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Education and gender in Sweden
Women's Studies International Forum, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 51-60, 1995 Copyright © 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in the USA. All rights reserved 0277-5395/95 $9.50 + .00
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EDUCATION AND GENDER IN SWEDEN Is There any Equality? AGNIESZKAB RoN-WoJcIECHOWSKA Department of Education,StockholmUniversity,S-106 91 Stockholm,Sweden
Synopsis - - This article deals with the problem of gender and higher education in Sweden. In the first part, educationalcareers of women and men are presented, beginningwith primaryeducationand ending with higher education. The second part takes up the issue of gender and graduate studies. Women,who make up the largest group of students in the beginning of higher education studies, slowly lose their position as they progress through higher education. Thus, among graduate students, the number of women falls to about 32%. The third part of the article reports on a multidisciplinaryproject concerning women and men in research settingsat UppsalaUniversityand especiallyconcernsthe part of the project which focuses on female and male graduate studentexperiences, life stories, and adjustmentsto the specific academic culture. Both the research design and the use of qualitativeanalysisof data are presented. Finally,some tentativeresults are discussed.
In this article I discuss the problem of gender and e d u c a t i o n in S w e d e n within the higher education sector, focusing specifically on graduate studies. Sweden is perceived by many as the country in which women have the same opportunities as men with regard to educational careers and, moreover, the country in which w o m e n ' s situation is the best in comparison with other countries. Since 1930, family and housing policy has aimed at facilitating w o m e n ' s double role in s o c i e t y . E v e n t h o u g h for s e v e r a l decades the n u m b e r of men and w o m e n engaged in the labour market has been equal, the Swedish labour market still represents a gender segregated system. But, more frequently than in other countries, Swedes have established various bodies responsible for equality between men and women, like official delegations, committees, and o m b u d s m a n / w o m a n , and have even appointed a minister for questions of gender and equality. In this way, policy aiming at equal rights of men and women and their r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s was developed further. Some legislation work has been done to equalize educational opportunities at the level of higher education given
that education has been regarded as an important factor in m a k i n g a s o c i e t y e q u a l (see Elqvist-Saltzman, 1991). Nevertheless, as far as education is concerned, women still have fewer opportunities, especially at the graduate level in higher education. The reasons can become an interesting issue for discussion. I deal first with some statistics and then give some insight into the project in which I am involved concerning Women and Men in Research Settings.1 EDUCATIONAL CARRIERS OF WOMEN
AND MEN IN SWEDEN Sweden is known for its educational reforms which aim at equalization of schooling for children, taking into account social b a c k g r o u n d and gender (coed education). Thus, in its structure, the school became uniform at both primary and secondary levels. D u r i n g the period 1940-1980, the whole educational system was r e f o r m e d to b e c o m e e v e n m o r e u n i f o r m . Reforms of the educational system had three i m p o r t a n t goals: equality (as far as gender, class, regions, but even theoretical and practical e d u c a t i o n were c o n c e r n e d ) , e f f i c i e n c y
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AGNIESZKABRON-WOJCIECHOWSKA
(especially at the level of higher education, i.e., to have better flow of students and to reach better outcomes - - fewer dropouts), and relevance (i.e., to meet labour market requirements). The first goal - - equality - - and especially equality between sexes - - dominated throughout the reforms (see Elqvist-Saltzman, 1992). Since the 1962 r e f o r m of e l e m e n t a r y schooling in Sweden, all children attend the first-level school of 9-year duration (grundskola), which is obligatory for them between the ages of 7 to 16. Eighty percent of all primary school graduates continue their education, in some way, at one uniform school called a gymnasium (gymnasieskola). There are two types of programmes at the gymnasium, one of 3year duration - - with theoretical subjects preparing for higher education - - and one of 2year duration - - containing more practical subjects in preparation for different vocations. Girls and boys are equally represented at the gymnasium. However, among 28 different courses available at the gymnasium, only 6 have an equal representation of gender. The natural sciences course has the biggest proportion of boys of all courses dominated by boys. Eleven programmes are dominated by boys, and 11 others are dominated by girls. Boys especially choose technological subjects, and girls focus their interests in nursing, administrative jobs, economy, art, and social sciences. Only the 3-year, so-called theoretical courses give direct access to higher education. So the selection to different courses starts as early as the secondary level. 2 Here women have a better chance if they choose a 3-year course, but the courses that have been traditionally female last only 2 years. Courses dominated by males, for example, the technology courses, may last 2 or 3 years. What happens to men and women if they apply for higher education courses? Figure 1 presents the data concerning newcomers to higher education courses according to gender. Sixty percent of students beginning college and university undergraduate courses are women. This number increased as a result of the 1977 reform of the higher education structure, when many postsecondary courses were recognized as higher education studies. These were programmes traditionally dominated by women - - social care, nursing, teaching, administration, and economics. Figure 2 shows the division into courses according to gender of
the first year at undergraduate studies in the academic year 1988/89. Women predominate especially in such programmes as care, teaching, culture and information, free single courses, and administration, economy, and social professions (AES). Men, on the other hand, are mostly involved in technological programmes (79%). Again, the typical women's and men's choices of interest are reflected here. These data are of special interest, as they show the segregation into female and male career patterns. To change this, the Swedish Riksdag (Parliament) took up in 1987 the proposition (resolution) called "Equal Gender Policy for 1990s." According to this long directive, the colleges and universities should aim to try to establish a minimum of 40% of both sexes at each course or programme of studies. In the year 1988/89 women were underrepresented in engineering, whereas men were underrepresented in nursing, teaching, and culture and information professions. 'q'he Ministry of Education, concerned with the under-representation of girls in science and technology programmes, has allocated a considerable sum of money to promote female entry into these courses," writes Elqvist-Saltzman (1992, p. 44). In 1988 the 5-year national plan was adopted to equalize opportunities for both sexes, which meant an equal distribution of male and female students (40-60%) among all courses at secondary and higher education levels. There is even a difference as far as credits are concerned. Generally, women choose shorter programmes with fewer credits (up to 120 credits), whereas men choose longer programmes with more credits (120-220). 3 This phenomenon is illustrated in Table 1. This paints a clear picture of how women choose shorter education programs (55%) which most often were not recognized as higher educa-
Table 1. Beginners at Higher Education According to Gender and Number of Credits in 1988/89 Credit Points (%) Gender
<120
120-220
Total Students
Men Women
38 55
62 45
16 759 (100%) 22 479 (100%)
Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 20 SM 9001, s. 3
Education and Gender in Sweden
53
80000 70000 60000 50000
"-~
all female male
40000 30000 20000 76
I
|
|
|
|
I
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
year Fig. 1. Beginners at undergraduate studies (1977/78-1988/89). Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 20 SM 9001, s. 3.
tion previously. This again proves why there are statistical changes in favour of women, when actually women do not stay in longer courses. In fact, only longer courses (specialization) can give access to graduate studies. Men (62%), on the other hand, choose longer courses. Previous education of applicants differs as well. This is shown in relation to gender in
Table 2. First-year students with longer secondary education are mostly men (60.2% of all male applicants). Among women there are only 44.6% who have such education. On the other hand, there are more women than men who are using u n c o n v e n t i o n a l a d m i s s i o n (27.3% of all female and 20.0% of all male first-year students).
