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Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy
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Review article
Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy Pavel Novák * Catholic University in Ružomberok, Faculty of Education, Department of Social Work, Slovak Republic
article info
abstract
Article history:
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the participation and the degree of success of the visually
Received 19 November 2013
impaired in the labor market with regard to the market economy in the Czech Republic.
Accepted 14 May 2014
The method used consisted of the application and comparison of statistical information
Available online xxx
on persons with disabilities, collected by order of the Czech government, the Czech
Keywords:
of Health, and the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports.
Statistical Office in cooperation with the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, the Ministry Visually impaired
The economic activity of the visually impaired was not a direct focus of the statistical
Economic activity
survey. The data was collected for the disabled as a whole. However, at the personal request
Employment
of the author, the Czech Statistical Office has recalculated the data and provided us with it.
Disabled Unemployment
This paper briefly describes the situation regarding the workplace activities of the visually impaired before 1989 in the former Czechoslovakia. It recognizes the impact of unemployment and the importance of work for people with disabilities, as well as briefly glossing over the most common hurdles preventing them from finding employment. In other parts, statistical data is compared from a nationwide survey which presented the fact that the Czech Republic has an estimated 1,015,548 persons with disabilities. As seen in the results, the number of people with some form of visual disability is approaching ninety thousand. In the group researched, there were 6331 persons economically active who were visually impaired; from that number, women accounted for less than one-third. Similarly, in the whole group of people with disabilities and even the visually handicapped, information shows that in the group of economically active persons, the majority hold proper employment. Roughly 15% of those economically active are selfemployed. # 2014 Faculty of Health and Social Studies of University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
* Correspondence to: Pod Lipou 1495, 508 01 Hořice v Podkrkonoší, Czech Republic. E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006 1212-4117/# 2014 Faculty of Health and Social Studies of University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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Introduction Those with visual impairment and who are in the labor market represent one of the most difficult groups of people with disabilities to employ. Poor or complete loss of vision, for example later in life represents the loss of nearly all activities for the person, as well as the contacts and skills he had in his previous life. The gradual or sudden loss of vision generally means a below-average quality of life, disintegration, and oftentimes a personality disorder. Being independent and having the ability to look after themselves is essential in shaping the personalities of children and those blind since birth. In addition, it plays a big role in their integration into a group. Their socialization moves on a different level, not being subjected to such psychological pressure as people who lose their sight later in life. Integration into everyday life is complicated in varying degrees depending on the nature and extent of the visual impairment and on the abilities of the individual. A man suffering from visual impairment later in life is removed from everyday life, and must again relearn the basic skills. If they are of working age, they must acquire the skills necessary for the chosen profession, since most of those suffering from loss of vision almost always lose their jobs.
The participation of the visually impaired in the labor market A theoretical basis ‘‘Work is the strongest tie to reality!’’ – is defined by Sigmund Freud as one of the reasons to work [1]. One's job ranks first among the activities through which a person comes to a selfrealization, and in the case of the visually impaired, it is the cornerstone of their social integration. The importance of work to human life is undeniable; it contributes to the shaping of one's personality [2] and the socialization of the visually impaired in the workplace also influences their quality of life [3]. The practical application of their own work potential for the visually impaired, of course, is different for each of them and is dependent on the extent of their impairment. Jesenský [3] claims that through the socialization and the personality development of visually impaired people, they will achieve their integration.1 For some with visual impairment, work is self-fulfillment, achieving a sense of validity for others to the betterment of their own economic situation. Ideally, the job would fulfill all of these requirements simultaneously.2
1 ‘‘Integration is a state where the visually impaired do not consider themselves to be a special part of a company and neither does the company see the visually impaired as its own special sector, i.e., when they have adapted to each other and when the visually impaired's faults have disappeared and with those who can see, their false compassion, embarrassment, and prejudice’’ [3]. Faults here mean as a result of visual defects [3]. 2 A number of authors write about the value and importance of work in Czech literature, such as Petr Mareš of FSS MU Brno, Jiří Večerník of the Institute of Sociology ASCR, and more.
During the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, practically all those disabled were clients of the welfare state and their jobs usually involved work in production cooperatives, similar to present-day sheltered workshops. These entities, however, disappeared in the nineties, with some exceptions,3 due to their lack of competitiveness. The market economy, on the one hand, gives everyone space for implementation, but it is difficult for a handicapped person to meet the requirements of the free labor market. Paradoxically, in a free society, they are gradually excluded from public life, become completely dependent on state support and insignificant for the labor market.4 According to Sirovátka [4], ‘‘marginality is seen as the opposite of participation’’. Møller [5] characterizes marginalization in a similar way. According to him, marginalization in the labor market concerns people of working age who are permanently or have for a long time been excluded from the everyday labor market. Not all people with disabilities see this fact as unchanging and do participate in the open labor market. This paper5 is an evaluation of the success of the visually impaired with regards to the market economy, clearly showing which part of the handicapped are gainfully employed, receiving either a wage or salary,6 or by being self-employed.
