. Kremenetsky, K.V., 1991. Paleoekologiya Drevneishih Zemledel’cev Skotovodov Russkoi Ravniny [Paleoecology of Ancient Farmers and Stockbreeders of the Russian Plain]. Institute of Geography, Moscow. Krotova, A.A., 1999. The Upper Palaeolithic Bison hunters: Amvrosievka. In: Brugal, J.P., David, F., Enloe, J.G., Jaubert, J. (Eds.), Le Bison, le gibier et moyen de subsistence des homes du Pale´olithique aux Pale´oindiens des Grandes Plaine. Antibes, Association pour la promotion des connaissances arche´ologiques, pp. 333–341. Lillie, M.C., 1996. Mesolithic and Neolithic populations of Ukraine: indications of diets from dental pathology. Current Anthropology 37, 135–142. Marks, A.E., Chabai, V.P., 1998. The Middle Paleolithic of Western Crimea, vol. 1. Lie`ge, E´tudes et Recherches Arche´ologiques de l’Universite´ de Lie`ge (ERAUL), p. 84. McDougall, I., Brown, F.H., Fleagle, F.G., 2005. Stratigraphic placement and the age of the modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433, 733–736. Mellars, P., 2006. A new radiocarbon revolution and the dispersal of modern humans. Nature 429, 931–935. Noiret, P., 2004. Le Pale´olithique supe´rieur en Moldavie. L’Anthropologie 108, 425–470. Pashkevich, G.A., 1982. Paleobotanicheskaya harakteristika poseleniya Mirnoe [Palaeobotanical characteristics of Mirnoe site]. In: Stanko, V.N. (Ed.), Mirnoe: Problema mezolita stepei Severnogo Severnogo Prichernomor’ya [Mirnoe: Problems of the Mesolithic of North Pontic Steppe]. Naukova Dumka, Kiev, pp. 132–138. Pettitt, P.B., Davies, W., Gamble, C.S., Richards, M.B., 2003. Palaeolithic radiocarbon chronology: quantifying our confidence beyond two halflives. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 1693–1865. Potekhina, I.D., 1999. Naselenie Ukrainy v epohu neolita i rannego eneolita Po antropologicheskim dannym [Ukraine’s :Population in Early Neoloithic and Aeneolithic]. Institute of Archaeology, Kiev. Rightmere, G.P., Deacon, H.J., 1991. Comparative studies of Late Pleistocene human remains from Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 20, 131–156. Rogers, A.R., 1995. Genetic evidence for a Pleistocene population explosion. Evolution 49, 608–615.
Rohling, E.R., de Rijk, S., 1999. Holocene climate optimum and Last Glacial maximum in the Mediterranean: the marine oxygen isotope record. Marine Geology 153, 57–75. Sapozhnikov, I.V., 2005. Pozdnii paleolit stepei yugo-zapada Ukrainy: hronologiya, periodizaciya, hozyastvo [Late Palaeolithic of the Steppe South-Western Ukraine: Chronology, Periodization and Economy]. Abstract of D.Sc. Dissertation. Institute of Archaeology, Kiev. Stanko, V.N., 1982. Mirnoe: Problema mezolita stepei Severnogo Prichernomor’ya [Mirnoe: Problems of the Mesolithic of North Pontic Steppe]. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Stanko, V.N., Grigor’yeva, G.V., Shvaiko, T.N., 1989. Pozdnepaleoliticheskoye poseleniye Anetovka II (Voprosi kul’turnoy periodizatsii pozdnego paleolita Severnogo Prichemomor’ya) [The Upper Paleolithic Site of Anetovka II (Issues of Cultural-Historical Periodization of the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Prichernomoriye)]. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Stolyar, A.D., 1959. Pervyi Vasil’evskii mezoliticheskii mogil’nik [The first Vasil’evsky Cermetery]. Arheologicheskii Sbornik Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha 1, 78–165. Street, M., Terberger, T., 2000. The German Upper Palaeolithic 35,000–15,000 BP. New dates and insights with emphasis on the Rhineland. In: Roebroeks, W., Mussi, M., Svoboda, J., Fennema, K. (Eds.), Hunters of the Golden Age. The mid-Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP. University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 281–297. Stringer, C., Andrews, P., 2005. The Complete World of Human Evolution. Thames & Hudson, London. Telegin, D.Y., 1982. Mezolitichni pam’yatki Ukrainy (The Mesolithic Sites of the Ukraine). Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Van Andel, T.H., 2003. Glacial Environments I: the Weichselian Climate in Europe between the end of the OIS-5 Interglacial and the last Glacial maximum. In: van Andel, T.H., Davies, W. (Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 9–20. Velichko, A.A., Bogucki, A.B., Morozova, T.D., Udartsev, V., Khalcheva, T.A., Tsaskin, A.I., 1984. Periglacial landscapes of the East European Plain. In: Velichko, A.A. (Ed.), Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 95–118. Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A.S., Panin, N., Dolukhanov, P. (Eds.), 2006. The Black Sea Flood Question. Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement. Springer, Heidelberg.
Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
Ecological crises and early human migrations in the Black Sea area Pavel Markovich Dolukhanov, Khikmatulla A. Arslanov School of Historical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Armstrong Building, Newcastle upon Tyne NE17RU, UK Available online 4 September 2007
Abstract Study has revealed the role of environmental control on prehistoric human migrations in the Black Sea area, from the initial spread of anatomically modern humans until the establishment of farming communities. The massive outflow of population occurred during the critical periods, in an environment of cold and dry climate signalled by the regressions of the Black Sea. The expansion of farming proceeded during warm and wet periods coeval with the rise of the Black Sea level. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The evolution of early human groups in the Black Sea area occurred under the backdrop of major environmental changes that included the climatic change and fluctuations of the sea-level. The present paper is aimed at assessing the impact of the dynamic environment on the movements and subsistence of early human groups in that area, ranging from the initial settlement of anatomically modern humans (AMH) until the establishment of farming communities. The study area chosen was the northern part of Black Sea basin including the Pontic Lowland, the Crimea and the Caucasus’ littoral. For all these areas both palaeoenvionmental and archaeological and evidence is currently available. 2. Methods of investigation The present study tests a hypothesis, according to which the changes in subsistence and large-scale migrations were triggered by environmental crises. The ensuing scarcity of food resources caused the outflow of surplus population into the areas better provided for human subsistence. The main instrument of investigation consists in interfacing the palaeoenvironmental and archaeological evidence. The palaeoenvironmental setting of the Late Pleistocene is reconstructed primarily based on globalCorresponding author. Tel./fax: +44 191 2811676.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P.M. Dolukhanov).
scale climatic oscillations (Dansgaard/Oeschger [D/O] events) identifiable in Greenland and Antarctica ice cores. Another palaeotemperature proxy consists of Heinrich events, abrupt episodes identifiable in layers of ice-rafted detritus at intervals in sediment cores from the North Atlantic (Bond et al., 1992; Hemming, 2004). Pollen analysis constitutes a sensitive instrument for reconstruction of past environments on regional scales. This includes the modelling of past climate with the use of the concept of biomes (Huntley and Allan, 2003). The pollen sequence with high-resolution radiocarbon dates of Dziguta River, near Sukhumi, Abkhazia (Dolukhanov et al., 2006) provides a basis for detailed reconstruction of Late Pleistocene climates in the Black Sea area. The loess-palaeosol sequences of the periglacial zone of East European Plain provide an instrument for correlating the local and global-scale changes during the Late Pleistocene (Velichko et al., 1984). Holocene climate and vegetation are reconstructed based on the pollen evidence from radiocarbon-dated peat deposits in the North Pontic Lowland. The data on the Late Pleistocene and Holocene fluctuations of the Black Sea levels are based on recently summarized palaeo-oceanological, geological, seismic and radiometric evidence (Yanko-Hombach et al., 2006). The main references used were the sea-level curves by Izmailov (2005), based on the investigations of the Anapa Bay on the Caucasus’ littoral. Archaeological evidence includes data on the geographic setting of the sites in relation to landscape features, and on
1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.08.035
ARTICLE IN PRESS 36
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
the subsistence pattern of related communities. The latter includes data on hunting, gathering and stock-breeding (with the use of faunal evidence), and on early farming (mostly with the use of archaeobotanic evidence, in several cases supplemented by biochemical data). Prehistoric migrations are assessed based on the stylistic similarities of archaeological assemblages. In certain cases it was possible to use craniometric data obtained for skeletal remains from prehistoric burial sites. 3. Results 3.1. Initial settlement of AMH (45–27 ka) The penetration of early AMH and their replacement of Neanderthal groups in the studied area occurred during MIS 3 (60–25 ka). The highest density of Mousterian sites attributed to Neanderthals is present in the eastern Carpathian valleys, the Crimea and Caucasus. The radiometric dates obtained in Crimea show that the Neanderthal settlements have the age of about 28 ka (Marks and Chabai, 1998). In northern Caucasus (Mezmaiskaya Cave), the Neanderthals survived until 29 ka (Golovanova et al., 1999). Radiometric ages indicate that the earliest manifestations of Upper Palaeolithic (UP) attributable to anatomic modern humans in the Crimea date to 38 ka. During a prolonged period of time (38–28 ka), these industries apparently coexisted with the Mousterian ones, implying a possible cohabitation of Neanderthals with AMH. The age of early UP (Aurignacian) in Moldavia (Mitoc) is estimated as 33–32 ka (Haesaerts et al., 2003; Noiret, 2004). Similar ages were yielded by the early UP level at Mezmaiskaya Cave in Northern Caucasus (Golovanova et al., 1999). As shown by currently available evidence, MIS3 was a prolonged interval of the Last Ice Age with a limited occurrence of ice sheets, not extending beyond Fennoscandia (van Andel, 2003). The climate remained generally cool, although several mild episodes occurred. Oscillations identified in Antarctic ice cores (D/O events) include a mild phase at 45 ka BP; ‘transitional’ (44–37 ka BP); ‘early cold’ (37–27 ka BP); and LGM (27–16 ka BP). This time-span included several Heinrich events: H6 (60 ka); H5 (45 ka); H4 (38 ka); H3 (31 ka); and H2 (24 ka). Modelling based on the concept of biomes (Huntley and Allan, 2003) indicates that the vegetation during both the colder and milder episodes consisted mainly of herbaceous cold-resistant plants with a limited expansion of forests restricted to northeast Europe. The cold phases were characterized by the further reduction of trees and by the predominance of steppe-like herbaceous vegetation with low biological productivity. This general pattern is generally in agreement with currently available data from the sequence of organic deposits in the Dziguta valley (Dolukhanov et al., 2006). The radiocarbon-dated pollen sequence shows two colder