Total Technology ASE [] []
Single Courses
Male Female
Teachers' Train
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 2. Beginners according to courses and gender in 1988/89 in %. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 20 SM 9001, s. 6. AES = courses in administration, economy, & social profession.
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AGNIESZKABRON-WOJCIECHOWSKA
Table 2. Beginnersto Higher Educationin 1988/89Accordingto Previous Education and Gender Year 1988/89 Course at Gymnasium or Other Institution 3-4-year courses Studentexamen A-level 2-year theory course Other 2-year gymnasiumeducation 2-year vocational Othera Total
Men
Women
Total
18,521 (60.2%) 660 (2.1%) 2,402 (7.8%) 304 ( 1.0%) 2,718 (8.8%) 6,140 (20.0%) 30,745 (100%)
19,517 (44.6%) 1,120 (2.6%) 4,766 (10.9%) 630 (1.4%) 5,779 (13.2%) 11,972 (27.3%) 43,784 (100%)
38,038 (51.0%) 1,780 (2.4%) 7,168 (9.6%) 934 (1.3%) 8,497 (11.4%) 18,112 (24.3%) 74,529 (100%)
alncludingbeginnerswith 24:5 opportunity(those of 25 years of age, withoutsecondary education but with 4 years work or family experiences), folk high schools graduates, examinedby generalsecondarycompetenceand other Swedishrelevanteducation. Source: SCB: Statistiskameddelanden,U 20 SM 9001, s. 15.
So far, the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n c a n be made: The p e r c e n t a g e of w o m e n b e g i n n i n g undergraduate studies has increased. This of course is a positive sign. But women choose a shorter type of education (55% of them). Unlike men, women take shorter courses at the secondary level, and they also tend to choose shorter courses at the higher education level. Women are still the largest group of students at traditional w o m e n ' s courses, which train them in stereotypical women's professions. At the same time, women have doubled their proportion among newly educated technicians, but still four out of five graduating from engineering are men. The number of girls entering the study programmes in engineering and natural science is gradually increasing but the development has been slower than expected. (Elqvist-Saltzman, 1992, p. 45)
G R A D U A T E S T U D I E S AND G E N D E R Women are in the majority as far as undergraduate studies are concerned. It is during graduate studies that the number of women students diminishes dramatically. In 1988-1989 there were 2,300 newcomers to PhD courses. Among
them, every third person was a woman. Most women came to social studies - - 24% - - and to m e d i c a l studies - - 23%. Men, as usual, a p p l i e d to t e c h n o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s - - 28%. Figure 3 shows the proportion of w o m e n at each faculty accepted as newcomers to graduate studies. Veterinary and pharmacology are two faculties in which women are best represented (69% and 63%). Social sciences have altogether 44% female newcomers, and the faculty of technology has the lowest percentage - - only 19%. The average age of graduate students has increased in recent years. In the last 17 years, the average age of PhD students increased by 3 years, from 27.5 to 30.5 years of age. For w o m e n , the average age was 30.5 years in 1988-1989, whereas for men it was 29.5 years. Women more often than men return to university to take part in graduate studies after they have established a family and had children (see E l q v i s t - S a l t z m a n , 1991). T h e i r way to graduate studies is not as straightforward as it often is for men. Together there were 17,000 graduate students registered in Sweden in 1988. A m o n g them only some (namely 12,900) were active, that is, took part in graduate courses and wrote their theses. Among them, 32% were women. Thus, there are women who are registered and
Education and Gender in Sweden
55
Faculties
Veterinary Pharmacology Philosophy Social Sciences Humanisfies Dentistry Medicine Law Theology Agriculture Commerce Math. &Natural Forest-culture Tchnology Total
69 63 57 44 42 41 38 38
•
Female in %
31 31 29 28 27 19 34 I
I
I
20
40
60
80
Fig. 3. Proportion of women accepted for graduate studies in 1988/89. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 21 SM 9001, s. 2.
do not take active part in their studies. In corn parison with the year 1961, when there were only 15% active female students, their number has increased. This is illustrated in Figure 4. In 1989, UH.~ (the National Board o f Universities and Colleges) made an investigation showing that an average period for a doctoral student to pass his or her PhD exam was: in humanities - - 11 years, in social sciences - -
9.5 years, in mathematics and natural sciences - - 7 years, and in medicine and in engineering -6 years. Graduate studies, which were introduced in 1977, were recommended to last no longer than 4 years. When UHA examined PhD holders from three cohorts who started their graduate studies not later than 13 years ago, they found that the most effective were students from medical schools (66%) and the least
15000
I0000 all female "411- m e n
5000
0 60
I
I
70
80
Fig. 4. Active Doctoral Students in the years 1961-1988. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 21 SM 9001, s. 4.