The participation of the visually impaired in the labor market The sources of the data and achieved results The degree of success in employment in the labor market comes primarily from a level playing field regarding their access to education and employment and certainly from the situation in the labor market concerning the experience, qualifications, and willingness of the candidate to work. All the above conditions are often only an ideal, which, especially for the disabled, is not able to be met. In comparison: in 1984, roughly 30% of all the visually impaired found a job in
3
These include the Karko Cooperative in Ústí nad Labem, founded in 1953, which currently employs nearly 300 disabled people in three workshops. There's also Spektra, a Prague manufacturing cooperative for the blind, whose activities date back to 1989 and who specialize in computer technology and compensational aids for the visually impaired. The manufacturing cooperative Obzor, in Zlín, founded in 1965, focuses mainly on the production and distribution of small electromechanical products and parts for the automotive industry. 4 Mareš [15] refers to marginalization as the ‘‘reduction of chance, pushing workers with certain social characteristics into unfavorable or marginal positions in the labor market and exposing them to a higher risk of unemployment, or into a period of long-term unemployment’’. 5 While this article was being processed, there was no more up to date information from the Czech Statistical Office available. Another collection of data concerning people with disabilities will be published in 2014; after the results are released there may be an opportunity to draw up a comparison of the data from the two researches. 6 According to Murray [16] however, a salary is also a symbol of status through which it is possible to satisfy existential certainty. The extent of the salary did not lose its motivational effects. People are influenced by money and money can in turn ‘‘buy’’ its social status.
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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the former Czechoslovakia.7 That was the last time the exact number of the visually impaired and the extent of their economic activity was recorded. In the Czech Republic, in 1995, according to a qualified assessment, there was estimated to be more than 23,000 visually impaired, while the National Plan [6] estimated it at 60,000. Every year in the Czech Republic about 300 people lose their sight – after birth defects, it is largely caused by accidents and serious operations. A job not only has an economic advantage for disabled people, but it also helps to improve their health in addition to helping them adapt to society. The long-term inability to work (handicap) has a significant impact on the quality of life.8 This is primarily a socio-economic phenomenon.9 Feelings of frustration or even a loss of motivation for their future life come during a long-term absence from work [7]. The employment for the visually impaired enhances their selfesteem. Having work helps them to overcome psychological hurdles. Preparations for their job and the job itself have a significant socio-therapeutic significance that exceeds the economic benefits. Taking part in complex rehabilitation [8], aside from classic rehabilitation, also including a resocialization and potential retraining corresponding to their state of health, can prove beneficial for the visually impaired. In accordance with Government Resolution No. 596 and No. 1004 passed in 1995, which was put forth by the President of the Czech Statistical Office in cooperation with the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports a system of statistical research was created concerning those with disabilities (OZP) up to 31st December 2005. Statistical research concerning the OZP was then proposed and implemented in 2007. The Social Policy FORUM Journal reported on the methodology of this research and the most important findings to their readers in 2008 [9]. The following information emerged from the most extensive research in the area of disabilities (Table 1 and Chart 1). From the Czech Statistical Office's survey results, an assessment has emerged that 1,015,548 people with disabilities live in the Czech Republic. In total, this comprises 9.87% of the Czech population. Table 2 shows where the visually impaired stand among persons with disabilities. As seen in the results, the number of people with some form of visual impairment is around ninety thousand. The most visual handicaps are among seniors. More than half of all 7 This calculation is based on extensive research, carried out in 1984. The membership base of the then Association of the Visually impaired consisted of 10,960 members, 70% of which were not employed [17]. Due to the fact that membership in the association was, at that time, nearly mandatory, the data can be considered very accurate and informative about the employment of visually impaired in the first half of the eighties. Not included in the research were students and children who would thereby have raised the number of visually impaired by about a thousand. 8 In addition to long-term unemployment, chronic unemployment still exists [18]. This occurs where these deeply rooted obstacles in getting a job have yet to be overcome. These include personal obstacles such as physical and mental disabilities, social barriers such as lack of child care available and discrimination. 9 According to several studies, in unemployment the extent of their social contacts does not change, but rather the nature of them. The unemployed tend to form segregated social networks, i. e. to limit their group to those with the same disabilities [19].
Table 1 – Basic overview of persons with disabilities.
Sex Men Women Population by age groups 0–14 years old 15–29 years old 30–44 years old 45–59 years old 60–74 years old 75 years old and over
Population of the Czech Republic (to 31st December 2006)
People with disabilities in the Czech Republic
10,287,189a
1,015,548b
5,026,184 5,261,005
490,427 525,121
1,479,514 2,175,672 2,312,929 2,195,646 1,462,586 660,842
46,208 60,621 101,331 245,743 283,274 276,744
Source: [10]. According to the Demographic Yearbook of the Czech Statistical Office for 2006 [11]. b The whole number, 1,015,548, also includes 1627 persons whose age was not given. a
visual handicaps are caused by disease, with the second most being birth defects (Table 3). The severity of the visual impairment has been assessed on a four-point scale from low vision to total blindness. From the results obtained, it is evident that the largest, with more than one-third of all of visual impairments, have a moderate impairment of vision (Table 4). Concerning the economic activity of the visually impaired (Table 5), it was not considered a priority when collecting the data for all persons with disabilities in the research. But by personal request, however, the Czech Statistical Office provided the data and recalculated it. The rate of economic activity for people with disabilities10 is influenced by a number of factors, which, among other things, stem from the health limitations of the individual and the specifics of the situation in the labor market, efficiency, and social policy efforts, but also from the overall level of development and social service settings. Access to the labor market, in addition, is also influenced by the overall physical and social conditions, such as the degree to which physical barriers are dealt with and the development of the employers' social responsibilities. As seen in research conducted in Slovakia [12], one of the main reasons why employers do not want to hire people with disabilities is due to their own lack of information concerning the needs of the disabled, as well as their abilities and skills.11 This discrimination in access 10 For comparison from the recent past: from nationwide surveys from the ‘‘National Center for Health Statistics’’ in the United States from 1994 to 1995 it shows that at the time of the survey, 32% of the blind were employed and 46% of the visually impaired. The age of employment (work activity) was taken from those 18 to 69 years olds. For comparison: people with something other than visual disabilities had 74% employment [20]. 11 Individuals with disabilities are stigmatized from the beginning due to their disability. Erwin Goffman in his work ‘‘Stigma’’, first published in 1963, talks about stigma as ‘‘a special kind of relationship between attributes and stereotype’’ [21].
