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Economic activities in the petroglyphs of fennoscandia
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Economic activities in the petroglyphs of fennoscandia E.M. Kolpakov Institute for the Material Culture History, Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Neolithic Hunter-gatherers Hunting from boats Fennoscandia Petroglyphs Bronze age
In the rock art of Fennoscandia, the economy of the population from the late Mesolithic to the paleometal age looks as follows. In the images we find only hunting, marine hunting from boats and fishing on the hook. There are no scenes with traps, snares, trapping pits, which were undoubtedly used. The image of economic activity is limited to the pictures of active production of the following animals: elk, reindeer, bear, beavers, waterfowl, cetacean (dolphin), halibut, pike. Weapons and means of equipment: a spear, a bow and arrows, a harpoon, fishing hooks on a line, boats, skis and snowshoes. In general, this set corresponds to those materials that originate from excavations.
1. Introduction This article represents only a small part of the work, covering all the compositions of the main rock art sites of Northern Fennoscandia. Only those compositions that can be considered as depicting the hunt for land animals and marine hunting and fishing. They are examined from one, “economic”, point of view only. There is no the hypothetico-deductive approach here. On the contrary, the study is purely inductive: take into account all the compositions, classify them, and make reasonable conclusions, if it will be possible. Various categories of sources are used for the reconstruction of the economy of the ancient population of Fennoscandia: settlement mapping, faunal remains, artifacts from excavation, rock carvings. Here we will specifically examine only petroglyphs from the point of view of information about economic activities of communities that left them. Of course, we are aware that the rock carvings were not at all pictures from the exhibition of the achievements of the national economics. Most likely, mythical characters and scenes were depicted on the rocks. At the same time, since ideas about the other world somehow reflect the real world, then the “economic activity of the gods” is just as interesting for us as the activity of people. 1.1. Sources First of all, the sites involved in the analysis have more than a thousand individual images: Kanozero, Vyg, Onego (Russia), Alta, Vingen (Norway), Nämforsen (Sweden) (Fig. 1) (Kolpakov et al., 2012; Raudonikas, 1936, 1938; Savvateev, 1970, 1987; Lobanova, 2015; Poikalainen and Ernits, 1998; Tansem, 2009; Helskog, 2013; Lødøen
and Mandt, 2012; Hallström, 1960; Larsson and Broström, 2011). Numerous compositions of figures are in these assemblages. All other sites are significantly inferior to them in the number of images and, most importantly, contain only single compositions. Moreover, all compositions that can be found on the “small” sites fit into the types of compositions that one can find on these main sites. The chronological framework of the main part of the rock art of Northern Fennoscandia covers an interval of 4–5 thousand years according to the currently accepted dating: from the end of 6 ka BC till the beginning of 1 ka BC in absolute dates, which corresponds to the end of the Mesolithic, Neolithic and the Early Metal period (Bronze Age) in the currently accepted archaeological periodization [Helskog 2013; Gjerde 2010; Zhulnikov 2010]. A set of figures consists of zoomorphs, ichthyomorphs, ornithomorphs, anthropomorphs, boats, footprints of anthropomorphs and zoomorphs, geometric figures. Distinct species characteristics of animals are depicted infrequently, but the overall picture of the “rock animal world” can be compiled. 1.2. Images The majority of zoomorphs are elks and deer, the differentiation of which is not always possible. Brown bears are inferior in quantity to them. Further, dogs, foxes, beavers are presented in a small amount. Ornithomorphs, almost exclusively waterfowl, are numerous only on the Onego Lake petroglyphs. Ichthyomorphs are represented by cetaceans and fish. Only 3–4 seals are depicted (depending on the interpretation of the figures); walrus – 3 figures. Anthropomorphs are interesting within our theme, first of all, because of the objects which they are equipped with. A set of weapons is as follows: spears (which can also be used as ski poles), bows with
E-mail address: [email protected]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.10.011 Received 24 December 2018; Received in revised form 7 September 2019; Accepted 12 October 2019 1040-6182/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: E.M. Kolpakov, Quaternary International, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.10.011
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arrows, harpoons, paddles, rod-headed axes, obscure objects. All these anthropomorphs hold in their hands, and there are skis or snowshoes on their feet. The boats are depicted with anthropomorphs, with members of crews marked with dashes, and “empty” without crews and objects. Footprints of anthropomorphs and zoomorphs are used to deploy the depicted actions in time. For example, a hunter is shown hitting a bear with a spear, but the whole process of hunting from the beginning of the bear pursuit is shown by rows of ski traces and footprins of a bear – a run of the bear, a descent from the hill, a dropping of the skis by the hunter, and defeat of the bear by the hunter. As one can see, the main figurative set of the rock art – elks, deer, bears, beavers, cetaceans, waterfowl – corresponds in general to the main means of subsistence in the Far North not only in antiquity, but also in the recent past. Only seals clearly fall out of this picture: according to the faunal remains from the settlements, it is clear that seals occupied the first or second place in the diet, and only a few specimens fell on the rocks. It is worth noting what is not, or almost not, in the rock art. There are no plants, with the exception of one “tree” on Besov Nose on the Lake Onego and two on Zalavruga on the river Vyg, as well as two
plants in Ausvik. And on Zalavruga they have place in the scenes of a hunt. There are no images of dwellings, with the exception of 6 (and 6 more supposedly) in Alta. 1.3. Compositions However, more interesting and informative are the groups in which the figures are interconnected by some sort of a plot, – compositions. Here we will only consider “first order” compositions, the selection of which from the mass of figures does not cause problems. Almost all of them are “dynamic”, i.e. we understand that they depict some kind of action, even if it is not clear for us. The figures in them are connected not only formally, but also by this action. 1. Figures connected to each other. Hunting cetacean from boats with a harpoon when the boat and the whale are connected by a line. Anthropomorphs whose limbs are joined. Hunter with a spear striking a bear. 2. Figures surrounded by a line. “Fences” for deer and elks. 3. Neighboring figures, located relative to each other in such a way and having such forms that their occurrence in one plot does not cause
Fig. 1. Rock carvings sites of Fennoscandia mentioned in the text. 1 – Kanozero, 2 – Vyg, 3 – Onego, 4 – Alta, 5 – Nämforsen, 6 – Vingen.