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AGNIESZKABRON-WOJCIECHOWSKA
56
effective were those from social science (20%). These results are shown in the Table 3. The i 977 reform of graduate studies aimed at formalizing the whole training p r o g r a m m e to credit courses with about 6 0 - 8 0 credits and writing the dissertation for 80-100 credits. Such a programme meant 4 years of full-time studies. Unfortunately, the efficiency of graduate studies is not high enough. Only three fourths of all the graduate students are actively engaged. Among them are only a few who graduate in 4 years. At the same time, S w e d e n needs far more PhD holders than it is possible to reach today. So the e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y is a i m e d at d o u b l i n g the number by recruiting more students and trying to reach final graduation in 4 to 5 years. As far as the first aim is concerned - - to recruit more students - - more women are welcome, of course. The first step in an academic career is to apply for graduate studies and to write a PhD thesis. But, as we saw, women at the undergraduate level seldom choose one subject in which to specialize and write an essay at the h i g h e s t l e v e l , a r e q u i r e m e n t for b e i n g a l l o w e d to a p p l y for g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s . In 1988/89, there were only 34% of women among applicants to graduate studies, an increase by 7% in comparison to the year 1979/80. As far as the second aim is concerned - - to speed up time o f graduation - - it is not easy for women to achieve either, unless their age lowers, that is, unless they apply to graduate s t u d i e s w h e n t h e y are 2 2 - 2 3 y e a r s o f a g e ( s t r a i g h t f r o m g y m n a s i u m to u n d e r g r a d u a t e then graduate studies). The average age o f a graduate w o m a n student today is 30.5 years. T h i s is e x a c t l y the age at w h i c h w o m e n in Sweden are concerned with building their family and having children. Many women do that d u r i n g their g r a d u a t e studies, w h i c h d e l a y s their graduation. There still exists the division into w o m e n ' s and m e n ' s roles in the family,
Table 3. Percentage of PhD Holders Among 3Year Cohorts Who Studied at Least 13 Years Faculty Social sciences Humanities Engineering Math and natural sciences Medicine Source: UHA-rapport, 1989.
Percentage 20 22 41 56 66
even though the situation has changed dramatically during the last two decades among Swedish women and men (i.e., they share the responsibility of bringing up their children). Another aspect of women's participation in graduate courses and making a career in academic research is the fact that there are fewer opportunities for women to experience a career at university. Women make up almost the same proportion o f employees at colleges and universities as men, but if we look at the university employees' hierarchy, one can notice that the higher one goes, the fewer w o m e n there are. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 5. As we can see, women make up only 5% of professorial positions in Sweden. But their prop o r t i o n a m o n g clerical p e r s o n n e l and chairw o m e n is very high (69% and 79%). A B D s and PhD holders have two available posts to apply for at colleges and universities - - university lecturer and research assistant. There are no more than 17% women university lecturers, and 22.5% women research assistants.
W O M E N AND MEN IN R E S E A R C H SETTINGS The underrepresentation o f women in academic careers and the unequal opportunities they still face, beginning with graduate studies and ending with the professorship, were the reasons for starting the project concerning women and men in research settings. Three disciplines are i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o j e c t - - E d u c a t i o n , Psychology, and Linguistics - - and the whole project is coordinated by the Centre o f Women Research at Uppsala University. A multidisciplinary approach guarantees a study of different aspects of the environments graduate students encounter and become part o f as well as giving a possibility for comparison and a deeper insight into the culture of Academy. Three d e p a r t m e n t s at U p p s a l a U n i v e r s i t y have been chosen for a deep investigation. They represent three faculties: the Natural Sciences Faculty, the Faculty of Social Sciences, and the Faculty of Humanities. The reason for choosing three departments was the even distribution o f gender among active doctoral students - - the main subject of our research. Psychologists involved in the research are m a i n l y interested in g e n d e r identity in connection with a researcher identity. Linguists
Education and Gender in Sweden
|1
totally
57
I l l l l l l l [ / l l l l i i l ,l l l i l i l I ( [ i l l
i
Professors univ. lecturer research ass. doctorants
[] []
lilli
researchers
w~OOllOlllllllllllllllll~
teachers
women men
i
technical per. hours emp. support jobs ~'JJ
charwomen
7111J1fffff
administration I
I
I
I
20
40
60
8O
IO0
Fig. 5. University employees in 1989. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelande, U23 SM 9001, p. 9.
are i n v e s t i g a t i n g interactions (mostly lang u a g e interactions) between sexes and between supervisors and graduate students at the seminars. T h e educational part focuses on female and male graduate students' experiences, life stories, and adjustment to the specific academic cultures. I am engaged in the educational part of the study. The questions of concem here are as follows: • H o w do the actors b e c o m e doctoral students? Which experiences matter? • What does their life story look like, what events and important people have influenced their decision to start a research career? • What prospects do they have to continue the career, what differences are there between women and men students? The methodological approach to the educational part of the project is Life history. I am interested in various specific biographies of doctoral students of both sexes and their ways of becoming researchers. This part of the project focuses on the actors and their experiences in becoming graduate students and researchers. The theoretical basis for this study is symbolic interactionism. The method I use is a deep unstructured interview, characteristic of qualitative studies. Very important here is the role of the intervie-
wee. It is she or he who takes over and decides how she or he wants to be perceived by others; she or he gives a picture of herself or himself which focuses on research career. I have approached eight graduate students from each department: four women and four men. Some o f them were newcomers, some were in the middle of the process of their studies, and some were approaching their graduation (in one case a person had already defended his thesis). I began the investigation by telephoning doctoral students one by one to tell them about the project and to invite them to participate. The telephone call was followed by a detailed letter in which, once again, I explained the purpose of the project and the role each interviewee could play in it. Moreover, the letter included some information about two parts of the interview, which necessarily should not be chronological. The first part was a free narrative about all important events and the people who made the impression on a given person during her or his whole life which she or he connects with her or his intellectual interests and the start o f a research career. The second part includes some items for further development by an actor in the interview. The items were not formulated in questions and were wide enough for each person's description and interpretation.