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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Chart 1 – Percentage of people with disabilities. Table 2 – Type of disability by sex and age. Age group
Disability
Total people
Frequency of disability for 1 person
Physical
Visual
Hearing
Mental
Learning
Internal
Total
0–14 15–29 30–44 45–59 60–74 75+
16,687 25,710 43,107 127,959 152,860 183,604
7964 6318 7597 12,778 18,642 34,140
2902 3835 4733 11,226 15,205 36,684
11,604 22,964 19,306 20,302 13,327 19,012
4846 9152 22,276 34,662 23,662 33,130
22,343 20,931 34,990 118,547 186,368 187,672
66,346 88,910 132,009 325,474 410,064 494,242
46,208 60,621 101,331 245,743 283,274 276,744
1.436 1.467 1.303 1.324 1.448 1.786
Total
550,407
87,439
74,700
106,699
128,065
571,734
519,044b
1,015,548a
1.496
Source: [10]. The whole number, 1,015,548, also includes 1627 persons whose age was not given. b Regarding the possibility of multiple answers given after recalculating, 1,015,548 people have a total of 1,519,044 various types of disabilities. The whole includes only one case concerning internal organs. a
Table 3 – Cause of disability by sex and type of disability. Birth
Caused by Accident
Diseases
Other
Not given
Total
Old age Total
Sex Men Women Total Type of disability Physical Visual Hearing Learning Mental Internal Total
104,709 91,799 196,508
61,360 40,463 101,823
584,550 682,903 1,267,453
37,318 95,694 133,012
22,150 15,208 37,358
45,685 56,163 101,848
855,772 982,230 1,838,002
58,159 17,912 13,779 62,257 13,835 30,567 196,509
67,962 7700 2619 5207 4253 4082 101,823
354,063 47,081 37,634 25,502 78,821 724,352 1,267,453
37,069 7711 13,954 7123 11,383 55,773 133,013
8911 2226 1604 1041 8307 15,269 37,358
24,243 4809 5110 5569 11,466 50,649 101,846
550,407 87,439 74,700 106,699 128,065 890,692 1,838,002a
Source: [10]. Regarding the possibility of multiple answers given after recalculating, 1,015,548 people have a total of 1,838,002 various types of disabilities. All cases concerning internal organ that respondents identified are included in this number. a
Table 4 – Degree of disability according to the type of disability. Type of disability
Degree of disability Light
Visual
24,479
Moderate 31,451
Serious 19,924
Very serious 10,981
Not given 604
Total 87,439
Source: [10].
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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Table 5 – The economic activity of the visually impaired. The economic activity of the visually impaired in the Czech Republic
Men
Women
Total
e5
Table 6 – The economically active of the visually impaired and receiving benefits. The economically active of the visually impaired – employed and self-employed
Children (0–14 years old) Students Employment, self-employment Unemployed Non-working pensioners Working pensioners At home, including parental leave Other Not given
4688 1336 4375 1636 23,079 1430 613 961 594
3631 1383 1956 1476 37,958 309 222 713 1079
8319 2719 6331 3112 61,037 1739 835 1674 1673
Total
38,712
48,727
87,439
Source: [10].
to the labor market is in close relationship to the stigma of the disability.12 When comparing genders, men with disabilities oftentimes are more economically active than women. Approximately 60% of men and 40% of women take part in the labor market. The most productive age group with disabilities are for both sexes between 45 and 59 years old. The data indicates that out of the group of economically active persons with disabilities, four-fifths are employed and one fifth are selfemployed. In the case of the visually handicapped, the ratio of men/ women is more noticeable. Less than one-third of women out of all economically active persons are actually working. Even among the healthy population, the unemployment rate of women is significantly higher. One possible explanation is that work opportunities have recently increased in the area of Information Technology and the visually impaired are able to excel in these jobs. With the use compensatory aids they are able to compete well in this profession in the labor market and this profession specifically is usually seen as a man's field.13 It is interesting that of the economically active of the visually impaired, a majority do not receive any social security benefits – 57% out of all of those economically active (Table 6). This number may be even higher because in the papers of some of the respondents, there was no information about receiving social security benefits. From the data available, the degree of visual impairment on those economically active is not clear. What would certainly be interesting to know would be the distribution of the degree of 12 Discrimination is closely linked to stigmatization, as stated by Sirovátka [4] ‘‘Discrimination leans on stigmatization’’. 13 Employment statistics in Czechoslovakia in the 1970s and 1980s provide us with information concerning the total sums in individual areas (i.e. Science and Research), therefore, it is not possible to find out the exact number of employees in ICT jobs. Since 2000, the Czech Statistical Office has been following the number if IT technicians in the Czech Republic, and the number of men in this profession has constantly been increasing (the last statistics showed 115,200), while the number of women employed in IT jobs has been dropping for several years and hasn't been scoring well compared to their male counterparts (the most recent statistics showed 11,400 women) [19]. Source: [22].