intervals (44–41 and 38–27 ka), and three intervals with the indices of a milder and wetter climate (48–44, 41–38, and 32–27 ka). The vegetation of the colder episodes features the dominance of pine forests with the occasional occurrence of alder in the lower areas. The milder episodes are dominated by fir forest with beech and alder, and alder forest with the participation of hornbeam, elm, and lime. The initial penetration of AMH occurred during the ‘Pre-Neoeuxinian’ regression of the Black Sea basin, when its level was below 120 m (Konikov, 2006). The basin had a character of a mega-lake, effectively separated from the Mediterranean Sea. Subsequently, the Tarkhankutian transgression occurred, when the sea-level rose up to 30 m and the connection with the Mediterranean Sea was temporarily re-established (Chepalyga, 2002). 3.2. Upper Palaeolithic (27–16 ka) The industries of advanced UP type in the area coincided with MIS 2–3, which included the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 27–16 ka). The sites of that age were predominantly located in the valleys of small rivers in the northern and middle part of the Pontic Lowland. Anetovka, a large site dated to 18 ka BP, was occupied by specialized bisonhunters and combined the functions of a tool-making workshop, butchering site, and a cult centre (Stanko et al., 1989). Another site of similar age, Amvrosievka, was a short-lived kill-site of bison-hunters (Krotova, 1999). According to ‘meso-scale’ simulations (Barron et al., 2003), the south-eastern segment of Europe experienced sharp seasonal variations, with mean July temperature above +18 1C, and that of January, in the order of 20 1C. The vegetation reconstruction shows the predominance of ‘temperate grassland-steppe tundra’. In the Dziguta sequence this period reflects the domination of pine forests with a quasi-total disappearance of fir, alder trees and broad-leaved species, and expansion of herbs including Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae This period marked a maximum regression in the Neoeuxinian basin with a level at about 100 m below the present one (Chepalyga, 2002; Konikov, 2006). The greater part of the north Pontic shelf, including the Azov Sea, was exposed forming a loess-covered, low-lying plain with numerous lakes and meandering rivers. 3.3. Late Glacial (16–10 ka) During the final stages of the Last Ice Age large settlements disappeared and smaller sites arose in the southern part of the Pontic Lowland. Bol’shaya Akkazha, located on a terrace of a small river west of Odessa, is a typical site of that age. Its animal remains consist of fragmented bones of bison. The stone inventory includes a numerous microlithic tools, with backed and truncated blades (Stanko et al., 1989; Sapozhnikov, 2005). Palaeotemperature proxies suggest a global-scale rise of temperature following the H1 event at 15.7 ka. The Dziguta
ARTICLE IN PRESS P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
sequence shows a gradual spread of beech-fir forest with considerable areas taken up by mixed deciduous forests dominated by alder in the interval of 14–12 ka. This was interrupted by a short-lived expansion of pine forest, with reduced areas of fir forest and a small proportion of beech at 11–10 ka. According to Chepalyga (2002, 2006), this period included an episode (17–14 ka BP), when the water of the Caspian Sea spilled into the Black Sea causing a rise of the sea. According to this writer, this had a catastrophic character and had a profound impact on the movement and cultural contacts of prehistoric populations. 3.4. Mesolithic (10,250–7700 BP or 10,000–6500 BC) With the beginning of the Holocene, Mesolithic sites appeared in the North Pontic area. They developed in an environment of growing scarcity of hunting resources, as the bison, the principal Palaeolithic hunting prey, became largely exterminated. Mesolithic groups targeted less numerous herds of wild horse (or tarpan) and antelopesaiga, or more solitary animals such as aurochs. Fishing and gathering increasingly supplemented the hunting of land mammals. Stable isotope analysis of human bone from Mesolithic cemeteries on the Dniepr shows a shift to an increased consumption of plant food (Lillie, 1996). This was confirmed by archaeological evidence: Korobkova (1993) has identified at Mirnoe prismatic blades with microscopic traces of linear use-wear, which she and Stanko (1982) view as evidence of ‘reaping knives’ used for harvesting edible plants. Pashkevich (1982, p. 136) has found the grains of several potentially edible plants in the deposits of Mirnoe: white goosefoot (Chenopodium album), black bindweed (Polygonum convoluvulus), vetch (Vicia hirsuta) and sorel (Rumex acetosa). Mesolithic sites are preferably located in the valleys of smaller rivers in the southern part of the Pontic Lowland. Numerous Mesolithic sites are found on the Danube– Dniestr interfluve in the western segment of the Pontic Lowland. The largest sites (Mirnoe 1 and Beloles’e) which lie on the shores of estuaries in the present-day coastal area, were supposedly base-camps inhabited on a yearround basis. Stanko (1982) suggests that the Mirnoe community consisted of 20–25 individuals, representing three or four nuclear families each with four to six individuals. Smaller sites in a similar setting supposedly belonged to task groups, budding off from the main settlement. The location of several sites at higher elevation in the foothills implies seasonal transhumance. Mesolithic settlements are also located in the terraced valleys of the major rivers (the Dniepr, Dniestr and Severskiy Donets). A dense cluster of sites is found in the middle reaches of the Dnieper at Igren’, Oskorivka, Vasylivka, Yamburg and other places. At the start of the Holocene, summer temperatures in Europe rose by at least 6 1C (Isarin and Bohnke, 1999). In the Dziguta sequence, the pollen spectra dated to 10–9 ka