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AGNIESZKABRON-WoJCIECHOWSKA
In autumn 1992 I carried out 24 interviews with graduate students, department by department. In this way I got an insight into the department's culture and saturation of my data. The analysis began with the first interview. The interviews were conducted at the graduate students' homes, in s o m e cases at their w o r k places (offices), and only in one case in my department. While the interviews await a deep qualitative analysis, which I will make according to the pattern built by Strauss (1987), it is possible to discuss already some tentative results. As I said, the qualitative analysis began at the time of interviews. After each interview I made some additional notes concerning my impressions from a particular interview and a comparison to the previous ones. • I repeat here that among graduate students I have studied both men and women in the same proportion. They come mostly from well-educated families, so in a way they continue the tradition of their parents or relatives. Very few come from other groups of society, and most of them received encouragement to study from their parents. They were encouraged by their parents to take a "real" profession, such as physician, engineer, or economist, and to take the chance to become economically well off. • In general it was o n e ' s h o m e rather than one's school that made a difference in educational career both at the undergraduate and the graduate levels. Two patterns among students prevailed with regard to choice of discipline. It was either a straight pathway and interest in a specific area which had developed at primary and secondary school and continued at the higher level (e.g., interest in natural sciences which continues during the whole educational career), or it was interest in a very different subject which did not b e c o m e the choice o f research (e.g., interest in natural studies at school and the shift to humanities or social sciences at the higher level). • Often it was an important person, like one's father, teacher, or professor, who made such an impression on the student that she or he wanted to continue her or his educational career. But just as frequently there was no apparent reason for continuing one's career. A d m i s s i o n to graduate studies was very
•
•
•
•
often personal. Actors were encouraged by their teachers from undergraduate studies to apply. Often they applied because of their good diploma work, which is a requirement for admission. Newcomers to graduate studies in the three departments are much younger than those who became graduate students before them. Natural scientists are the youngest (between the ages of 23 and 30), but it is natural that they have to start early to make an academic/research career. The economic situation is not the best for the doctoral students. They earn far less than if they continued to be employed outside the university. In the first 2 years of their studies the economic situation is insecure and they have to borrow m o n e y to live. However, they have prospects to get a stipend and/or d o c t o r a l p o s t w h e n t h e y are a d v a n c e d enough with their courses and writing theses (social scientists and humanists). Natural scientists are in the best situation as they have, f r o m the beginning, a m o d e s t but secure income for 5 years. Students are conscious about their low economic position, but quite happy, because, as they say, they are doing interesting things and this is what matters. Research is exciting. Their time and work are flexible, and they feel independent in what they are doing. Because they are mature people who already have some work experience, it is not surprising that some already have built families and have small children. It is interesting that often students chose for a partner someone who also is doing research; often she or he is from the same or a similar discipline. They emphasize that it would be impossible to live with s o m e o n e who cannot understand the work conditions of a researcher, who works during the weekends or evenings and does not have enough time for family life and so forth. These families are built on partnership and sharing h o m e duties and taking care of children. Family well-being is as important as their own careers. Those who do not have families emphasize interests other than research. They have different hobbies and a social life which is as important to them as research. Graduate students do not complain about their supervision and often are happy with
Education and Gender in Sweden
the relationship they have established with their supervisors, but this, of course, may differ in individual cases. Natural science students get supervisors straight away, but in two other departments it is postponed until a student has taken some courses. Similarly, the choice of a dissertation topic is postponed in the Humanities Department, which is often perceived negatively by students as they want to start doing research from the beginning. They experience a dramatic change in their situation when they conclude their undergraduate studies and become graduate researchers. But this experience varies, of course, among the departments. Natural scientists, who, from the very beginning, start to do research projects in the labs and very early start to write articles and publish them as a part of dissertation, do not perceive their roles as researchers yet. They feel like students who have a lot to learn. Literature scientists and economic historians from the very beginning feel like real researchers who are engaged in problem solving and creativity. But they all see the tremendous difference between undergraduate and graduate studies. They become more independent, critical, and scientific. And as the time passes and they become more acquainted with the department, there will be fewer barriers between their professors and themselves. They start to feel more at home. • There is quite a difference between men and women with regard to future plans for their academic careers. Women have at least two goals in life, they want to do research but also to start a family, so it is not necessarily research which wins as a goal in life. They will feel happy working outside the university. Men usually have in mind a career directed toward a position at the university, and they already calculate how many posts will be available when they are ready with the exam and whether there is a chance for them to get one. There is a difference as well between those who come from welleducated families and those who do not. Aspirations are lower among the latter, both men and women. • There is quite an awareness of the gender issues among both women and men. The process begins with women talking openly
59
to their male colleagues about gender, organising informal meetings, or running seminars on women's issues in science to which men colleagues are invited. Women doctoral students say that there is a male hierarchy in all of the departments I studied. There are no instances of women supervisors. There is a special language used by male colleagues. Most male students agree with the problems when they not only hear of them from female colleagues but see them everyday, especially at seminars. So far, I can draw from the material some tentative conclusions, which point to the generation shift among doctoral students at three departments at the oldest Swedish University in Uppsala. PhD students are a bit younger, have more feminist awareness, share responsibilities in family life, and have interests other than only research - leisure and family life are very important to them. Their work is often based on individual accomplishment, but they have contacts with other researchers as well. The gender perspective among doctoral students could be the result of women being no longer in minority in these three departments. Can we simply conclude that if there is an equal proportion of female and male graduate students at the departments, the perspective on research and communic a t i o n will c h a n g e and b e c o m e more equal? This question, of course, asks for much more analysis of the data.
ENDNOTES 1. The project has a multidisciplinary character and involves several researchers from Uppsala University with Mona Eliasson as the project leader. The project is sponsored by Arbetsmiljrfonden (Work Environment Fund). 2. In reality, the selection begins at the third level of primary school (3 + 3 + 3), with a division into more theoretical and less theoretical instruction as far as only two subjects are concerned: mathematics and English. Moreover, there is one supplementary subject to be chosen from several others, which are also more theoretical or more practical. Those who choose theoretical courses have better opportunities to apply to the theoretical courses at gymnasium level. 3. Forty credits make 1 year of study (two terms).
REFERENCES Bron-Wojciechowska, Agnieszka. (1992). Forskarutbildning och krn [Graduate studies and gender] (Arbetsrapport nr 171 ). Uppsala: Department of Education.
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Elqvist-Salzman, Inga. (1991) Raka sp&r och slinriga stigar - - Tre inliigg om jiimstiilldhet i utbildning [Straight roads and tracks - - Three essays about equality in education] (Arbetsrapport Nr 88). Ume~: Pedagogiska institutionen, Ume~tUniversitet. Elqvist-Salzman, Inga. (1992). Straight roads and tracks: Swedish educational policy from a gender equality perspective. Gender and Education, 4(1/2), 41-56. Eliasson, Mona, Almlow, Cecilia, Gunnarsson, Britt-Loise, Bron, Agnieszka, & Lindblad, Sverker. (1992). Women and men in research settings: Careers, cultures and interaction. Uppsala: Uppsalas University. UH.~-rapport. (1989). F o r s k n i n g s p r o p o s i t i o n [The research programme]. (p. 7). Stockholm: UHA (Universitets och hogskoleambete).