Receiving social security benefits Partial disability pension from pension insurance Full disability pension from pension insurance Other pension from pension insurance Care allowance under the social services act Recurring social welfare benefits Other family social security benefits Does not receive any pension or welfare benefits Not given Total
1031 711 79 439 0 0 3603 468 6331
Source: [10].
Table 7 – Economically active visually impaired and the nature of their activities. Economically active of the visually impaired – employed and self-employed The nature of the current employment Dependent activity Self-employment Not given Total
5256 908 167 6331
Source: [10].
visual impairment in the group that did not receive any social security benefits. As in the whole group of people with disabilities and those visually handicapped, the data shows that a majority of those in the group of economically active persons do have employment. Roughly 15% of the total number of those economically active are self-employed (Table 7).
Conclusion The comparison of the number of economically active persons with visual impairment with the overall number of persons with disabilities in the population does not have the desired outcome. Less than a tenth of people with this disability participate in the labor market. The issue with the disabled is a broad concept, for in addition to health problems, there are a range of social, psychological, and economic factors. There can also be cultural and political factors, as the amount and quality of care for the disabled reflects the moral status of society. One of the realistic reasons why the methodology should be elaborated on and the concept of access in the area of employment of the disabled, is the reality about the growing number of senior citizens. Health problems increase with age and, in the case of the visually impaired, it is no different. With the rapid growth in the number of senior citizens after the year 2010 (post-war baby boom), and the projected 24.1% over 65 in 2030, and an estimate of nearly one-third of the population in 2050, we can also expect an increase in the number of
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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eye disorders and the visually impaired14 (also in people of working age). Solving future problems will not be easy. Apart from medical recommendations, which, if followed could possibly reduce the number of eye disorders, several other methods are on offer, such as economic incentives put in place by the employers, especially in the case of support for setting up sheltered workshops and workplaces. Another possible option, apart from the active employment policy and their tools, is volunteering. This is understood as a legitimate opportunity to participate in the development of society, offering the visually impaired (and other handicapped as well) integration into the workplace, although not as a paid position. Yet, this does have a positive effect for the disabled person [13]. On a more general note, it is possible to make the road to employment easier for the disabled, whether by finding them a job, by the promise of employment after graduation, (a secured place), or by meeting standards of affirmative action in the workplace. The visually impaired seeking employment also need a greater degree of consultation, which can partially be resolved (albeit unsystematically) through gifts and grants from various foundations and gifts from natural persons. For example, in 2012 the ČEZ Foundation was giving out financial assistance in the Southern Bohemian Region and one of the finalists was a special educational center for the visually impaired in České Budějovice, which could get special diagnostic equipment as a result of a financial assistance allocation, thereby helping to make it better to integrate the visually impaired into mainstream education, raising their chances of finding employment [14]. It is also fitting to push for and finance an assistant in the workplace using the tools of active policy when they are first adapting to their new environment. It is possible to evaluate the vocational rehabilitation and participation in the retraining courses. The aim is to create a holistic system of vocational rehabilitation including consultation, preparation for a job, and being placed into employment.
Conflict of interest The author has no conflict of interest to disclose.
references
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[3] Jesenský J. Tyflologické minimum a základy komplexního zabezpečení zrakově postižených. Prague: FV Svazu invalidů; 1988. [4] Sirovátka T. Marginalizace na pracovním trhu. Brno: Vydavatelství MU Brno; 1997, pp. 10, 39. [5] Møller IH. Some theoretical and empirical perspectives of labour market marginalisation. In: Mortensen N, editor. Social integration and marginalization. Koebenhavn: Samfundsliteratur; 1996, p. 114–46. [6] Národní plán opatření pro snížení negativních důsledků zdravotního postižení. Dokument schválený usnesením vlády ČR č. 493 ze dne 8.9.1993. Sborník zástupců organizací zdravotně postižených; 1993. [7] Bojičová L, Adámková V. Nejčastější příčiny neschopnosti k práci v České republice. Kontakt 2011;3:298–307. [8] Jankovský J, Pfeiffer J, Švestková O. Vybrané kapitoly z uceleného systému rehabilitace. České Budějovice: ZSF JU; 2005, p. 103. [9] Výběrové šetření o zdravotně postižených osobách v ČR. Fórum sociální politiky 2008;4:30–1. [10] Český statistický úřad: Výsledky výběrového šetření zdravotně postižených osob za rok; 2007. Available from: http://www.czso.cz/csu/2008edicniplan.nsf/p/3309-08.doc [cited 18.10.14]. [11] Český statistický úřad: Demografická ročenka krajů České republiky 1991–2006. Available from: http://www.czso.cz/ csu/2007edicniplan.nsf/publ/4027-07-1991_az_2006.doc [cited 20.10.13]. [12] Radi F. Zamestnanie ako jedna z ciest integrácie občanov so zdravotným postihnutím. Kontakt 2008;1:96–104. [13] Kabelková M, Königová P. Dobrovolnictví jako možný nástroj při řešení nezaměstnanosti. Kontakt 2011;2:177–86. [14] Binterová A. Diagnostické nástroje mohou pomoci zrakově postiženým dětem. Kontakt 2012;2:234. [15] Mareš P. Nezaměstnanost jako sociální problém. Prague: SLON; 1998. [16] Murray Ch. Příliš mnoho dobra. Americká sociální politika 1950–1980. Prague: SLON; 1998. [17] Jesenský J. Prostor pro integraci. Prague: Comenia Consult; 1993. [18] Edwards T. Dlouhodobá a opakovaná nezaměstnanost v České republice. Ostrava: Institut rozvoje podnikání; 1996. [19] Gallie D. Social consequences of long-term unemployment in Britain. In: Benoit-Guilbot O, Gallie D, editors. Long-term unemployment. London: Printer Publishers; 1994. [20] Novák P. Pracovní rekvalifikace zrakově postižených v České republice – východiska a přístupy. Rigorózní práce. Trnava: FZSP TU; 2006, pp. 26, 102. [21] Goffman E. Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc.; 1986, p. 14. [22] Český statistický úřad: Statistická ročenka České republiky; 2012. Available from: http://www.czso.cz/csu/ 2012edicniplan.nsf/kapitola/0001-12-r_2012-2100.doc [cited 12.10.13].