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Table 1 Types of getting animal food in the rock art of Fennoscandia Of course, the raw numbers and types of names (they are also brief definitions of types – characteristics of hunting and fishing methods) given in the table require comment. Animal
Hunting attributes
Elk
on ski, with spear, bow and arrows with a spear from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with spear, bow and arrows, dogs with bow and arrows on ski with dogs on ski (a pursuit) from a boat with arrows from a boat by fence with bow and arrows on ski (a pursuit) with a spear from a boat with bow and arrows on ski with a spear with a spear with a spear, bow and arrows on ski with bow and arrows from a boat with harpoon with bow and arrows from a boat with bow and arrows from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with a spear with a harpoon from a boat with a fishing rod with a fishing rod from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with bow and arrows
Reindeer
Bear
Waterfowl Beaver Cetaceans Fish No game Total
Kanozero 1 4 1
Vyg
Onego
1 1
5
1 4 32
58
3
40
2
2
1
2 2
1 2 1 4 5 1 1 41
1 75
1
2 1
9 4
1 12
1
1 1 8 4
4
2 3 2
Nä mforsen
1 2 1
2
1 1
Alta
7
1
Total
Fig.
1 4 4 1 1 4 1 5 1 1 8 4 4 2 1 1 8 5 2 1 9 4 5 76 1 3 4 7 13 1 182
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.
2: 1 3; Fig. 2: 2; Fig. 4: 1 5: 1-4 5: 5 4: 3 2: 3,4; Fig. 4: 4, 5 4: 6 6: 1–5 7: 1 7: 2 8 4: 7–10 6: 6–9 4: 11, 12 7: 3 9: 1 9: 2; Fig. 10: 1, 2; Fig. 11; Fig. 12: 3, 4 10: 3–5; Fig. 12: 1, 2 10: 6, 7 13 14: 1–9 14: 10–13 15; Fig. 7: 4 16, 17 and 18; Fig. 19: 1, 2; Fig. 20: 1, 2 20: 4 19: 3 21 21 22; Fig. 20: 3 7: 5
Fig. 2. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting elk: 1 – on ski, with spear, bow and arrows; 2 – with a spear; 3–4 – with bow and arrows (from Raudonikas, 1938; Savvateev, 1970).
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Fig. 3. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting elk with a spear (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
Fig. 6. Vyg rock carvings. 1–5 – hunting elk on ski (a pursuit); 6–9 – hunting reindeer on ski (a pursuit) (from Raudonikas, 1938; Savvateev, 1970).
5. The figures that form a unity that we understand at a low level. Anthropomorph with a bow – “flying” arrows – a target struck by arrows. 1.4. Types of compositions – hunting methods Already on the figurative set of rock art, it is clear that, from the point of view of economic activity, the objects of food catching and the methods of hunting should be mainly examined, as far as they are depicted on rocky plates. According to these two points (groups of attributes), 30 types of getting animal food are displayed, depicted in the petroglyphs of Fennoscandia (Table 1). Hunting for elk on ski, with a spear, bow and arrows is represented by a great composition on Vyg where three skiing hunters pursuit elks (Fig. 2: 1). Hunting for elk with a spear–bow/arrow–dogs is available only in one instance in Alta – a multi-figured scene with several elks attacked by dogs and only one anthropomorph on snowshoes. It is not clear what items the “hunter” holds (Fig. 4). An elk/deer hunt on skis (stalking) is represented only in Vyg carvings: the skier is located right behind the elk or deer and holds something in his hands (Fig. 6). Hunting for reindeer using fence is only available in Alta. Most part of
Fig. 4. 2 – Nämforsen, all others – Alta. Hunting elk: 1, 2 – with a spear; 3 – with spear, bow and arrows, dogs; 4, 5 – with bow and arrows; 6 – on ski with dogs. Hunting reindeer: 7–10 – with bow and arrows; 11,12 – with a spear (1 – from Helskog, 2013; 2 – from Larsson and Broström, 2011; 3–12 – from Tansem, 2009).
doubts. Ski traces consisting of individual figures depicting the skis footprints and traces of ski poles in a sequence of skiing. Bear footprints which are rows of dots leading to a bear image. 4. Figues located geometrically correctly. Zoomorphs located in line head to tail. Skiers depicted one after another.
Fig. 5. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting elk: 1–4 – from a boat with a harpoon; 5 – from a boat (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
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Fig. 7. Alta rock carvings. Hunting from boats: 1 – reindeer with arrows; 2 – reindeer; 3 – reindeer with bow and arrows; 4 – beaver with a harpoon; 5 – with bow and arrows (from Tansem, 2009).
Fig. 8. Alta rock carvings. Hunting reindeer by fence (from Tansem, 2009).
the zoomorphs enclosed in fences are reliably identified as reindeer, primarily by the characteristic shape of the horns. However, along with them and between them there are many figures that do not have clear attributes for their separation into deer and elk. For 8 fences there are 4 hunters with spears. In one of the fences, one anthropomorph with a spear is inside the fence, and the other is at the entrance to it. In the second fence, an anthropomorph with a spear stands inside it. And in the third case, an anthropomorph with a spear is located away from the fence next to the figure, which is a part of a funnel-shaped fence for gathering deer into the large fence (Fig. 8). The discussion of whether the images of fence are a mark of an onset of reindeer herding led the Norwegian archaeologists to the conclusion that in this case it is still a way of hunting (Helskog, 2011, 2012). Bear hunt. In Alta, several bears and many other figures take part in 2 of 4 compositions. They also include images of lairs and long chains of small bear footprints. Images of the lair are only in Alta and, thus, we are talking about hunting for a brown bear in spring or winter (Fig. 12). On the Vyg, the main method of defeating a bear is a bow with arrows, but a spear is also used. And the bear is never hit by a spear in the chest. Chains of footprints are depicted not only of the bear, but also of the hunter (Fig. 10). On Kanozero, first of all, there is a unique scene with carefully made
Fig. 9. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting bear: 1 – on ski with a spear; 2 – with a spear (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
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Fig. 10. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting bear: 1, 2 – with a spear; 3–5 – with spear, bow and arrows; 6, 7 – on ski with bow and arrows (from Savvateev, 1970).