37
show a decline of pine, and an expansion of alder forests with an increased participation of elm, lime, and chestnut. The growing abundance of herbs, notably Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Rosaceae, and Asteraceae is remarkable. During that period the sea-level experienced fluctuations ranging between 55 and 20 m below present. A considerable part of the continental shelf remained exposed, and the shoreline was located in places 80–100 km seaward of its present position The stone inventories of Mesolithic sites feature a direct continuity in relation to the preceding period, with an increased frequency of microliths. Based on stylistic and technological criteria, two ‘archaeological cultures’ were identified in the steppe area. The Kukrekian is typified by the ‘Kukrekian armature’, a truncated, notched and ventrally retouched blade, and was first recognized at the open-air site of Kukrek in the Crimean steppe. Later, implements of this type were identified at other sites in the Crimea, on the Dniepr River (Igren 8) and in various areas of the Pontic Lowland. Another culture, Grebenikian, as exemplified by Mirnoe, Girzhevo and other sites, is yet another culture grouping, predominantly in the Odessa District (Stanko, 1982; Telegin, 1982). Large communal cemeteries, unknown in earlier periods, reflect new social realities in the Ukrainian Mesolithic. A group of impressive cemeteries, Vasylivka, Volos’ke and others, lies near the Dniepr Rapids, south of Dnipropetrovsk (Stolyar, 1959; Telegin, 1982). Individuals within the same cemeteries are associated with distinct burial rites, suggesting cultural homogeneity. Still more importantly, the skeletons belong to at least three distinct physical types (Gokhman, 1966, 1986; Potekhina, 1999). A first group of individuals with broad and high-relief faces is viewed by Gokhman (1966, p. 187) as belonging to the autochthonous ‘Cro-Magnon’ population stemming from the Upper Palaeolithic of Central and Eastern Europe. A second group was found only at Volos’ke cemetery and includes individuals with very narrow and long faces typical of the ‘Mediterranean race’. The third type, found at Vasylievka 1 and among the dead buried in extended supine postures at Vasylievka 3, features narrow faces and protruding jaws. At Volos’ke, and at Vasylievka 1 and 3, there are numerous cases of ribs and verteberae penetrated by flint arrowheads, indicating death by violence. 3.5. Early Neolithic (9000–6700 BP or 7100–5700 BC) The emergence of the Neolithic was marked by profound changes in the subsistence and settlement pattern of Prehistoric populations. Early Neolithic settlements in the Balkans (of Protosesklo-Karanovo I-II and Starcˇevo-Cristype) with stable food-producing economies are found predominantly in the fertile intermontane depressions and on the terraces of the Middle and Lower Danube basin. Simultaneously, several Early Neolithic cultures (BugDniestrian, Surian, Rakushechnyi-Yarian, the Azov-Dnieprian) developed in the Northern Pontic area. Their
ARTICLE IN PRESS 38
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
subsistence was essentially based on fishing, hunting and food-gathering with elements of agriculture (predominantly in the contact zone with farming cultures). The spread of Neolithic coincided with a marked increase of rainfall in the entire Mediterranean area (Rohling and de Rijk, 1999). Judging from pollen records in the North Pontic Lowland (Kremenetsky, 1991), this period coincided with the spread of mixed coniferous–deciduous forests on the slopes and their intensification in the valley plains. The forest-steppe with isolated stands of oak, elm, lime and maple became dominant on the plateau. In the Black Sea basin the Early Neolithic coincided with the fluctuating rise of sea-level, which nevertheless remained far below its present position. During the Late Bugazian phase (7330–7050 BC), sea-level reached the level of 16–17 m. After the subsequent fall, at the Vityazevian phase (7040–5740 BC) the level rose again and attained 9 to 10 m. 3.6. Later Neolithic–Chalcolithic (5500–4000 BC or 6600–5200 BP) This period corresponds to the large-scale spread of agricultural Linear Pottery Culture (LBK) in Central Europe. Its easternmost expansion reached the Pontic Lowland with numerous sites appearing in the middle stretches of the Dniester and on the banks of smaller rivers in Moldavia. The easternmost site, Mainova Balka, is found in the Southern Bug catchment, north of Odessa. Several distinct cultural entities are recognized further east; they include the later stages of the Bug-Dnestrian, the Azov-Dnieprian (‘Mariupol’), the Low Don sites, and the Crimea’s ‘Steppe Neolithic’. Their subsistence was predominantly based on hunting, fishing and food-collecting. The massive spread of farming indicated by PrecucuteniEarly Tripolye communities occurred between 5200 and 4500 cal BC. Large settlements with stable food-producing economies arose on elevated levels within the Prut, Dniester and Southern Bug catchments. Agricultural settlements of Gumelnitsa-Bolgrad type emerged at that time in hitherto poorly inhabited steppe area of the littoral east of the Danube Delta. As shown by the pollen evidence (Kremenetsky, 1991), this period features the maximum proliferation of deciduous forests with oak, elm, lime and maple. The spread of farming communities proceeded against the backdrop of a considerable rise of the Black Sea level. The Vitayzian transgression occurred at ca. 6800–5800 BC when the sea reached the level of 8 m. During the subsequent Djemetinian transgression (4600–4200 BC), the sea-level attained its present position. 4. Discussion The above-cited data confirm previously made observations (Greenbaub et al., 2005) suggesting the correlation