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The identical problem must be addressed in other countries where there is a gradually aging population. For example, the American Blind Foundation (ABF) at the federal and state level advocated increased financial subsidies of retraining services so older visually impaired Americans could, from now on, actively work in a company. Five million Americans aged 65 and older have serious visual impairment. In the next 30 years, due to the aging of the generation born in the 1950s (Baby-boomers in the USA), the number of older visually impaired people is to double. This puts an even bigger burden on the retraining programs [20]. Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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Review article
Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy Pavel Novák * Catholic University in Ružomberok, Faculty of Education, Department of Social Work, Slovak Republic
article info
abstract
Article history:
The aim of this paper is to evaluate the participation and the degree of success of the visually
Received 19 November 2013
impaired in the labor market with regard to the market economy in the Czech Republic.
Accepted 14 May 2014
The method used consisted of the application and comparison of statistical information
Available online xxx
on persons with disabilities, collected by order of the Czech government, the Czech
Keywords:
of Health, and the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports.
Statistical Office in cooperation with the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, the Ministry Visually impaired
The economic activity of the visually impaired was not a direct focus of the statistical
Economic activity
survey. The data was collected for the disabled as a whole. However, at the personal request
Employment
of the author, the Czech Statistical Office has recalculated the data and provided us with it.
Disabled Unemployment
This paper briefly describes the situation regarding the workplace activities of the visually impaired before 1989 in the former Czechoslovakia. It recognizes the impact of unemployment and the importance of work for people with disabilities, as well as briefly glossing over the most common hurdles preventing them from finding employment. In other parts, statistical data is compared from a nationwide survey which presented the fact that the Czech Republic has an estimated 1,015,548 persons with disabilities. As seen in the results, the number of people with some form of visual disability is approaching ninety thousand. In the group researched, there were 6331 persons economically active who were visually impaired; from that number, women accounted for less than one-third. Similarly, in the whole group of people with disabilities and even the visually handicapped, information shows that in the group of economically active persons, the majority hold proper employment. Roughly 15% of those economically active are selfemployed. # 2014 Faculty of Health and Social Studies of University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
* Correspondence to: Pod Lipou 1495, 508 01 Hořice v Podkrkonoší, Czech Republic. E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006 1212-4117/# 2014 Faculty of Health and Social Studies of University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice. Published by Elsevier Urban & Partner Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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Introduction Those with visual impairment and who are in the labor market represent one of the most difficult groups of people with disabilities to employ. Poor or complete loss of vision, for example later in life represents the loss of nearly all activities for the person, as well as the contacts and skills he had in his previous life. The gradual or sudden loss of vision generally means a below-average quality of life, disintegration, and oftentimes a personality disorder. Being independent and having the ability to look after themselves is essential in shaping the personalities of children and those blind since birth. In addition, it plays a big role in their integration into a group. Their socialization moves on a different level, not being subjected to such psychological pressure as people who lose their sight later in life. Integration into everyday life is complicated in varying degrees depending on the nature and extent of the visual impairment and on the abilities of the individual. A man suffering from visual impairment later in life is removed from everyday life, and must again relearn the basic skills. If they are of working age, they must acquire the skills necessary for the chosen profession, since most of those suffering from loss of vision almost always lose their jobs.
The participation of the visually impaired in the labor market A theoretical basis ‘‘Work is the strongest tie to reality!’’ – is defined by Sigmund Freud as one of the reasons to work [1]. One's job ranks first among the activities through which a person comes to a selfrealization, and in the case of the visually impaired, it is the cornerstone of their social integration. The importance of work to human life is undeniable; it contributes to the shaping of one's personality [2] and the socialization of the visually impaired in the workplace also influences their quality of life [3]. The practical application of their own work potential for the visually impaired, of course, is different for each of them and is dependent on the extent of their impairment. Jesenský [3] claims that through the socialization and the personality development of visually impaired people, they will achieve their integration.1 For some with visual impairment, work is self-fulfillment, achieving a sense of validity for others to the betterment of their own economic situation. Ideally, the job would fulfill all of these requirements simultaneously.2
1 ‘‘Integration is a state where the visually impaired do not consider themselves to be a special part of a company and neither does the company see the visually impaired as its own special sector, i.e., when they have adapted to each other and when the visually impaired's faults have disappeared and with those who can see, their false compassion, embarrassment, and prejudice’’ [3]. Faults here mean as a result of visual defects [3]. 2 A number of authors write about the value and importance of work in Czech literature, such as Petr Mareš of FSS MU Brno, Jiří Večerník of the Institute of Sociology ASCR, and more.