Fig. 11. Onego rock carvings. Hunting bear with a spear (from Raudonikas, 1936).
details: bear footprints are reproduced with great care, footprints of the hunter's skies with ski poles, the ski skid and the ski pole's trail over the snow while descending from the hill, defeating of the bear (white?) by a spear in the chest. In addition, a unique scene of hunting a bear from a boat connected with the bear by a line (Fig. 9). On Onego, the hunter strikes a bear with a spear in the chest without any special details. In two of the three compositions the bear is depicted with an open mouth and attacking the hunter (Fig. 11). Undoubtedly hunting for birds is presented only on Vyg (13). Anthropomorphs use bows and arrows to hunt birds and in 4 cases they do this from a boat. In the same composition with the boat there are
foot hunters with bows. In 3 cases there is a bird struck by an arrow, but the hunter himself is not visible. All bird figures are defined as waterfowl (geese or swans), although in one case the bird sits on a tree (Fig. 14). Hunting with a harpoon from boats. The harpoons themselves are depicted only in a few cases on Kanozero and Onego, but there are many compositions in which the boat or one of the crew members is connected by a line with an ichthyomorph or zoomorph. The line connecting a boat with an ichthyomorph is confidently interpreted as a harpoon rope line, since in several cases the harpoon itself is depicted at the end of the line. In addition, in almost all cases, the line is connected
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Fig. 12. Alta rock carvings. Hunting bear: 1, 2 – with a spear, bow and arrows; 3, 4 – with a spear (from Tansem, 2009).
images. Some geometric shapes with a “net” filling are not associated with ichthyomorphs, but with figures of elks and deer. In Alta, there is an anthropomorph standing in a boat and holding a figure overhead resembling fish traps wicker still used from the rod, but there is not enough visual data to validate this interpretation. Among the images of fish, the largest number of figures most likely refers to the halibut (or flounder). At least a halibut has been depicted in the fishing scenes. There are individual figures of salmon and cod. In a single fishing scene on Kanozero an anthropomorph catches a pike. 1.5. Types of compositions where there are no hunting methods In addition to the hunting scenes recorded above, there are two important types of compositions with anthropomorphs and zoomorphs (often numerous), which we do not consider to be images of hunting. Clusters of elks/deer and anthropomorphs. The number of zoomorphs in these compositions can reach up to several dozens, and anthropomorphs can be located between animals. However, the action is not indicated. Elks/deer and anthropomorphs with axe-batons. Compositions of this type are the same as the previous ones, but some anthropomorphs in them are armed with axes, in which some attributes of the elk head are marked: chin-tuft, ears, profile in the form of a muzzle. The analysis of these compositions shows that the magical actions of mythical characters are depicted instead of hunting with an axe [Kashina and Zhulnikov, 2011; Kolpakov, 2018].
Fig. 13. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting bear from a boat (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
to the body of an ichthyomorph in the same part of the body – behind the pectoral fins of the harpooned whale (Figs. 16–20). Fishing differs in that the prey object is interpreted in its form as a fish, and the line from the boat departs almost perpendicularly down towards the lower part of its hull and connects to the front end of the ichthyomorph (fish on a fishing line). Since these schemes are formed into stable types, it becomes possible to identify and interpret unfinished, damaged and incomplete compositions. For example, boats from which the lines depart, but there is no attached ichthyomorph or it is significantly damaged. Fishing scenes are concentrated in Alta. There is a fishing scene, similar to the compositions of Alta, with one boat in Forselv. There is one fishing scene with a fishing rod and without a boat on Kanozero (Fig. 21). There are no reliable images of fishing hooks, but there are boats connected by a line with a maw of a fish. There are also no network
1.6. Quantitative characteristic of the sites In the first place here are Vyg petroglyphs – more than half of the compositions depict a hunt (55.9%): sea and land are represented in a close ratio (57.6% and 42.4%). There is no fishing scene at all, but there is a series of 15 bird hunting compositions with bow and arrows - the type of composition is not found anywhere else.
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Fig. 14. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting waterfawl: 1–9 – with bow and arrows; 10–13 – from a boat with bow and arrows (from Savvateev, 1970). Fig. 15. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting beaver from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
Fig. 17. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
Fig. 16. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
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2012]. On Lake Onego only 5 (6.2%) compositions can be attributed to hunting. In Nämforsen there are only two compositions that can be attributed to the depiction of a hunt. First is a spear in an elk. The second is a boat and an ichthyomorph close to it. There are no hunting scenes in Vingen at all. Obviously, even on the simple quantitative level between the main rock art sites of Northern Fennoscandia, there is a significant difference in the depiction of the hunting and fishing activity of ancient people. Hunting scenes have a significant place only on Vyg and Kanozero. However, it is provided on both sites due to the large number of scenes of marine hunting from boats. At the same time, Vyg possesses the largest number of land hunting scenes, primarily due to the bird hunting compositions available only on this site. 1.7. Economy According to the rock art, the economy of the population of Fennoscandia from the late Mesolithic to the end of the Bronze Age is as follows. In the images we find only hunting, sea fishing and hooked fishing. There are no pictures with traps, snares, pitfalls, which were undoubtedly used. The interpretation of some solar-lunar figures of Lake Onego as a designation of traps has no real basis. Rather, it can be assumed that the Onego solar-lunar signs take a place that should semantically be associated with axe-rods. There is nothing that could be associated with the gathering of mushrooms and berries, which undoubtedly was and is now. The dwellings, viewed from the inside in the projection above, are depicted only in Alta. Actually, this exhausts the repertoire of the rock art of Fennoscandia, which relates to the economic activities of its ancient population. Thus, the image of economic activity is limited to the pictures of active preying on the following animals: elk, reindeer, bear, beavers, waterfowl, cetaceans, halibut, pike. Tools and means of getting a prey: spear, bow and arrows, harpoon, fishing hooks on the fishing line, boats, skis and snowshoes. In general, this set corresponds to the materials that originate from archaeological excavation. But there are some significant exceptions. Firstly, according to the few sites with mass preservation of faunal remains, it turns out that the Greenland seal was the first in terms of the number of individuals harvested (with the addition of other types of seals) [Hodgetts, 1999, 2010; Kolpakov et al., 2012], and there are only a few figures on the rocks (with the exception of two good figures in Valle [Gjessing, 1932: Pl. XXVII]) and a couple of rather vague scenes that can be assigned to a hunting on seals. Secondly, the main bird in the faunal remains is the common guillemot (Uria aalge), and not the swan-geese of the petroglyphs. The appearance of the common guillemot does not correspond to the images of birds on the rocks. Thirdly, cod and cod fish occupy up to 98% of the fish remains. In the petroglyphs there is no catching of cod, and halibut plays the main role. Ancient rock art is not a picture of ancient life.
Fig. 18. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans from a boat with a harpoon (from Savvateev, 1970).
Fig. 19. Onego rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans: 1, 2 – from a boat with a harpoon; 3 – with a harpoon (from Raudonikas, 1936).