SCB: Statistiska meddelanden. (1988/89). H6gskolan 1988/89: Grundutbildning: NybOrjare Liisdret 1988/89 [Undergraduate studies: Newcomers in 1988/89 academic year]. U 20 SM 9001. Stockholm: SCB. SCB: Statistiska meddelanden. (1988/89). H6gskolan 1988/89: Forskarutbildning: Nyantagna och registerade liisdret 1988/89 ]Graduate studies: Newly accepted and registered in 1988/89 academic year]. U 21 SM 9001. Stockholm: SCB. SCB: Statistiska meddeland. (1988/89). HOgskolan 1988/89: Den statliga hOgskolans personal 1989 [The state higher education employees]. U 23 SM 9001. Stockholm: SCB. Strauss, Anselm. (1987) Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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EDUCATION AND GENDER IN SWEDEN Is There any Equality? AGNIESZKAB RoN-WoJcIECHOWSKA Department of Education,StockholmUniversity,S-106 91 Stockholm,Sweden
Synopsis - - This article deals with the problem of gender and higher education in Sweden. In the first part, educationalcareers of women and men are presented, beginningwith primaryeducationand ending with higher education. The second part takes up the issue of gender and graduate studies. Women,who make up the largest group of students in the beginning of higher education studies, slowly lose their position as they progress through higher education. Thus, among graduate students, the number of women falls to about 32%. The third part of the article reports on a multidisciplinaryproject concerning women and men in research settingsat UppsalaUniversityand especiallyconcernsthe part of the project which focuses on female and male graduate studentexperiences, life stories, and adjustmentsto the specific academic culture. Both the research design and the use of qualitativeanalysisof data are presented. Finally,some tentativeresults are discussed.
In this article I discuss the problem of gender and e d u c a t i o n in S w e d e n within the higher education sector, focusing specifically on graduate studies. Sweden is perceived by many as the country in which women have the same opportunities as men with regard to educational careers and, moreover, the country in which w o m e n ' s situation is the best in comparison with other countries. Since 1930, family and housing policy has aimed at facilitating w o m e n ' s double role in s o c i e t y . E v e n t h o u g h for s e v e r a l decades the n u m b e r of men and w o m e n engaged in the labour market has been equal, the Swedish labour market still represents a gender segregated system. But, more frequently than in other countries, Swedes have established various bodies responsible for equality between men and women, like official delegations, committees, and o m b u d s m a n / w o m a n , and have even appointed a minister for questions of gender and equality. In this way, policy aiming at equal rights of men and women and their r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s was developed further. Some legislation work has been done to equalize educational opportunities at the level of higher education given
that education has been regarded as an important factor in m a k i n g a s o c i e t y e q u a l (see Elqvist-Saltzman, 1991). Nevertheless, as far as education is concerned, women still have fewer opportunities, especially at the graduate level in higher education. The reasons can become an interesting issue for discussion. I deal first with some statistics and then give some insight into the project in which I am involved concerning Women and Men in Research Settings.1 EDUCATIONAL CARRIERS OF WOMEN
AND MEN IN SWEDEN Sweden is known for its educational reforms which aim at equalization of schooling for children, taking into account social b a c k g r o u n d and gender (coed education). Thus, in its structure, the school became uniform at both primary and secondary levels. D u r i n g the period 1940-1980, the whole educational system was r e f o r m e d to b e c o m e e v e n m o r e u n i f o r m . Reforms of the educational system had three i m p o r t a n t goals: equality (as far as gender, class, regions, but even theoretical and practical e d u c a t i o n were c o n c e r n e d ) , e f f i c i e n c y
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AGNIESZKABRON-WOJCIECHOWSKA
(especially at the level of higher education, i.e., to have better flow of students and to reach better outcomes - - fewer dropouts), and relevance (i.e., to meet labour market requirements). The first goal - - equality - - and especially equality between sexes - - dominated throughout the reforms (see Elqvist-Saltzman, 1992). Since the 1962 r e f o r m of e l e m e n t a r y schooling in Sweden, all children attend the first-level school of 9-year duration (grundskola), which is obligatory for them between the ages of 7 to 16. Eighty percent of all primary school graduates continue their education, in some way, at one uniform school called a gymnasium (gymnasieskola). There are two types of programmes at the gymnasium, one of 3year duration - - with theoretical subjects preparing for higher education - - and one of 2year duration - - containing more practical subjects in preparation for different vocations. Girls and boys are equally represented at the gymnasium. However, among 28 different courses available at the gymnasium, only 6 have an equal representation of gender. The natural sciences course has the biggest proportion of boys of all courses dominated by boys. Eleven programmes are dominated by boys, and 11 others are dominated by girls. Boys especially choose technological subjects, and girls focus their interests in nursing, administrative jobs, economy, art, and social sciences. Only the 3-year, so-called theoretical courses give direct access to higher education. So the selection to different courses starts as early as the secondary level. 2 Here women have a better chance if they choose a 3-year course, but the courses that have been traditionally female last only 2 years. Courses dominated by males, for example, the technology courses, may last 2 or 3 years. What happens to men and women if they apply for higher education courses? Figure 1 presents the data concerning newcomers to higher education courses according to gender. Sixty percent of students beginning college and university undergraduate courses are women. This number increased as a result of the 1977 reform of the higher education structure, when many postsecondary courses were recognized as higher education studies. These were programmes traditionally dominated by women - - social care, nursing, teaching, administration, and economics. Figure 2 shows the division into courses according to gender of
the first year at undergraduate studies in the academic year 1988/89. Women predominate especially in such programmes as care, teaching, culture and information, free single courses, and administration, economy, and social professions (AES). Men, on the other hand, are mostly involved in technological programmes (79%). Again, the typical women's and men's choices of interest are reflected here. These data are of special interest, as they show the segregation into female and male career patterns. To change this, the Swedish Riksdag (Parliament) took up in 1987 the proposition (resolution) called "Equal Gender Policy for 1990s." According to this long directive, the colleges and universities should aim to try to establish a minimum of 40% of both sexes at each course or programme of studies. In the year 1988/89 women were underrepresented in engineering, whereas men were underrepresented in nursing, teaching, and culture and information professions. 'q'he Ministry of Education, concerned with the under-representation of girls in science and technology programmes, has allocated a considerable sum of money to promote female entry into these courses," writes Elqvist-Saltzman (1992, p. 44). In 1988 the 5-year national plan was adopted to equalize opportunities for both sexes, which meant an equal distribution of male and female students (40-60%) among all courses at secondary and higher education levels. There is even a difference as far as credits are concerned. Generally, women choose shorter programmes with fewer credits (up to 120 credits), whereas men choose longer programmes with more credits (120-220). 3 This phenomenon is illustrated in Table 1. This paints a clear picture of how women choose shorter education programs (55%) which most often were not recognized as higher educa-
Table 1. Beginners at Higher Education According to Gender and Number of Credits in 1988/89 Credit Points (%) Gender
<120
120-220
Total Students
Men Women
38 55
62 45
16 759 (100%) 22 479 (100%)
Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 20 SM 9001, s. 3
Education and Gender in Sweden
53
80000 70000 60000 50000
"-~
all female male
40000 30000 20000 76
I
|
|
|
|
I
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
year Fig. 1. Beginners at undergraduate studies (1977/78-1988/89). Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 20 SM 9001, s. 3.
tion previously. This again proves why there are statistical changes in favour of women, when actually women do not stay in longer courses. In fact, only longer courses (specialization) can give access to graduate studies. Men (62%), on the other hand, choose longer courses. Previous education of applicants differs as well. This is shown in relation to gender in
Table 2. First-year students with longer secondary education are mostly men (60.2% of all male applicants). Among women there are only 44.6% who have such education. On the other hand, there are more women than men who are using u n c o n v e n t i o n a l a d m i s s i o n (27.3% of all female and 20.0% of all male first-year students).