During the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, practically all those disabled were clients of the welfare state and their jobs usually involved work in production cooperatives, similar to present-day sheltered workshops. These entities, however, disappeared in the nineties, with some exceptions,3 due to their lack of competitiveness. The market economy, on the one hand, gives everyone space for implementation, but it is difficult for a handicapped person to meet the requirements of the free labor market. Paradoxically, in a free society, they are gradually excluded from public life, become completely dependent on state support and insignificant for the labor market.4 According to Sirovátka [4], ‘‘marginality is seen as the opposite of participation’’. Møller [5] characterizes marginalization in a similar way. According to him, marginalization in the labor market concerns people of working age who are permanently or have for a long time been excluded from the everyday labor market. Not all people with disabilities see this fact as unchanging and do participate in the open labor market. This paper5 is an evaluation of the success of the visually impaired with regards to the market economy, clearly showing which part of the handicapped are gainfully employed, receiving either a wage or salary,6 or by being self-employed.
The participation of the visually impaired in the labor market The sources of the data and achieved results The degree of success in employment in the labor market comes primarily from a level playing field regarding their access to education and employment and certainly from the situation in the labor market concerning the experience, qualifications, and willingness of the candidate to work. All the above conditions are often only an ideal, which, especially for the disabled, is not able to be met. In comparison: in 1984, roughly 30% of all the visually impaired found a job in
3
These include the Karko Cooperative in Ústí nad Labem, founded in 1953, which currently employs nearly 300 disabled people in three workshops. There's also Spektra, a Prague manufacturing cooperative for the blind, whose activities date back to 1989 and who specialize in computer technology and compensational aids for the visually impaired. The manufacturing cooperative Obzor, in Zlín, founded in 1965, focuses mainly on the production and distribution of small electromechanical products and parts for the automotive industry. 4 Mareš [15] refers to marginalization as the ‘‘reduction of chance, pushing workers with certain social characteristics into unfavorable or marginal positions in the labor market and exposing them to a higher risk of unemployment, or into a period of long-term unemployment’’. 5 While this article was being processed, there was no more up to date information from the Czech Statistical Office available. Another collection of data concerning people with disabilities will be published in 2014; after the results are released there may be an opportunity to draw up a comparison of the data from the two researches. 6 According to Murray [16] however, a salary is also a symbol of status through which it is possible to satisfy existential certainty. The extent of the salary did not lose its motivational effects. People are influenced by money and money can in turn ‘‘buy’’ its social status.
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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the former Czechoslovakia.7 That was the last time the exact number of the visually impaired and the extent of their economic activity was recorded. In the Czech Republic, in 1995, according to a qualified assessment, there was estimated to be more than 23,000 visually impaired, while the National Plan [6] estimated it at 60,000. Every year in the Czech Republic about 300 people lose their sight – after birth defects, it is largely caused by accidents and serious operations. A job not only has an economic advantage for disabled people, but it also helps to improve their health in addition to helping them adapt to society. The long-term inability to work (handicap) has a significant impact on the quality of life.8 This is primarily a socio-economic phenomenon.9 Feelings of frustration or even a loss of motivation for their future life come during a long-term absence from work [7]. The employment for the visually impaired enhances their selfesteem. Having work helps them to overcome psychological hurdles. Preparations for their job and the job itself have a significant socio-therapeutic significance that exceeds the economic benefits. Taking part in complex rehabilitation [8], aside from classic rehabilitation, also including a resocialization and potential retraining corresponding to their state of health, can prove beneficial for the visually impaired. In accordance with Government Resolution No. 596 and No. 1004 passed in 1995, which was put forth by the President of the Czech Statistical Office in cooperation with the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports a system of statistical research was created concerning those with disabilities (OZP) up to 31st December 2005. Statistical research concerning the OZP was then proposed and implemented in 2007. The Social Policy FORUM Journal reported on the methodology of this research and the most important findings to their readers in 2008 [9]. The following information emerged from the most extensive research in the area of disabilities (Table 1 and Chart 1). From the Czech Statistical Office's survey results, an assessment has emerged that 1,015,548 people with disabilities live in the Czech Republic. In total, this comprises 9.87% of the Czech population. Table 2 shows where the visually impaired stand among persons with disabilities. As seen in the results, the number of people with some form of visual impairment is around ninety thousand. The most visual handicaps are among seniors. More than half of all 7 This calculation is based on extensive research, carried out in 1984. The membership base of the then Association of the Visually impaired consisted of 10,960 members, 70% of which were not employed [17]. Due to the fact that membership in the association was, at that time, nearly mandatory, the data can be considered very accurate and informative about the employment of visually impaired in the first half of the eighties. Not included in the research were students and children who would thereby have raised the number of visually impaired by about a thousand. 8 In addition to long-term unemployment, chronic unemployment still exists [18]. This occurs where these deeply rooted obstacles in getting a job have yet to be overcome. These include personal obstacles such as physical and mental disabilities, social barriers such as lack of child care available and discrimination. 9 According to several studies, in unemployment the extent of their social contacts does not change, but rather the nature of them. The unemployed tend to form segregated social networks, i. e. to limit their group to those with the same disabilities [19].
Table 1 – Basic overview of persons with disabilities.