1.8. Concluding remark
Vyg is followed by Kanozero – a little less than half of its compositions (48.8%) depict hunting. The vast majority of them belongs to the marine hunt (71%), almost exclusively, on cetaceans. However, other animals on Kanozero are preferred to be hunted from boats – only 6 compositions (9.7%) hunters do without boats. There is one fishing scene with a fishing rod and without a boat. Alta, following Vyg and Kanozero, is significantly inferior to them in terms of the ratio of hunting and fishing scenes – 17.4% only. Of these, 62% – hunting for land animals (including 4 from a boat), 19% – marine hunting, 19% – fishing from boats for halibut. The hunt includes eight well-known compositions of elk/deer in corrals [Helskog, 2011,
Is there much new in the conclusions of this article? Nothing. The new is in the evidence. It took not the best, beloved, original compositions, but all – what they are. Not separate compositions were used, but their types, distinguished by the classification of all available compositions. 1.8.1. Resume In the rock art of Fennoscandia, the economy of the population from the late Mesolithic to the paleometal age looks as follows. In the images we find only hunting, marine hunting from boats and fishing on the 9
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Fig. 20. Alta rock carvings. Hunting from a boat: 1, 2 – cetaceans with a harpoon; 3 – with a harpoon; 4 – cetaceans with a spear (from Tansem, 2009).
Fig. 21. Rock carvings. Fishing: 1–4 – from a boat with a fishing rod – Alta (from Tansem, 2009); 5–9 – with a fishing rod – Alta (from Tansem, 2009), 10 – Onego (from Raudonikas, 1936); 11 – Kanozero (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012); 12 – with a fishing rod from a boat and without boat – Forselv (from Evers, 2004).
Fig. 22. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
hook. There are no scenes with traps, snares, trapping pits, which were undoubtedly used. The image of economic activity is limited to the pictures of active production of the following animals: elk, reindeer, bear, beavers, waterfowl, cetacean (dolphin), halibut, pike. Weapons and means of equipment: a spear, a bow and arrows, a harpoon, fishing hooks on a line, boats, skis and snowshoes. In general, this set corresponds to those materials that originate from excavations.
Prehistoric scandinavian rock carvings. StoneWatch, Warmsroth, pp. 3–47. Gjerde, J.-M., 2010. Rock Art and Landscapes: Studies of Stone Age Rock Art from Northern Fennoscandia. PhD. dis. University of Tromso. Gjessing, G., 1932. Arktiske Helleristninger I Nord Norge. Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning, Oslo 1932. Hallström, G., 1960. Monumental Art of Northern Sweden from the Stone Age. Nämforsen and Other Localities. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm 1960. Helskog, K., 2011. Reindeer corrals 4700-4200 BC: myth or reality? Quat. Int. 238, 25–34. Helskog, K., 2012. Ancient depictions of reindeer enclosures and their environment. Fennosc. Archaeol. XXIX, 29–54. Helskog, K., 2013. Samtaler Med Maktene: En Historie Om Verdensarven I Alta. Tromsø Museums Skrifter, vol. XXXIII. Hodgetts, L.M., 1999. Animal Bones and Human Society in the Late Younger Stone Age of Arctic Norway. Durham University, Durham theses.
References Evers, D., 2004. The Ice Age, the great creator of the environment. Hunters & planters.
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E.M. Kolpakov Hodgetts, L.M., 2010. Subsistence diversity in the younger stone age landscape of varangerfjord, northern Norway. Antiquity 84 (323), 41–54 2010. Kashina, E., Zhulnikov, A., 2011. Rods with elk heads: symbol in ritual context. Est. J. Archaeol. 15 (1), 18–31. Kolpakov, E.M., 2018. Losinogolovye Zhezly (Topory) Severnoy Evropy. Stratum Plus 1. Archeologia I Kulturnaya Antropologia. Sankt-Peterburg, Kishinev, Odessa, Bukarest. pp. 163–180 (in Russian, with English Abstract). Kolpakov, E.M., Shumkin, V.Y.A., Tarasov, A.Yu, 2012. Archeologia Shtokmana. Komplexnye Issledovania Prirody Shpitsbergena. Materialy Mezhdunarodnoy Nauchnoy Konferentsii. Vyp. 11. GEOS, Moskva, pp. 104–111 (in Russian, with English Abstract). Kolpakov, E.M., Shumkin, V.Y.A., 2012. Petroglify Kanozera. Rock Carvings of Kanozero. Iskusstvo Rossii, Sankt-Peterburg (in Russian and English). Larsson, T.B., Broström, S.-G., 2011. The Rock Art of Nämforsen, Sweden. The Survey 2001–2003. Archaeological Reports from Umeå University 62. Umeå. Lobanova, N.V., 2015. Petroglify Onezhskogo Ozera. Moskva: Russkiy Fond Sodeystvia Obrazovaniu I Nauke. (in Russian, with English Abstract). Lødøen, T.K., Mandt, G., 2012. Vingen – et naturens kolossalmuseum for helleristninger. Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning. Serie B: Skrifter Vol. CXLVI. Akademika forlag, Trondheim.
Poikalainen, V., Ernits, E., 1998. Rock Carvings of Lake Onega. The Vodla Region. Estonian Society of Prehistoric Art, Tartu. Raudonikas, V.I., 1936. Naskalnye izobrazhenia Onezhskogo ozera i Belogo morya. T. 1: Naskalnye izobrazhenia Onezhskogo ozera. Les Gravures Rupestres des Bords du lac Onega et de la mer Blanche. Première Partie: Les Gravures Rupestres du lac Onega. Moskva, Leningrad: Izdatelstvo AN SSSR. (Tr. IAAE. T. 9–10. Arheol. seria. 1). (in Russian, with French Abstract). Raudonikas, V.I., 1938. Naskalnye izobrazhenia Onezhskogo ozera i Belogo morya. T. 2: Naskalnye izobrazhenia Belogo morya. Les Gravures Rupestres des Bords du lac Onega et de la mer Blanche. Première Partie: Les Gravures Rupestres de la mer Blanche. Moskva, Leningrad: Izdatelstvo AN SSSR. (Tr. IAAE. T. 9–10. Arheol. seria. 1). (in Russian, with French Abstract). Savvateev, YuA., 1970. Zalavruga. Chast’ 1. Petroglify, Leningrad (in Russian, with English Abstract). Savvateev, YuA., 1987. Novye petrogify na o. Erpin Pudas. Sov. Arkheologiya 1 (1987), 103–118 (in Russian, with English Abstract). Tansem, K., 2009. Alta Museum Archive. Alta. Tracing of 2009. Zhulnikov, A.M., 2010. O hronologii naskal’nyh izobrazheniy Belogo morya. 2010. Uralskiy istoricheskiy vestnik 1 (26), 62–69 (in Russian, with English Abstract).