between the global and regional patterns of climate changes, on the one hand, and marine records indicative of sea-level changes, on the other. Major drops in sea-level occurred during the prevalence of cold and arid climate in the catchment area. Conversely, the transgressions coincided with marked increases of temperature and precipitation. Thus, the fluctuations of the Black Sea levels were effectively controlled by the global climate changes in climate, with the higher sea-level corresponding to the increased inflow of water during the milder and wetter episodes, and the low levels occurring during the colder and drier stages. Further south, in the monsoon-affected area of Western Asia and North-Eastern Africa, the cold episodes in the upper latitude corresponded to the establishment of a hyperarid climate (Abdulkader et al., 2000). The colder phases generally feature reduced biological productivity. The scarcity of food resources created the situation of overpopulation, which triggered the migrations into the areas richer in food. Based on these observations, major human migrations that occurred in the area during Late Pleistocene and Holocene can be considered. According to reliable evidence, the early forms of Homo sapiens attested in Africa have radiometric ages between 250 and 90 ka (Rightmere and Deacon, 1991; Clark, 2003; McDougall et al., 2005). This is well in accord with the genetic evidence that modern humans developed from a comparatively small population in Africa south of the Sahara 150–100 ka ago (Stringer and Andrews, 2005). The ‘out of Africa’ theory suggests that the wide expansion of AMH resulted from a demographic explosion (Rogers, 1995; Excoffier, 2002), the mechanism for which remains unclear. One of the possible explanations resides in an ecological stress that might result from a hyperacid climate in monsoon-affected areas. Such crises that coincided corresponded with cold episodes in northern latitudes (Heinrich events) might have caused growing scarcity of food resources, a lowering of carrying capacity and the budding off of a surplus population. The expanding AMH groups reached the Levant by 120–100 ka. They contacted there the Neanderthals, and copied their advanced Mousterian technology. This resulted in the development of ‘transitional’ industries (Ahmarian, Bachokirian, Szeletian, etc.), that at a later stage further developed into the Aurignacian technocomplexes. Further spread into Europe was stimulated by the onset of hyperarid conditions in the Levant corresponding to H6 (60 ka). The large-scale proliferation in Northern Eurasia occurred during a cold and dry phase comparable with H5 (45 ka). The rapid expansion of AMH groups (which might have reached the speed of 0.4 km/yr; Mellars, 2006), was facilitated by their greater adaptability to open spaces (Davies and Gollop, 2003), their communication and cognitive skills, and advanced social organization. The radiocarbon age of early UP cultures in Western Europe
ARTICLE IN PRESS P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
(Chatelperronian and Aurignacian) lies in the range of 40–35 ka (Gravina et al., 2005). Still earlier readings are available for early UP industries (Szeletiasn and Jerzmanovician) in Central Europe: 452–32 ka. In their initial expansion AMH reached the Altai Mountains in southern Siberia, where early UP industries are radiocarbon-dated to 444,000 and 43,20071500 (Derevianko, 2001; Derevianko and Shunkov, 2004). Importantly the radiocarbon dates of that order should be viewed as minimal assessment of ages due to low radiocarbon content in the dated samples (Pettitt et al., 2003). The initial spread of AMH into the Black Sea area occurred during the cold event coeval with H5 (ca. 45 ka), and proceeded during the phase of ‘transitional’ climate. The Black Sea remained an isolated basin (with only occasional connections with the Mediterranean basin); there were no large water barriers impeding free movements of the humans along this basin, using the exposed Black Sea shelf (Fig. 1). In the adverse LGM environment, the greater part of Central and Western Europe, including southern Germany and Britain became virtually depopulated (Housley et al., 1997; Street and Terberger, 2000). The surplus population moved to the east where the megafauna was better preserved. The high frequencies of radiocarbon-dated sites in the ‘periglacial’ zone of East European Plain suggest considerable increases in population densities in the intervals of 29–26 and 24–18 ka (Dolukhanov et al., 2001). Part of the population moved to the south and penetrated the North Pontic Lowland (Fig. 2). The settlements of bison-hunters arose in deep river valleys protected from the adverse effects of climate. Lithic industries of these sites reflect the gradual increase of Gravettian elements in the predominantly ‘Aurignacoid’ substratum (Sapozhnikov, 2005). This might be viewed as an improvement of hunting armament in an environment of growing scarcity of wildlife resources. This, as well as the subsequent development of the microlithic technology,
39
Fig. 2. UP settlement of the Black Sea area. Key: blue areas: clusters of sites; arrows: directions of migrations.