Total Technology ASE [] []
Single Courses
Male Female
Teachers' Train
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 2. Beginners according to courses and gender in 1988/89 in %. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 20 SM 9001, s. 6. AES = courses in administration, economy, & social profession.
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AGNIESZKABRON-WOJCIECHOWSKA
Table 2. Beginnersto Higher Educationin 1988/89Accordingto Previous Education and Gender Year 1988/89 Course at Gymnasium or Other Institution 3-4-year courses Studentexamen A-level 2-year theory course Other 2-year gymnasiumeducation 2-year vocational Othera Total
Men
Women
Total
18,521 (60.2%) 660 (2.1%) 2,402 (7.8%) 304 ( 1.0%) 2,718 (8.8%) 6,140 (20.0%) 30,745 (100%)
19,517 (44.6%) 1,120 (2.6%) 4,766 (10.9%) 630 (1.4%) 5,779 (13.2%) 11,972 (27.3%) 43,784 (100%)
38,038 (51.0%) 1,780 (2.4%) 7,168 (9.6%) 934 (1.3%) 8,497 (11.4%) 18,112 (24.3%) 74,529 (100%)
alncludingbeginnerswith 24:5 opportunity(those of 25 years of age, withoutsecondary education but with 4 years work or family experiences), folk high schools graduates, examinedby generalsecondarycompetenceand other Swedishrelevanteducation. Source: SCB: Statistiskameddelanden,U 20 SM 9001, s. 15.
So far, the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n c a n be made: The p e r c e n t a g e of w o m e n b e g i n n i n g undergraduate studies has increased. This of course is a positive sign. But women choose a shorter type of education (55% of them). Unlike men, women take shorter courses at the secondary level, and they also tend to choose shorter courses at the higher education level. Women are still the largest group of students at traditional w o m e n ' s courses, which train them in stereotypical women's professions. At the same time, women have doubled their proportion among newly educated technicians, but still four out of five graduating from engineering are men. The number of girls entering the study programmes in engineering and natural science is gradually increasing but the development has been slower than expected. (Elqvist-Saltzman, 1992, p. 45)
G R A D U A T E S T U D I E S AND G E N D E R Women are in the majority as far as undergraduate studies are concerned. It is during graduate studies that the number of women students diminishes dramatically. In 1988-1989 there were 2,300 newcomers to PhD courses. Among
them, every third person was a woman. Most women came to social studies - - 24% - - and to m e d i c a l studies - - 23%. Men, as usual, a p p l i e d to t e c h n o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s - - 28%. Figure 3 shows the proportion of w o m e n at each faculty accepted as newcomers to graduate studies. Veterinary and pharmacology are two faculties in which women are best represented (69% and 63%). Social sciences have altogether 44% female newcomers, and the faculty of technology has the lowest percentage - - only 19%. The average age of graduate students has increased in recent years. In the last 17 years, the average age of PhD students increased by 3 years, from 27.5 to 30.5 years of age. For w o m e n , the average age was 30.5 years in 1988-1989, whereas for men it was 29.5 years. Women more often than men return to university to take part in graduate studies after they have established a family and had children (see E l q v i s t - S a l t z m a n , 1991). T h e i r way to graduate studies is not as straightforward as it often is for men. Together there were 17,000 graduate students registered in Sweden in 1988. A m o n g them only some (namely 12,900) were active, that is, took part in graduate courses and wrote their theses. Among them, 32% were women. Thus, there are women who are registered and
Education and Gender in Sweden
55
Faculties
Veterinary Pharmacology Philosophy Social Sciences Humanisfies Dentistry Medicine Law Theology Agriculture Commerce Math. &Natural Forest-culture Tchnology Total
69 63 57 44 42 41 38 38
•
Female in %
31 31 29 28 27 19 34 I
I
I
20
40
60
80
Fig. 3. Proportion of women accepted for graduate studies in 1988/89. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 21 SM 9001, s. 2.
do not take active part in their studies. In corn parison with the year 1961, when there were only 15% active female students, their number has increased. This is illustrated in Figure 4. In 1989, UH.~ (the National Board o f Universities and Colleges) made an investigation showing that an average period for a doctoral student to pass his or her PhD exam was: in humanities - - 11 years, in social sciences - -
9.5 years, in mathematics and natural sciences - - 7 years, and in medicine and in engineering -6 years. Graduate studies, which were introduced in 1977, were recommended to last no longer than 4 years. When UHA examined PhD holders from three cohorts who started their graduate studies not later than 13 years ago, they found that the most effective were students from medical schools (66%) and the least
15000
I0000 all female "411- m e n
5000
0 60
I
I
70
80
Fig. 4. Active Doctoral Students in the years 1961-1988. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelanden, U 21 SM 9001, s. 4.
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AGNIESZKABRON-WOJCIECHOWSKA
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effective were those from social science (20%). These results are shown in the Table 3. The i 977 reform of graduate studies aimed at formalizing the whole training p r o g r a m m e to credit courses with about 6 0 - 8 0 credits and writing the dissertation for 80-100 credits. Such a programme meant 4 years of full-time studies. Unfortunately, the efficiency of graduate studies is not high enough. Only three fourths of all the graduate students are actively engaged. Among them are only a few who graduate in 4 years. At the same time, S w e d e n needs far more PhD holders than it is possible to reach today. So the e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y is a i m e d at d o u b l i n g the number by recruiting more students and trying to reach final graduation in 4 to 5 years. As far as the first aim is concerned - - to recruit more students - - more women are welcome, of course. The first step in an academic career is to apply for graduate studies and to write a PhD thesis. But, as we saw, women at the undergraduate level seldom choose one subject in which to specialize and write an essay at the h i g h e s t l e v e l , a r e q u i r e m e n t for b e i n g a l l o w e d to a p p l y for g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s . In 1988/89, there were only 34% of women among applicants to graduate studies, an increase by 7% in comparison to the year 1979/80. As far as the second aim is concerned - - to speed up time o f graduation - - it is not easy for women to achieve either, unless their age lowers, that is, unless they apply to graduate s t u d i e s w h e n t h e y are 2 2 - 2 3 y e a r s o f a g e ( s t r a i g h t f r o m g y m n a s i u m to u n d e r g r a d u a t e then graduate studies). The average age o f a graduate w o m a n student today is 30.5 years. T h i s is e x a c t l y the age at w h i c h w o m e n in Sweden are concerned with building their family and having children. Many women do that d u r i n g their g r a d u a t e studies, w h i c h d e l a y s their graduation. There still exists the division into w o m e n ' s and m e n ' s roles in the family,
Table 3. Percentage of PhD Holders Among 3Year Cohorts Who Studied at Least 13 Years Faculty Social sciences Humanities Engineering Math and natural sciences Medicine Source: UHA-rapport, 1989.