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Economic activities in the petroglyphs of fennoscandia E.M. Kolpakov Institute for the Material Culture History, Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Neolithic Hunter-gatherers Hunting from boats Fennoscandia Petroglyphs Bronze age
In the rock art of Fennoscandia, the economy of the population from the late Mesolithic to the paleometal age looks as follows. In the images we find only hunting, marine hunting from boats and fishing on the hook. There are no scenes with traps, snares, trapping pits, which were undoubtedly used. The image of economic activity is limited to the pictures of active production of the following animals: elk, reindeer, bear, beavers, waterfowl, cetacean (dolphin), halibut, pike. Weapons and means of equipment: a spear, a bow and arrows, a harpoon, fishing hooks on a line, boats, skis and snowshoes. In general, this set corresponds to those materials that originate from excavations.
1. Introduction This article represents only a small part of the work, covering all the compositions of the main rock art sites of Northern Fennoscandia. Only those compositions that can be considered as depicting the hunt for land animals and marine hunting and fishing. They are examined from one, “economic”, point of view only. There is no the hypothetico-deductive approach here. On the contrary, the study is purely inductive: take into account all the compositions, classify them, and make reasonable conclusions, if it will be possible. Various categories of sources are used for the reconstruction of the economy of the ancient population of Fennoscandia: settlement mapping, faunal remains, artifacts from excavation, rock carvings. Here we will specifically examine only petroglyphs from the point of view of information about economic activities of communities that left them. Of course, we are aware that the rock carvings were not at all pictures from the exhibition of the achievements of the national economics. Most likely, mythical characters and scenes were depicted on the rocks. At the same time, since ideas about the other world somehow reflect the real world, then the “economic activity of the gods” is just as interesting for us as the activity of people. 1.1. Sources First of all, the sites involved in the analysis have more than a thousand individual images: Kanozero, Vyg, Onego (Russia), Alta, Vingen (Norway), Nämforsen (Sweden) (Fig. 1) (Kolpakov et al., 2012; Raudonikas, 1936, 1938; Savvateev, 1970, 1987; Lobanova, 2015; Poikalainen and Ernits, 1998; Tansem, 2009; Helskog, 2013; Lødøen
and Mandt, 2012; Hallström, 1960; Larsson and Broström, 2011). Numerous compositions of figures are in these assemblages. All other sites are significantly inferior to them in the number of images and, most importantly, contain only single compositions. Moreover, all compositions that can be found on the “small” sites fit into the types of compositions that one can find on these main sites. The chronological framework of the main part of the rock art of Northern Fennoscandia covers an interval of 4–5 thousand years according to the currently accepted dating: from the end of 6 ka BC till the beginning of 1 ka BC in absolute dates, which corresponds to the end of the Mesolithic, Neolithic and the Early Metal period (Bronze Age) in the currently accepted archaeological periodization [Helskog 2013; Gjerde 2010; Zhulnikov 2010]. A set of figures consists of zoomorphs, ichthyomorphs, ornithomorphs, anthropomorphs, boats, footprints of anthropomorphs and zoomorphs, geometric figures. Distinct species characteristics of animals are depicted infrequently, but the overall picture of the “rock animal world” can be compiled. 1.2. Images The majority of zoomorphs are elks and deer, the differentiation of which is not always possible. Brown bears are inferior in quantity to them. Further, dogs, foxes, beavers are presented in a small amount. Ornithomorphs, almost exclusively waterfowl, are numerous only on the Onego Lake petroglyphs. Ichthyomorphs are represented by cetaceans and fish. Only 3–4 seals are depicted (depending on the interpretation of the figures); walrus – 3 figures. Anthropomorphs are interesting within our theme, first of all, because of the objects which they are equipped with. A set of weapons is as follows: spears (which can also be used as ski poles), bows with
E-mail address: [email protected]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.10.011 Received 24 December 2018; Received in revised form 7 September 2019; Accepted 12 October 2019 1040-6182/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: E.M. Kolpakov, Quaternary International, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.10.011
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arrows, harpoons, paddles, rod-headed axes, obscure objects. All these anthropomorphs hold in their hands, and there are skis or snowshoes on their feet. The boats are depicted with anthropomorphs, with members of crews marked with dashes, and “empty” without crews and objects. Footprints of anthropomorphs and zoomorphs are used to deploy the depicted actions in time. For example, a hunter is shown hitting a bear with a spear, but the whole process of hunting from the beginning of the bear pursuit is shown by rows of ski traces and footprins of a bear – a run of the bear, a descent from the hill, a dropping of the skis by the hunter, and defeat of the bear by the hunter. As one can see, the main figurative set of the rock art – elks, deer, bears, beavers, cetaceans, waterfowl – corresponds in general to the main means of subsistence in the Far North not only in antiquity, but also in the recent past. Only seals clearly fall out of this picture: according to the faunal remains from the settlements, it is clear that seals occupied the first or second place in the diet, and only a few specimens fell on the rocks. It is worth noting what is not, or almost not, in the rock art. There are no plants, with the exception of one “tree” on Besov Nose on the Lake Onego and two on Zalavruga on the river Vyg, as well as two
plants in Ausvik. And on Zalavruga they have place in the scenes of a hunt. There are no images of dwellings, with the exception of 6 (and 6 more supposedly) in Alta. 1.3. Compositions However, more interesting and informative are the groups in which the figures are interconnected by some sort of a plot, – compositions. Here we will only consider “first order” compositions, the selection of which from the mass of figures does not cause problems. Almost all of them are “dynamic”, i.e. we understand that they depict some kind of action, even if it is not clear for us. The figures in them are connected not only formally, but also by this action. 1. Figures connected to each other. Hunting cetacean from boats with a harpoon when the boat and the whale are connected by a line. Anthropomorphs whose limbs are joined. Hunter with a spear striking a bear. 2. Figures surrounded by a line. “Fences” for deer and elks. 3. Neighboring figures, located relative to each other in such a way and having such forms that their occurrence in one plot does not cause
Fig. 1. Rock carvings sites of Fennoscandia mentioned in the text. 1 – Kanozero, 2 – Vyg, 3 – Onego, 4 – Alta, 5 – Nämforsen, 6 – Vingen.