Sex Men Women Population by age groups 0–14 years old 15–29 years old 30–44 years old 45–59 years old 60–74 years old 75 years old and over
Population of the Czech Republic (to 31st December 2006)
People with disabilities in the Czech Republic
10,287,189a
1,015,548b
5,026,184 5,261,005
490,427 525,121
1,479,514 2,175,672 2,312,929 2,195,646 1,462,586 660,842
46,208 60,621 101,331 245,743 283,274 276,744
Source: [10]. According to the Demographic Yearbook of the Czech Statistical Office for 2006 [11]. b The whole number, 1,015,548, also includes 1627 persons whose age was not given. a
visual handicaps are caused by disease, with the second most being birth defects (Table 3). The severity of the visual impairment has been assessed on a four-point scale from low vision to total blindness. From the results obtained, it is evident that the largest, with more than one-third of all of visual impairments, have a moderate impairment of vision (Table 4). Concerning the economic activity of the visually impaired (Table 5), it was not considered a priority when collecting the data for all persons with disabilities in the research. But by personal request, however, the Czech Statistical Office provided the data and recalculated it. The rate of economic activity for people with disabilities10 is influenced by a number of factors, which, among other things, stem from the health limitations of the individual and the specifics of the situation in the labor market, efficiency, and social policy efforts, but also from the overall level of development and social service settings. Access to the labor market, in addition, is also influenced by the overall physical and social conditions, such as the degree to which physical barriers are dealt with and the development of the employers' social responsibilities. As seen in research conducted in Slovakia [12], one of the main reasons why employers do not want to hire people with disabilities is due to their own lack of information concerning the needs of the disabled, as well as their abilities and skills.11 This discrimination in access 10 For comparison from the recent past: from nationwide surveys from the ‘‘National Center for Health Statistics’’ in the United States from 1994 to 1995 it shows that at the time of the survey, 32% of the blind were employed and 46% of the visually impaired. The age of employment (work activity) was taken from those 18 to 69 years olds. For comparison: people with something other than visual disabilities had 74% employment [20]. 11 Individuals with disabilities are stigmatized from the beginning due to their disability. Erwin Goffman in his work ‘‘Stigma’’, first published in 1963, talks about stigma as ‘‘a special kind of relationship between attributes and stereotype’’ [21].
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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Chart 1 – Percentage of people with disabilities. Table 2 – Type of disability by sex and age. Age group
Disability
Total people
Frequency of disability for 1 person
Physical
Visual
Hearing
Mental
Learning
Internal
Total
0–14 15–29 30–44 45–59 60–74 75+
16,687 25,710 43,107 127,959 152,860 183,604
7964 6318 7597 12,778 18,642 34,140
2902 3835 4733 11,226 15,205 36,684
11,604 22,964 19,306 20,302 13,327 19,012
4846 9152 22,276 34,662 23,662 33,130
22,343 20,931 34,990 118,547 186,368 187,672
66,346 88,910 132,009 325,474 410,064 494,242
46,208 60,621 101,331 245,743 283,274 276,744
1.436 1.467 1.303 1.324 1.448 1.786
Total
550,407
87,439
74,700
106,699
128,065
571,734
519,044b
1,015,548a
1.496
Source: [10]. The whole number, 1,015,548, also includes 1627 persons whose age was not given. b Regarding the possibility of multiple answers given after recalculating, 1,015,548 people have a total of 1,519,044 various types of disabilities. The whole includes only one case concerning internal organs. a
Table 3 – Cause of disability by sex and type of disability. Birth
Caused by Accident
Diseases
Other
Not given
Total
Old age Total
Sex Men Women Total Type of disability Physical Visual Hearing Learning Mental Internal Total
104,709 91,799 196,508
61,360 40,463 101,823
584,550 682,903 1,267,453
37,318 95,694 133,012
22,150 15,208 37,358
45,685 56,163 101,848
855,772 982,230 1,838,002
58,159 17,912 13,779 62,257 13,835 30,567 196,509
67,962 7700 2619 5207 4253 4082 101,823
354,063 47,081 37,634 25,502 78,821 724,352 1,267,453
37,069 7711 13,954 7123 11,383 55,773 133,013
8911 2226 1604 1041 8307 15,269 37,358
24,243 4809 5110 5569 11,466 50,649 101,846
550,407 87,439 74,700 106,699 128,065 890,692 1,838,002a
Source: [10]. Regarding the possibility of multiple answers given after recalculating, 1,015,548 people have a total of 1,838,002 various types of disabilities. All cases concerning internal organ that respondents identified are included in this number. a
Table 4 – Degree of disability according to the type of disability. Type of disability
Degree of disability Light
Visual
24,479
Moderate 31,451
Serious 19,924
Very serious 10,981
Not given 604
Total 87,439
Source: [10].