Percentage 20 22 41 56 66
even though the situation has changed dramatically during the last two decades among Swedish women and men (i.e., they share the responsibility of bringing up their children). Another aspect of women's participation in graduate courses and making a career in academic research is the fact that there are fewer opportunities for women to experience a career at university. Women make up almost the same proportion o f employees at colleges and universities as men, but if we look at the university employees' hierarchy, one can notice that the higher one goes, the fewer w o m e n there are. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 5. As we can see, women make up only 5% of professorial positions in Sweden. But their prop o r t i o n a m o n g clerical p e r s o n n e l and chairw o m e n is very high (69% and 79%). A B D s and PhD holders have two available posts to apply for at colleges and universities - - university lecturer and research assistant. There are no more than 17% women university lecturers, and 22.5% women research assistants.
W O M E N AND MEN IN R E S E A R C H SETTINGS The underrepresentation o f women in academic careers and the unequal opportunities they still face, beginning with graduate studies and ending with the professorship, were the reasons for starting the project concerning women and men in research settings. Three disciplines are i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o j e c t - - E d u c a t i o n , Psychology, and Linguistics - - and the whole project is coordinated by the Centre o f Women Research at Uppsala University. A multidisciplinary approach guarantees a study of different aspects of the environments graduate students encounter and become part o f as well as giving a possibility for comparison and a deeper insight into the culture of Academy. Three d e p a r t m e n t s at U p p s a l a U n i v e r s i t y have been chosen for a deep investigation. They represent three faculties: the Natural Sciences Faculty, the Faculty of Social Sciences, and the Faculty of Humanities. The reason for choosing three departments was the even distribution o f gender among active doctoral students - - the main subject of our research. Psychologists involved in the research are m a i n l y interested in g e n d e r identity in connection with a researcher identity. Linguists
Education and Gender in Sweden
|1
totally
57
I l l l l l l l [ / l l l l i i l ,l l l i l i l I ( [ i l l
i
Professors univ. lecturer research ass. doctorants
[] []
lilli
researchers
w~OOllOlllllllllllllllll~
teachers
women men
i
technical per. hours emp. support jobs ~'JJ
charwomen
7111J1fffff
administration I
I
I
I
20
40
60
8O
IO0
Fig. 5. University employees in 1989. Source: SCB: Statistiska meddelande, U23 SM 9001, p. 9.
are i n v e s t i g a t i n g interactions (mostly lang u a g e interactions) between sexes and between supervisors and graduate students at the seminars. T h e educational part focuses on female and male graduate students' experiences, life stories, and adjustment to the specific academic cultures. I am engaged in the educational part of the study. The questions of concem here are as follows: • H o w do the actors b e c o m e doctoral students? Which experiences matter? • What does their life story look like, what events and important people have influenced their decision to start a research career? • What prospects do they have to continue the career, what differences are there between women and men students? The methodological approach to the educational part of the project is Life history. I am interested in various specific biographies of doctoral students of both sexes and their ways of becoming researchers. This part of the project focuses on the actors and their experiences in becoming graduate students and researchers. The theoretical basis for this study is symbolic interactionism. The method I use is a deep unstructured interview, characteristic of qualitative studies. Very important here is the role of the intervie-
wee. It is she or he who takes over and decides how she or he wants to be perceived by others; she or he gives a picture of herself or himself which focuses on research career. I have approached eight graduate students from each department: four women and four men. Some o f them were newcomers, some were in the middle of the process of their studies, and some were approaching their graduation (in one case a person had already defended his thesis). I began the investigation by telephoning doctoral students one by one to tell them about the project and to invite them to participate. The telephone call was followed by a detailed letter in which, once again, I explained the purpose of the project and the role each interviewee could play in it. Moreover, the letter included some information about two parts of the interview, which necessarily should not be chronological. The first part was a free narrative about all important events and the people who made the impression on a given person during her or his whole life which she or he connects with her or his intellectual interests and the start o f a research career. The second part includes some items for further development by an actor in the interview. The items were not formulated in questions and were wide enough for each person's description and interpretation.