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Table 1 Types of getting animal food in the rock art of Fennoscandia Of course, the raw numbers and types of names (they are also brief definitions of types – characteristics of hunting and fishing methods) given in the table require comment. Animal
Hunting attributes
Elk
on ski, with spear, bow and arrows with a spear from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with spear, bow and arrows, dogs with bow and arrows on ski with dogs on ski (a pursuit) from a boat with arrows from a boat by fence with bow and arrows on ski (a pursuit) with a spear from a boat with bow and arrows on ski with a spear with a spear with a spear, bow and arrows on ski with bow and arrows from a boat with harpoon with bow and arrows from a boat with bow and arrows from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with a spear with a harpoon from a boat with a fishing rod with a fishing rod from a boat with a harpoon from a boat with bow and arrows
Reindeer
Bear
Waterfowl Beaver Cetaceans Fish No game Total
Kanozero 1 4 1
Vyg
Onego
1 1
5
1 4 32
58
3
40
2
2
1
2 2
1 2 1 4 5 1 1 41
1 75
1
2 1
9 4
1 12
1
1 1 8 4
4
2 3 2
Nä mforsen
1 2 1
2
1 1
Alta
7
1
Total
Fig.
1 4 4 1 1 4 1 5 1 1 8 4 4 2 1 1 8 5 2 1 9 4 5 76 1 3 4 7 13 1 182
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.
2: 1 3; Fig. 2: 2; Fig. 4: 1 5: 1-4 5: 5 4: 3 2: 3,4; Fig. 4: 4, 5 4: 6 6: 1–5 7: 1 7: 2 8 4: 7–10 6: 6–9 4: 11, 12 7: 3 9: 1 9: 2; Fig. 10: 1, 2; Fig. 11; Fig. 12: 3, 4 10: 3–5; Fig. 12: 1, 2 10: 6, 7 13 14: 1–9 14: 10–13 15; Fig. 7: 4 16, 17 and 18; Fig. 19: 1, 2; Fig. 20: 1, 2 20: 4 19: 3 21 21 22; Fig. 20: 3 7: 5
Fig. 2. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting elk: 1 – on ski, with spear, bow and arrows; 2 – with a spear; 3–4 – with bow and arrows (from Raudonikas, 1938; Savvateev, 1970).
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Fig. 3. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting elk with a spear (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
Fig. 6. Vyg rock carvings. 1–5 – hunting elk on ski (a pursuit); 6–9 – hunting reindeer on ski (a pursuit) (from Raudonikas, 1938; Savvateev, 1970).
5. The figures that form a unity that we understand at a low level. Anthropomorph with a bow – “flying” arrows – a target struck by arrows. 1.4. Types of compositions – hunting methods Already on the figurative set of rock art, it is clear that, from the point of view of economic activity, the objects of food catching and the methods of hunting should be mainly examined, as far as they are depicted on rocky plates. According to these two points (groups of attributes), 30 types of getting animal food are displayed, depicted in the petroglyphs of Fennoscandia (Table 1). Hunting for elk on ski, with a spear, bow and arrows is represented by a great composition on Vyg where three skiing hunters pursuit elks (Fig. 2: 1). Hunting for elk with a spear–bow/arrow–dogs is available only in one instance in Alta – a multi-figured scene with several elks attacked by dogs and only one anthropomorph on snowshoes. It is not clear what items the “hunter” holds (Fig. 4). An elk/deer hunt on skis (stalking) is represented only in Vyg carvings: the skier is located right behind the elk or deer and holds something in his hands (Fig. 6). Hunting for reindeer using fence is only available in Alta. Most part of
Fig. 4. 2 – Nämforsen, all others – Alta. Hunting elk: 1, 2 – with a spear; 3 – with spear, bow and arrows, dogs; 4, 5 – with bow and arrows; 6 – on ski with dogs. Hunting reindeer: 7–10 – with bow and arrows; 11,12 – with a spear (1 – from Helskog, 2013; 2 – from Larsson and Broström, 2011; 3–12 – from Tansem, 2009).
doubts. Ski traces consisting of individual figures depicting the skis footprints and traces of ski poles in a sequence of skiing. Bear footprints which are rows of dots leading to a bear image. 4. Figues located geometrically correctly. Zoomorphs located in line head to tail. Skiers depicted one after another.
Fig. 5. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting elk: 1–4 – from a boat with a harpoon; 5 – from a boat (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
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Fig. 7. Alta rock carvings. Hunting from boats: 1 – reindeer with arrows; 2 – reindeer; 3 – reindeer with bow and arrows; 4 – beaver with a harpoon; 5 – with bow and arrows (from Tansem, 2009).
Fig. 8. Alta rock carvings. Hunting reindeer by fence (from Tansem, 2009).
the zoomorphs enclosed in fences are reliably identified as reindeer, primarily by the characteristic shape of the horns. However, along with them and between them there are many figures that do not have clear attributes for their separation into deer and elk. For 8 fences there are 4 hunters with spears. In one of the fences, one anthropomorph with a spear is inside the fence, and the other is at the entrance to it. In the second fence, an anthropomorph with a spear stands inside it. And in the third case, an anthropomorph with a spear is located away from the fence next to the figure, which is a part of a funnel-shaped fence for gathering deer into the large fence (Fig. 8). The discussion of whether the images of fence are a mark of an onset of reindeer herding led the Norwegian archaeologists to the conclusion that in this case it is still a way of hunting (Helskog, 2011, 2012). Bear hunt. In Alta, several bears and many other figures take part in 2 of 4 compositions. They also include images of lairs and long chains of small bear footprints. Images of the lair are only in Alta and, thus, we are talking about hunting for a brown bear in spring or winter (Fig. 12). On the Vyg, the main method of defeating a bear is a bow with arrows, but a spear is also used. And the bear is never hit by a spear in the chest. Chains of footprints are depicted not only of the bear, but also of the hunter (Fig. 10). On Kanozero, first of all, there is a unique scene with carefully made
Fig. 9. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting bear: 1 – on ski with a spear; 2 – with a spear (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
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Fig. 10. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting bear: 1, 2 – with a spear; 3–5 – with spear, bow and arrows; 6, 7 – on ski with bow and arrows (from Savvateev, 1970).