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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Table 5 – The economic activity of the visually impaired. The economic activity of the visually impaired in the Czech Republic
Men
Women
Total
e5
Table 6 – The economically active of the visually impaired and receiving benefits. The economically active of the visually impaired – employed and self-employed
Children (0–14 years old) Students Employment, self-employment Unemployed Non-working pensioners Working pensioners At home, including parental leave Other Not given
4688 1336 4375 1636 23,079 1430 613 961 594
3631 1383 1956 1476 37,958 309 222 713 1079
8319 2719 6331 3112 61,037 1739 835 1674 1673
Total
38,712
48,727
87,439
Source: [10].
to the labor market is in close relationship to the stigma of the disability.12 When comparing genders, men with disabilities oftentimes are more economically active than women. Approximately 60% of men and 40% of women take part in the labor market. The most productive age group with disabilities are for both sexes between 45 and 59 years old. The data indicates that out of the group of economically active persons with disabilities, four-fifths are employed and one fifth are selfemployed. In the case of the visually handicapped, the ratio of men/ women is more noticeable. Less than one-third of women out of all economically active persons are actually working. Even among the healthy population, the unemployment rate of women is significantly higher. One possible explanation is that work opportunities have recently increased in the area of Information Technology and the visually impaired are able to excel in these jobs. With the use compensatory aids they are able to compete well in this profession in the labor market and this profession specifically is usually seen as a man's field.13 It is interesting that of the economically active of the visually impaired, a majority do not receive any social security benefits – 57% out of all of those economically active (Table 6). This number may be even higher because in the papers of some of the respondents, there was no information about receiving social security benefits. From the data available, the degree of visual impairment on those economically active is not clear. What would certainly be interesting to know would be the distribution of the degree of 12 Discrimination is closely linked to stigmatization, as stated by Sirovátka [4] ‘‘Discrimination leans on stigmatization’’. 13 Employment statistics in Czechoslovakia in the 1970s and 1980s provide us with information concerning the total sums in individual areas (i.e. Science and Research), therefore, it is not possible to find out the exact number of employees in ICT jobs. Since 2000, the Czech Statistical Office has been following the number if IT technicians in the Czech Republic, and the number of men in this profession has constantly been increasing (the last statistics showed 115,200), while the number of women employed in IT jobs has been dropping for several years and hasn't been scoring well compared to their male counterparts (the most recent statistics showed 11,400 women) [19]. Source: [22].
Receiving social security benefits Partial disability pension from pension insurance Full disability pension from pension insurance Other pension from pension insurance Care allowance under the social services act Recurring social welfare benefits Other family social security benefits Does not receive any pension or welfare benefits Not given Total
1031 711 79 439 0 0 3603 468 6331
Source: [10].
Table 7 – Economically active visually impaired and the nature of their activities. Economically active of the visually impaired – employed and self-employed The nature of the current employment Dependent activity Self-employment Not given Total
5256 908 167 6331
Source: [10].
visual impairment in the group that did not receive any social security benefits. As in the whole group of people with disabilities and those visually handicapped, the data shows that a majority of those in the group of economically active persons do have employment. Roughly 15% of the total number of those economically active are self-employed (Table 7).
Conclusion The comparison of the number of economically active persons with visual impairment with the overall number of persons with disabilities in the population does not have the desired outcome. Less than a tenth of people with this disability participate in the labor market. The issue with the disabled is a broad concept, for in addition to health problems, there are a range of social, psychological, and economic factors. There can also be cultural and political factors, as the amount and quality of care for the disabled reflects the moral status of society. One of the realistic reasons why the methodology should be elaborated on and the concept of access in the area of employment of the disabled, is the reality about the growing number of senior citizens. Health problems increase with age and, in the case of the visually impaired, it is no different. With the rapid growth in the number of senior citizens after the year 2010 (post-war baby boom), and the projected 24.1% over 65 in 2030, and an estimate of nearly one-third of the population in 2050, we can also expect an increase in the number of
Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006
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eye disorders and the visually impaired14 (also in people of working age). Solving future problems will not be easy. Apart from medical recommendations, which, if followed could possibly reduce the number of eye disorders, several other methods are on offer, such as economic incentives put in place by the employers, especially in the case of support for setting up sheltered workshops and workplaces. Another possible option, apart from the active employment policy and their tools, is volunteering. This is understood as a legitimate opportunity to participate in the development of society, offering the visually impaired (and other handicapped as well) integration into the workplace, although not as a paid position. Yet, this does have a positive effect for the disabled person [13]. On a more general note, it is possible to make the road to employment easier for the disabled, whether by finding them a job, by the promise of employment after graduation, (a secured place), or by meeting standards of affirmative action in the workplace. The visually impaired seeking employment also need a greater degree of consultation, which can partially be resolved (albeit unsystematically) through gifts and grants from various foundations and gifts from natural persons. For example, in 2012 the ČEZ Foundation was giving out financial assistance in the Southern Bohemian Region and one of the finalists was a special educational center for the visually impaired in České Budějovice, which could get special diagnostic equipment as a result of a financial assistance allocation, thereby helping to make it better to integrate the visually impaired into mainstream education, raising their chances of finding employment [14]. It is also fitting to push for and finance an assistant in the workplace using the tools of active policy when they are first adapting to their new environment. It is possible to evaluate the vocational rehabilitation and participation in the retraining courses. The aim is to create a holistic system of vocational rehabilitation including consultation, preparation for a job, and being placed into employment.
Conflict of interest The author has no conflict of interest to disclose.
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The identical problem must be addressed in other countries where there is a gradually aging population. For example, the American Blind Foundation (ABF) at the federal and state level advocated increased financial subsidies of retraining services so older visually impaired Americans could, from now on, actively work in a company. Five million Americans aged 65 and older have serious visual impairment. In the next 30 years, due to the aging of the generation born in the 1950s (Baby-boomers in the USA), the number of older visually impaired people is to double. This puts an even bigger burden on the retraining programs [20]. Please cite this article in press as: Novák, P., Economic activity of the visually impaired: An evaluation of the successes of the visually impaired with regard to the market economy. Kontakt (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kontakt.2014.05.006