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AGNIESZKABRON-WoJCIECHOWSKA
In autumn 1992 I carried out 24 interviews with graduate students, department by department. In this way I got an insight into the department's culture and saturation of my data. The analysis began with the first interview. The interviews were conducted at the graduate students' homes, in s o m e cases at their w o r k places (offices), and only in one case in my department. While the interviews await a deep qualitative analysis, which I will make according to the pattern built by Strauss (1987), it is possible to discuss already some tentative results. As I said, the qualitative analysis began at the time of interviews. After each interview I made some additional notes concerning my impressions from a particular interview and a comparison to the previous ones. • I repeat here that among graduate students I have studied both men and women in the same proportion. They come mostly from well-educated families, so in a way they continue the tradition of their parents or relatives. Very few come from other groups of society, and most of them received encouragement to study from their parents. They were encouraged by their parents to take a "real" profession, such as physician, engineer, or economist, and to take the chance to become economically well off. • In general it was o n e ' s h o m e rather than one's school that made a difference in educational career both at the undergraduate and the graduate levels. Two patterns among students prevailed with regard to choice of discipline. It was either a straight pathway and interest in a specific area which had developed at primary and secondary school and continued at the higher level (e.g., interest in natural sciences which continues during the whole educational career), or it was interest in a very different subject which did not b e c o m e the choice o f research (e.g., interest in natural studies at school and the shift to humanities or social sciences at the higher level). • Often it was an important person, like one's father, teacher, or professor, who made such an impression on the student that she or he wanted to continue her or his educational career. But just as frequently there was no apparent reason for continuing one's career. A d m i s s i o n to graduate studies was very
•
•
•
•
often personal. Actors were encouraged by their teachers from undergraduate studies to apply. Often they applied because of their good diploma work, which is a requirement for admission. Newcomers to graduate studies in the three departments are much younger than those who became graduate students before them. Natural scientists are the youngest (between the ages of 23 and 30), but it is natural that they have to start early to make an academic/research career. The economic situation is not the best for the doctoral students. They earn far less than if they continued to be employed outside the university. In the first 2 years of their studies the economic situation is insecure and they have to borrow m o n e y to live. However, they have prospects to get a stipend and/or d o c t o r a l p o s t w h e n t h e y are a d v a n c e d enough with their courses and writing theses (social scientists and humanists). Natural scientists are in the best situation as they have, f r o m the beginning, a m o d e s t but secure income for 5 years. Students are conscious about their low economic position, but quite happy, because, as they say, they are doing interesting things and this is what matters. Research is exciting. Their time and work are flexible, and they feel independent in what they are doing. Because they are mature people who already have some work experience, it is not surprising that some already have built families and have small children. It is interesting that often students chose for a partner someone who also is doing research; often she or he is from the same or a similar discipline. They emphasize that it would be impossible to live with s o m e o n e who cannot understand the work conditions of a researcher, who works during the weekends or evenings and does not have enough time for family life and so forth. These families are built on partnership and sharing h o m e duties and taking care of children. Family well-being is as important as their own careers. Those who do not have families emphasize interests other than research. They have different hobbies and a social life which is as important to them as research. Graduate students do not complain about their supervision and often are happy with
Education and Gender in Sweden
the relationship they have established with their supervisors, but this, of course, may differ in individual cases. Natural science students get supervisors straight away, but in two other departments it is postponed until a student has taken some courses. Similarly, the choice of a dissertation topic is postponed in the Humanities Department, which is often perceived negatively by students as they want to start doing research from the beginning. They experience a dramatic change in their situation when they conclude their undergraduate studies and become graduate researchers. But this experience varies, of course, among the departments. Natural scientists, who, from the very beginning, start to do research projects in the labs and very early start to write articles and publish them as a part of dissertation, do not perceive their roles as researchers yet. They feel like students who have a lot to learn. Literature scientists and economic historians from the very beginning feel like real researchers who are engaged in problem solving and creativity. But they all see the tremendous difference between undergraduate and graduate studies. They become more independent, critical, and scientific. And as the time passes and they become more acquainted with the department, there will be fewer barriers between their professors and themselves. They start to feel more at home. • There is quite a difference between men and women with regard to future plans for their academic careers. Women have at least two goals in life, they want to do research but also to start a family, so it is not necessarily research which wins as a goal in life. They will feel happy working outside the university. Men usually have in mind a career directed toward a position at the university, and they already calculate how many posts will be available when they are ready with the exam and whether there is a chance for them to get one. There is a difference as well between those who come from welleducated families and those who do not. Aspirations are lower among the latter, both men and women. • There is quite an awareness of the gender issues among both women and men. The process begins with women talking openly
59
to their male colleagues about gender, organising informal meetings, or running seminars on women's issues in science to which men colleagues are invited. Women doctoral students say that there is a male hierarchy in all of the departments I studied. There are no instances of women supervisors. There is a special language used by male colleagues. Most male students agree with the problems when they not only hear of them from female colleagues but see them everyday, especially at seminars. So far, I can draw from the material some tentative conclusions, which point to the generation shift among doctoral students at three departments at the oldest Swedish University in Uppsala. PhD students are a bit younger, have more feminist awareness, share responsibilities in family life, and have interests other than only research - leisure and family life are very important to them. Their work is often based on individual accomplishment, but they have contacts with other researchers as well. The gender perspective among doctoral students could be the result of women being no longer in minority in these three departments. Can we simply conclude that if there is an equal proportion of female and male graduate students at the departments, the perspective on research and communic a t i o n will c h a n g e and b e c o m e more equal? This question, of course, asks for much more analysis of the data.
ENDNOTES 1. The project has a multidisciplinary character and involves several researchers from Uppsala University with Mona Eliasson as the project leader. The project is sponsored by Arbetsmiljrfonden (Work Environment Fund). 2. In reality, the selection begins at the third level of primary school (3 + 3 + 3), with a division into more theoretical and less theoretical instruction as far as only two subjects are concerned: mathematics and English. Moreover, there is one supplementary subject to be chosen from several others, which are also more theoretical or more practical. Those who choose theoretical courses have better opportunities to apply to the theoretical courses at gymnasium level. 3. Forty credits make 1 year of study (two terms).
REFERENCES Bron-Wojciechowska, Agnieszka. (1992). Forskarutbildning och krn [Graduate studies and gender] (Arbetsrapport nr 171 ). Uppsala: Department of Education.
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Elqvist-Salzman, Inga. (1991) Raka sp&r och slinriga stigar - - Tre inliigg om jiimstiilldhet i utbildning [Straight roads and tracks - - Three essays about equality in education] (Arbetsrapport Nr 88). Ume~: Pedagogiska institutionen, Ume~tUniversitet. Elqvist-Salzman, Inga. (1992). Straight roads and tracks: Swedish educational policy from a gender equality perspective. Gender and Education, 4(1/2), 41-56. Eliasson, Mona, Almlow, Cecilia, Gunnarsson, Britt-Loise, Bron, Agnieszka, & Lindblad, Sverker. (1992). Women and men in research settings: Careers, cultures and interaction. Uppsala: Uppsalas University. UH.~-rapport. (1989). F o r s k n i n g s p r o p o s i t i o n [The research programme]. (p. 7). Stockholm: UHA (Universitets och hogskoleambete).
SCB: Statistiska meddelanden. (1988/89). H6gskolan 1988/89: Grundutbildning: NybOrjare Liisdret 1988/89 [Undergraduate studies: Newcomers in 1988/89 academic year]. U 20 SM 9001. Stockholm: SCB. SCB: Statistiska meddelanden. (1988/89). H6gskolan 1988/89: Forskarutbildning: Nyantagna och registerade liisdret 1988/89 ]Graduate studies: Newly accepted and registered in 1988/89 academic year]. U 21 SM 9001. Stockholm: SCB. SCB: Statistiska meddeland. (1988/89). HOgskolan 1988/89: Den statliga hOgskolans personal 1989 [The state higher education employees]. U 23 SM 9001. Stockholm: SCB. Strauss, Anselm. (1987) Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.