Fig. 11. Onego rock carvings. Hunting bear with a spear (from Raudonikas, 1936).
details: bear footprints are reproduced with great care, footprints of the hunter's skies with ski poles, the ski skid and the ski pole's trail over the snow while descending from the hill, defeating of the bear (white?) by a spear in the chest. In addition, a unique scene of hunting a bear from a boat connected with the bear by a line (Fig. 9). On Onego, the hunter strikes a bear with a spear in the chest without any special details. In two of the three compositions the bear is depicted with an open mouth and attacking the hunter (Fig. 11). Undoubtedly hunting for birds is presented only on Vyg (13). Anthropomorphs use bows and arrows to hunt birds and in 4 cases they do this from a boat. In the same composition with the boat there are
foot hunters with bows. In 3 cases there is a bird struck by an arrow, but the hunter himself is not visible. All bird figures are defined as waterfowl (geese or swans), although in one case the bird sits on a tree (Fig. 14). Hunting with a harpoon from boats. The harpoons themselves are depicted only in a few cases on Kanozero and Onego, but there are many compositions in which the boat or one of the crew members is connected by a line with an ichthyomorph or zoomorph. The line connecting a boat with an ichthyomorph is confidently interpreted as a harpoon rope line, since in several cases the harpoon itself is depicted at the end of the line. In addition, in almost all cases, the line is connected
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Fig. 12. Alta rock carvings. Hunting bear: 1, 2 – with a spear, bow and arrows; 3, 4 – with a spear (from Tansem, 2009).
images. Some geometric shapes with a “net” filling are not associated with ichthyomorphs, but with figures of elks and deer. In Alta, there is an anthropomorph standing in a boat and holding a figure overhead resembling fish traps wicker still used from the rod, but there is not enough visual data to validate this interpretation. Among the images of fish, the largest number of figures most likely refers to the halibut (or flounder). At least a halibut has been depicted in the fishing scenes. There are individual figures of salmon and cod. In a single fishing scene on Kanozero an anthropomorph catches a pike. 1.5. Types of compositions where there are no hunting methods In addition to the hunting scenes recorded above, there are two important types of compositions with anthropomorphs and zoomorphs (often numerous), which we do not consider to be images of hunting. Clusters of elks/deer and anthropomorphs. The number of zoomorphs in these compositions can reach up to several dozens, and anthropomorphs can be located between animals. However, the action is not indicated. Elks/deer and anthropomorphs with axe-batons. Compositions of this type are the same as the previous ones, but some anthropomorphs in them are armed with axes, in which some attributes of the elk head are marked: chin-tuft, ears, profile in the form of a muzzle. The analysis of these compositions shows that the magical actions of mythical characters are depicted instead of hunting with an axe [Kashina and Zhulnikov, 2011; Kolpakov, 2018].
Fig. 13. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting bear from a boat (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
to the body of an ichthyomorph in the same part of the body – behind the pectoral fins of the harpooned whale (Figs. 16–20). Fishing differs in that the prey object is interpreted in its form as a fish, and the line from the boat departs almost perpendicularly down towards the lower part of its hull and connects to the front end of the ichthyomorph (fish on a fishing line). Since these schemes are formed into stable types, it becomes possible to identify and interpret unfinished, damaged and incomplete compositions. For example, boats from which the lines depart, but there is no attached ichthyomorph or it is significantly damaged. Fishing scenes are concentrated in Alta. There is a fishing scene, similar to the compositions of Alta, with one boat in Forselv. There is one fishing scene with a fishing rod and without a boat on Kanozero (Fig. 21). There are no reliable images of fishing hooks, but there are boats connected by a line with a maw of a fish. There are also no network
1.6. Quantitative characteristic of the sites In the first place here are Vyg petroglyphs – more than half of the compositions depict a hunt (55.9%): sea and land are represented in a close ratio (57.6% and 42.4%). There is no fishing scene at all, but there is a series of 15 bird hunting compositions with bow and arrows - the type of composition is not found anywhere else.
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Fig. 14. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting waterfawl: 1–9 – with bow and arrows; 10–13 – from a boat with bow and arrows (from Savvateev, 1970). Fig. 15. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting beaver from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
Fig. 17. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
Fig. 16. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
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2012]. On Lake Onego only 5 (6.2%) compositions can be attributed to hunting. In Nämforsen there are only two compositions that can be attributed to the depiction of a hunt. First is a spear in an elk. The second is a boat and an ichthyomorph close to it. There are no hunting scenes in Vingen at all. Obviously, even on the simple quantitative level between the main rock art sites of Northern Fennoscandia, there is a significant difference in the depiction of the hunting and fishing activity of ancient people. Hunting scenes have a significant place only on Vyg and Kanozero. However, it is provided on both sites due to the large number of scenes of marine hunting from boats. At the same time, Vyg possesses the largest number of land hunting scenes, primarily due to the bird hunting compositions available only on this site. 1.7. Economy According to the rock art, the economy of the population of Fennoscandia from the late Mesolithic to the end of the Bronze Age is as follows. In the images we find only hunting, sea fishing and hooked fishing. There are no pictures with traps, snares, pitfalls, which were undoubtedly used. The interpretation of some solar-lunar figures of Lake Onego as a designation of traps has no real basis. Rather, it can be assumed that the Onego solar-lunar signs take a place that should semantically be associated with axe-rods. There is nothing that could be associated with the gathering of mushrooms and berries, which undoubtedly was and is now. The dwellings, viewed from the inside in the projection above, are depicted only in Alta. Actually, this exhausts the repertoire of the rock art of Fennoscandia, which relates to the economic activities of its ancient population. Thus, the image of economic activity is limited to the pictures of active preying on the following animals: elk, reindeer, bear, beavers, waterfowl, cetaceans, halibut, pike. Tools and means of getting a prey: spear, bow and arrows, harpoon, fishing hooks on the fishing line, boats, skis and snowshoes. In general, this set corresponds to the materials that originate from archaeological excavation. But there are some significant exceptions. Firstly, according to the few sites with mass preservation of faunal remains, it turns out that the Greenland seal was the first in terms of the number of individuals harvested (with the addition of other types of seals) [Hodgetts, 1999, 2010; Kolpakov et al., 2012], and there are only a few figures on the rocks (with the exception of two good figures in Valle [Gjessing, 1932: Pl. XXVII]) and a couple of rather vague scenes that can be assigned to a hunting on seals. Secondly, the main bird in the faunal remains is the common guillemot (Uria aalge), and not the swan-geese of the petroglyphs. The appearance of the common guillemot does not correspond to the images of birds on the rocks. Thirdly, cod and cod fish occupy up to 98% of the fish remains. In the petroglyphs there is no catching of cod, and halibut plays the main role. Ancient rock art is not a picture of ancient life.
Fig. 18. Vyg rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans from a boat with a harpoon (from Savvateev, 1970).
Fig. 19. Onego rock carvings. Hunting cetaceans: 1, 2 – from a boat with a harpoon; 3 – with a harpoon (from Raudonikas, 1936).