Fig. 3. Late Glacial settlement of the Black Sea area. Key: yellow areas: clusters of sites; arrows: directions of migrations.
Fig. 1. Initial spread of AMH in the Black Sea area. Key: red areas: clusters of sites; arrows: directions of migrations.
resulted in the emergence of the specific mode of adaptation to the ‘temperate grassland-steppe tundra’, archaeologically recognized as the ‘steppe Palaeolithic province’ (Boriskovskij, 1993). During the Late Glacial period, in an environment of increasing temperature and rising sea-level, human groups moved further south and established settlements of smaller size along the river valleys in the Pontic Lowland (Fig. 3). The growing scarcity of wild-life resources stimulated improved technologies of hunting and the development of projectile points with the use of microlithic blades. Further increase in temperature and precipitation combined with sea-level rise marked the onset of the Holocene, and coincided with the establishment of
ARTICLE IN PRESS 40
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
Fig. 4. Mesoloithic settlement of the north-western Black Sea area.
Mesolithic settlements. This period featured an intense exploitation diversified wildlife by small-size social groups, with the emphasis on marine and estuarine resources (Fig. 4). At this stage, there was an increased social mobility, which included both seasonal transhumance and large-scale directed migrations (as signalled by the spread of ‘Kukrekian’ armaments). Notable changes are evident in the social structure with the emergence of large ‘communal’ cemeteries. The emergence agricultural communities and their spread into southeastern Europe occurred in an environment of considerable increase of rainfall which was an essential prerequisite for farming. The increased precipitation was signalled by a transgression of the Black Sea, which remained nonetheless below its present level. The expansion of early farming into the north-western Pontic area at 5200–4500 cal BC marked the establishment of Pre-Cucuteni-Early Tripolye settlements in Moldavia and Western Ukraine, and Gumelnitsa-Bolgrad sites in southern Bessarabia. This coincided with yet another wet phase, signalled by a marine transgression when the Black Sea reached its present level (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Fluctuations of the Black Sea area and chronology of prehistoric cultures. Key: red arrows-major transgressions; blue arrows—major regressions.
ARTICLE IN PRESS P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
5. Conclusions 1. Human migrations in the Pleistocene and early Holocene were triggered by situations of overpopulation and scarcity of food resources. 2. These situations generally arose during the phases of cold climate and diminished precipitation. 3. Regressions of the Black Sea coincided with the phases of cold climate and diminished precipitation; and the rises of the Black Sea level corresponded to the warmer climate and increased rainfall in the catchment area. 4. Observable changes in the environment, and related modifications in subsistence and population dynamics of prehistoric communities had a gradual and non-catastrophic character.
Acknowledgements The writers would like to express their deep gratitude to IGCP 521 Programme ‘‘Black Sea-Mediterranean Corridor during last 30 kyr: Sea level change and human adaptation’’ and to the Geological Society of London for sponsoring their participation at the IGCP 521 General Meetings in Istanbul (2005) and Odessa (2006), where their had an opportunity to discuss the main topics of this paper. References Abdulkader, M., Abed, A.M., Yaghan, R., 2000. On the Paleoclimate of Jordan during the last glacial maximum. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160, 23–33. Barron, E., van Andel, T.H., Pollard, D., 2003. Glacial environments II: reconstructing the climate of Europe in the last glaciation. In: van Andel, T.H., Davies, W. (Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 57–78. Bond, G., Heinrich, H., Broecker, W., Labeyrie, L., McManus, L., Andrews, J., Huon, S., Jantschik, R., Clasen, S., Simet, C., Tedesco, K., Klas, M., Bonani, G., Ivy, S., 1992. Evidence for massive discharges into the North-Atlantic Ocean during the last glacial period. Nature 360, 245–249. Boriskovskij, P.I., 1993. Determining Upper Palaeolithic historicocultural regions. In: Soffer, O., Praslov, N.D. (Eds.), From Kostenki to Clovis. Upper Palaeolithic—Palaeo-Indian Adaptations. Plenum Press, New York, London, pp. 143–148. Chepalyga, A.L., 2002. Chernoe more [The Black Sea]. In: Velichko, A.A. (Ed.), Dinamika Landshaftnyh Komponentov I Vnutrennih Basseinov Vostochnoi Evropy Za Poslednie 130000 Let [Dynamics of Landscape Components and Internal Basins of Eastern Europe in the Course of the Last 130,000 Years]. Geos, Moscow. Chepalyga, A.L., 2006. The late glacial great flood in the Ponto-Caspian basin. In: Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A.S., Panin, N., Dolukhanov, P., (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question. Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement, pp. 119–148. Clark, J.D., 2003. Stratigraphical, chronological and behavioural contexts of the Pleistocene Homo sapiens from middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423, 747–752. Davies, W., Gollop, P., 2003. The human presence in Europe during the Last Glacial period II: climate tolerance and climate preference of Mid- and Late Glacial hominids. In: van Andel, T.H., Davies, W.
41
(Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscapes During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 131–146. Derevianko, A.P., 2001. The middle to upper Paleolithic transition in the Altai (Mongolia and Siberia). Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 2, 70–103. Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., 2004. Formation of the Upper Palaeolithic traditions in the Altai. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 5, 125–138. Dolukhanov, P., Sokoloff, D., Shukurov, A., 2001. Radiocarbon chronology of Upper Palaeolithic sites in Eastern Europe at improved resolution. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 699–712. Dolukhanov, P., Arslanov, Kh., Gey, N., 2006. Climate, Black Sea levels and human settlements in Caucasus’ Littoral 50,000–9000 before present. Quaternary International, in press. Excoffier, L., 2002. Human demographic history: refining the recent African origin model. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 12, 675–682. Gokhman, I.I., 1966. Naselenie Ukrainy V epohi mezolita I neolita (The Population of the Ukraine During the Mesolithic and Neolithic). Nauka, Moscow. Gokhman, I.I., 1986. Antropologicheskie osobennosti drevnego naselenija severa evropeiskoi chasti SSSR (Anthropological peculiarities of the population of the North of the European part of the USSR). In: Gokhman, I.I., Kozinysev, A.G. (Eds.), Antropologija sovremennogo i drevnego naselenija evropeiskoi chasti SSSR i puti ih formirovanija (Anthropology of the Present and Ancient Populations of the European Part of the USSR and Trajectories of its Formation). Nauka, Moscow. Golovanova, L.V., Hoffecker, J.F., Kharitonov, V.M., Romanova, G.P., 1999. Mezmaiskaya cave: a Neanderthal occupation in the Northern Caucasus. Current Anthropology 40, 77–86. Gravina, B., Mellars, P., Ramsay, C., 2005. Radiocarbon dating of interstratified Neanderthal and early modern human occupations at the Chatelperronian type-site. Nature 438, 1–6. Greenbaub, N., Porat, N., Rhodes, E., Enzel, E., 2005. Large floods during late oxygen isotope stage 3, southern Negev desert, Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews 35/78, 701–719. Haesaerts, P., Borziac, I.A., Chirica, V., Damblon, F., Koulakovska, L., Van der Plicht, J., 2003. The East Carpathian lœss record: a reference for the Middle and Late Pleniglacial stratigraphy in Central Europe. Quaternaire 14, 163–188. Hemming, S.R., 2004. Heinrich events: massive late Pleistocene detritus layers of the North Atlantic and their global climate imprint. Reviews of Geophysics 42, RG1005. Housley, R.A., Gamble, C.S., Street, M., Pettitt, P., 1997. Radiocarbon evidence for the Late Glacial human recolonisation of northern Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 63, 25–54. Huntley, B., Allan, J.R.M., 2003. Glacial environments III: Palaeovegetation patterns in late glacial Europe. In: Tjeerd, H., van Andel, T.H., Davies, E. (Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 79–102. Isarin, R.F.B., Bohnke, S.J.P., 1999. Mean July temperatures during the younger Dryas in North-Western and central Europe as inferred from climate indicator plant species. Quaternary Research 51, 148–157. Izmailov, Ya.A., 2005. Evolyucionnaya geografiya poberezhij Azovskogo i Cernogo morej. Anapskaya peresyp [Evolutionary Geography of the Azov and Black Sea. The Anapa Sand Barrier]. Sochi, Lazarev. Konikov, E.G., 2006. Sea-level fluctuations and coastline migrations in the North-Western Black Sea area over the last 18 kyr based on highresolution lithological-genetic analysis of sediment architecture. In: Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A.S., Panin, N., Dolukhanov, P. (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question. Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement, pp. 405–435.