1.8. Concluding remark
Vyg is followed by Kanozero – a little less than half of its compositions (48.8%) depict hunting. The vast majority of them belongs to the marine hunt (71%), almost exclusively, on cetaceans. However, other animals on Kanozero are preferred to be hunted from boats – only 6 compositions (9.7%) hunters do without boats. There is one fishing scene with a fishing rod and without a boat. Alta, following Vyg and Kanozero, is significantly inferior to them in terms of the ratio of hunting and fishing scenes – 17.4% only. Of these, 62% – hunting for land animals (including 4 from a boat), 19% – marine hunting, 19% – fishing from boats for halibut. The hunt includes eight well-known compositions of elk/deer in corrals [Helskog, 2011,
Is there much new in the conclusions of this article? Nothing. The new is in the evidence. It took not the best, beloved, original compositions, but all – what they are. Not separate compositions were used, but their types, distinguished by the classification of all available compositions. 1.8.1. Resume In the rock art of Fennoscandia, the economy of the population from the late Mesolithic to the paleometal age looks as follows. In the images we find only hunting, marine hunting from boats and fishing on the 9
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Fig. 20. Alta rock carvings. Hunting from a boat: 1, 2 – cetaceans with a harpoon; 3 – with a harpoon; 4 – cetaceans with a spear (from Tansem, 2009).
Fig. 21. Rock carvings. Fishing: 1–4 – from a boat with a fishing rod – Alta (from Tansem, 2009); 5–9 – with a fishing rod – Alta (from Tansem, 2009), 10 – Onego (from Raudonikas, 1936); 11 – Kanozero (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012); 12 – with a fishing rod from a boat and without boat – Forselv (from Evers, 2004).
Fig. 22. Kanozero rock carvings. Hunting from a boat with a harpoon (from Kolpakov and Shumkin, 2012).
hook. There are no scenes with traps, snares, trapping pits, which were undoubtedly used. The image of economic activity is limited to the pictures of active production of the following animals: elk, reindeer, bear, beavers, waterfowl, cetacean (dolphin), halibut, pike. Weapons and means of equipment: a spear, a bow and arrows, a harpoon, fishing hooks on a line, boats, skis and snowshoes. In general, this set corresponds to those materials that originate from excavations.
Prehistoric scandinavian rock carvings. StoneWatch, Warmsroth, pp. 3–47. Gjerde, J.-M., 2010. Rock Art and Landscapes: Studies of Stone Age Rock Art from Northern Fennoscandia. PhD. dis. University of Tromso. Gjessing, G., 1932. Arktiske Helleristninger I Nord Norge. Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning, Oslo 1932. Hallström, G., 1960. Monumental Art of Northern Sweden from the Stone Age. Nämforsen and Other Localities. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm 1960. Helskog, K., 2011. Reindeer corrals 4700-4200 BC: myth or reality? Quat. Int. 238, 25–34. Helskog, K., 2012. Ancient depictions of reindeer enclosures and their environment. Fennosc. Archaeol. XXIX, 29–54. Helskog, K., 2013. Samtaler Med Maktene: En Historie Om Verdensarven I Alta. Tromsø Museums Skrifter, vol. XXXIII. Hodgetts, L.M., 1999. Animal Bones and Human Society in the Late Younger Stone Age of Arctic Norway. Durham University, Durham theses.
References Evers, D., 2004. The Ice Age, the great creator of the environment. Hunters & planters.
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E.M. Kolpakov Hodgetts, L.M., 2010. Subsistence diversity in the younger stone age landscape of varangerfjord, northern Norway. Antiquity 84 (323), 41–54 2010. Kashina, E., Zhulnikov, A., 2011. Rods with elk heads: symbol in ritual context. Est. J. Archaeol. 15 (1), 18–31. Kolpakov, E.M., 2018. Losinogolovye Zhezly (Topory) Severnoy Evropy. Stratum Plus 1. Archeologia I Kulturnaya Antropologia. Sankt-Peterburg, Kishinev, Odessa, Bukarest. pp. 163–180 (in Russian, with English Abstract). Kolpakov, E.M., Shumkin, V.Y.A., Tarasov, A.Yu, 2012. Archeologia Shtokmana. Komplexnye Issledovania Prirody Shpitsbergena. Materialy Mezhdunarodnoy Nauchnoy Konferentsii. Vyp. 11. GEOS, Moskva, pp. 104–111 (in Russian, with English Abstract). Kolpakov, E.M., Shumkin, V.Y.A., 2012. Petroglify Kanozera. Rock Carvings of Kanozero. Iskusstvo Rossii, Sankt-Peterburg (in Russian and English). Larsson, T.B., Broström, S.-G., 2011. The Rock Art of Nämforsen, Sweden. The Survey 2001–2003. Archaeological Reports from Umeå University 62. Umeå. Lobanova, N.V., 2015. Petroglify Onezhskogo Ozera. Moskva: Russkiy Fond Sodeystvia Obrazovaniu I Nauke. (in Russian, with English Abstract). Lødøen, T.K., Mandt, G., 2012. Vingen – et naturens kolossalmuseum for helleristninger. Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning. Serie B: Skrifter Vol. CXLVI. Akademika forlag, Trondheim.
Poikalainen, V., Ernits, E., 1998. Rock Carvings of Lake Onega. The Vodla Region. Estonian Society of Prehistoric Art, Tartu. Raudonikas, V.I., 1936. Naskalnye izobrazhenia Onezhskogo ozera i Belogo morya. T. 1: Naskalnye izobrazhenia Onezhskogo ozera. Les Gravures Rupestres des Bords du lac Onega et de la mer Blanche. Première Partie: Les Gravures Rupestres du lac Onega. Moskva, Leningrad: Izdatelstvo AN SSSR. (Tr. IAAE. T. 9–10. Arheol. seria. 1). (in Russian, with French Abstract). Raudonikas, V.I., 1938. Naskalnye izobrazhenia Onezhskogo ozera i Belogo morya. T. 2: Naskalnye izobrazhenia Belogo morya. Les Gravures Rupestres des Bords du lac Onega et de la mer Blanche. Première Partie: Les Gravures Rupestres de la mer Blanche. Moskva, Leningrad: Izdatelstvo AN SSSR. (Tr. IAAE. T. 9–10. Arheol. seria. 1). (in Russian, with French Abstract). Savvateev, YuA., 1970. Zalavruga. Chast’ 1. Petroglify, Leningrad (in Russian, with English Abstract). Savvateev, YuA., 1987. Novye petrogify na o. Erpin Pudas. Sov. Arkheologiya 1 (1987), 103–118 (in Russian, with English Abstract). Tansem, K., 2009. Alta Museum Archive. Alta. Tracing of 2009. Zhulnikov, A.M., 2010. O hronologii naskal’nyh izobrazheniy Belogo morya. 2010. Uralskiy istoricheskiy vestnik 1 (26), 62–69 (in Russian, with English Abstract).
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