ARTICLE IN PRESS 42
P.M. Dolukhanov, K.A. Arslanov / Quaternary International 197 (2009) 35–42
Korobkova, G.F., 1993. The technology and function of tools and the context of regional adaptations: a case study of the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic of the North-western Black Sea area. In: Soffer, O., Praslov, N.D. (Eds.), From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Palaeolithic— PalaeoIndian Adaptations. Plenum Press, New York, London, pp. 159–173. Kremenetsky, K.V., 1991. Paleoekologiya Drevneishih Zemledel’cev Skotovodov Russkoi Ravniny [Paleoecology of Ancient Farmers and Stockbreeders of the Russian Plain]. Institute of Geography, Moscow. Krotova, A.A., 1999. The Upper Palaeolithic Bison hunters: Amvrosievka. In: Brugal, J.P., David, F., Enloe, J.G., Jaubert, J. (Eds.), Le Bison, le gibier et moyen de subsistence des homes du Pale´olithique aux Pale´oindiens des Grandes Plaine. Antibes, Association pour la promotion des connaissances arche´ologiques, pp. 333–341. Lillie, M.C., 1996. Mesolithic and Neolithic populations of Ukraine: indications of diets from dental pathology. Current Anthropology 37, 135–142. Marks, A.E., Chabai, V.P., 1998. The Middle Paleolithic of Western Crimea, vol. 1. Lie`ge, E´tudes et Recherches Arche´ologiques de l’Universite´ de Lie`ge (ERAUL), p. 84. McDougall, I., Brown, F.H., Fleagle, F.G., 2005. Stratigraphic placement and the age of the modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433, 733–736. Mellars, P., 2006. A new radiocarbon revolution and the dispersal of modern humans. Nature 429, 931–935. Noiret, P., 2004. Le Pale´olithique supe´rieur en Moldavie. L’Anthropologie 108, 425–470. Pashkevich, G.A., 1982. Paleobotanicheskaya harakteristika poseleniya Mirnoe [Palaeobotanical characteristics of Mirnoe site]. In: Stanko, V.N. (Ed.), Mirnoe: Problema mezolita stepei Severnogo Severnogo Prichernomor’ya [Mirnoe: Problems of the Mesolithic of North Pontic Steppe]. Naukova Dumka, Kiev, pp. 132–138. Pettitt, P.B., Davies, W., Gamble, C.S., Richards, M.B., 2003. Palaeolithic radiocarbon chronology: quantifying our confidence beyond two halflives. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 1693–1865. Potekhina, I.D., 1999. Naselenie Ukrainy v epohu neolita i rannego eneolita Po antropologicheskim dannym [Ukraine’s :Population in Early Neoloithic and Aeneolithic]. Institute of Archaeology, Kiev. Rightmere, G.P., Deacon, H.J., 1991. Comparative studies of Late Pleistocene human remains from Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 20, 131–156. Rogers, A.R., 1995. Genetic evidence for a Pleistocene population explosion. Evolution 49, 608–615.
Rohling, E.R., de Rijk, S., 1999. Holocene climate optimum and Last Glacial maximum in the Mediterranean: the marine oxygen isotope record. Marine Geology 153, 57–75. Sapozhnikov, I.V., 2005. Pozdnii paleolit stepei yugo-zapada Ukrainy: hronologiya, periodizaciya, hozyastvo [Late Palaeolithic of the Steppe South-Western Ukraine: Chronology, Periodization and Economy]. Abstract of D.Sc. Dissertation. Institute of Archaeology, Kiev. Stanko, V.N., 1982. Mirnoe: Problema mezolita stepei Severnogo Prichernomor’ya [Mirnoe: Problems of the Mesolithic of North Pontic Steppe]. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Stanko, V.N., Grigor’yeva, G.V., Shvaiko, T.N., 1989. Pozdnepaleoliticheskoye poseleniye Anetovka II (Voprosi kul’turnoy periodizatsii pozdnego paleolita Severnogo Prichemomor’ya) [The Upper Paleolithic Site of Anetovka II (Issues of Cultural-Historical Periodization of the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Prichernomoriye)]. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Stolyar, A.D., 1959. Pervyi Vasil’evskii mezoliticheskii mogil’nik [The first Vasil’evsky Cermetery]. Arheologicheskii Sbornik Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha 1, 78–165. Street, M., Terberger, T., 2000. The German Upper Palaeolithic 35,000–15,000 BP. New dates and insights with emphasis on the Rhineland. In: Roebroeks, W., Mussi, M., Svoboda, J., Fennema, K. (Eds.), Hunters of the Golden Age. The mid-Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP. University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 281–297. Stringer, C., Andrews, P., 2005. The Complete World of Human Evolution. Thames & Hudson, London. Telegin, D.Y., 1982. Mezolitichni pam’yatki Ukrainy (The Mesolithic Sites of the Ukraine). Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Van Andel, T.H., 2003. Glacial Environments I: the Weichselian Climate in Europe between the end of the OIS-5 Interglacial and the last Glacial maximum. In: van Andel, T.H., Davies, W. (Eds.), Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape During the Last Glaciation: Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, UK, pp. 9–20. Velichko, A.A., Bogucki, A.B., Morozova, T.D., Udartsev, V., Khalcheva, T.A., Tsaskin, A.I., 1984. Periglacial landscapes of the East European Plain. In: Velichko, A.A. (Ed.), Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 95–118. Yanko-Hombach, V., Gilbert, A.S., Panin, N., Dolukhanov, P. (Eds.), 2006. The Black Sea Flood Question. Changes in Coastline, Climate and Human Settlement. Springer, Heidelberg.