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Educational assessment: Sino-British perspectives
Int. J. Educational Development, Vol 16, No. 3, pp. 321-323, 1996 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. Printed in Great Britain. 0738-0593/96 $15.00 + 0.00
Pergamon
BOOK REVIEWS International Encyclopaedia of National Systems of Education (2rid edition): T. Neville Postlethwaite (ed.). Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1995, ISBN 0-08-0423027, 1105pp., £215.
lent value for money. Any university or college library with an education section should be encouraged to have a copy. KEITH WATSON
Pergamon should be congratulated for their investment of time, effort and capital into this revision of one of its now familiar educational encyclopaedias. The editor deserves Qur thanks for compiling and editing this ambitious overview of 152 systems of education throughout the world. As such, it is a basic resource book, at least as a starting point, on most of the world's education systems, whether or not the reader is interested in comparative education. Many of the contributions have been drawn from Pergamon's 1994 second edition of the International Encyclopaedia of Education, but modifications have been made where necessary to make the Encyclopaedia under review as up-to-date as possible. Inevitably a few countries which are experiencing prolonged civil wars, such as Angola, have no entries, yet there are entries for Afghanistan, Burundi and Rwanda, which are also facing instability. A book like this could easily become dated, given the rapidity of educational and political reform in many parts of the world. The publication of this second edition, only seven years after the first, is testimony to this. But by insisting, wherever possible, that the author is a national of the country being described and either within or nominated by the local Ministry of Education, the publishers have ensured a sympathetic autbentieity for each entry. Nevertheless, the rapid and confusing changes in the former Soviet Union as new republics and states have emerged means that entries appear only for the Baltic states and Russia itself. Far more important, however, by insisting that all entries follow a specified format it is possible to make some useful comparisons` Each entry provides general background data; gives information on the politics and goals of the education system; describes administration and finance of the formal education system and how teachers are trained, provided and monitored; and examines curriculum development, teaching methodology, assessment, examinations, certification and evaluation. Sections dealing with major reforms undertaken in the 1980s and 1990s and the major problems likely to be encountered before, or in, the year 2000 are particularly significant. A final section directs the reader to further reading and information. In spite of the broadly uniform format there is sufficient scope for considerable personal and national variation. Should this encyclopaedia be upgraded, say at the turn of the century, it might be worth considering entries on a regional basis, say Latin America or Southeast Asia, with a brief introduction section for each. It would certainly be useful to have a chapter that identifies current trends and problems that emerge from some of these entries. This would help to focus readers' attention on certain countries and would also provide some useful links, In the meantime, this encyclopaedia is excel-
University of Reading, UK. Edta:ational ~ t : Sino-British Pe~lm=tives:Angela Little, Wang Gang and Alison Wolf (eds). International Centre for Research on Assessment, Institute of Education, University of London, 1995, ISBN 0-85473--454-6, 120 pp., paper. Assessment is a powerful catalyst for educational change. Current social changes are fueling dissatisfaction with existing forms of assessment. Educational Assessment is a timely publication which deepens our understanding of the complexities of the development and implementation of assessment change through analyses of assessment-related issues and research conducted in China and England. The importance of context is a recurring theme throughout the early chapters of this book. Little points out that China has the biggest education system in the world, with a long history of assessment for selection. Its use of educational assessment for the systematic monitoring of standards and accountability may be more recent than England's. Little stresses the importance of contextuality to inform and prevent the borrowing and lending of inappropriate ideas and practices. The 'deeper context' is analysed throughout the book, and it is this contribution rather than superficial comparisons of systems which enriches our understanding of assessment issues. The book is divided into four parts, dealing with China in the 1990s, technical issues in a changing assessment system, evaluation and monitoring, and motivation and learning. Emergent themes include the dilemmas associated with assessment reform, constraints on the implementation of reforms and the importance of training to help teachers develop their skills to assess and adjust their teaching approaches. Some of the dilemmas associated with assessment change in the nineties are outlined by Gu Zhiyue. They include 'teaching for the test'; examination of what can be tested to the detriment of developing more complex skills because alternative forms of assessment would be needed; the impact of strong teaching traditions; and the need to accept lower student scores during the implementation of reforms which require independent problem-solving and analysis. Developments in public examinations parallel the urgent need in Chinese society for professionals, whose scarcity is a legacy of the Cultural Revolution. Wang Gang reviews the development of the public examination system and the extension of its functions to include selection, certification, management and evaluation. The establishment of examination centres, studies on examinations and the interaction of research and reform, are discussed to illustrate the extent of these developments. 321
322
BOOK REVIEWS
Wang Binhau focuses on the need for educating teachers in assessment skills by comparing China's High School Certificate Examinations (HSCE) with England's General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The controversial notion of using examination results to evaluate the teaching quality of schools is raised. The UK's concept of value added and China's 'key schools' serve to contextualise and identify the differing approaches. Little's comparison examines varying degrees of centralised control over assessment and the size of swings in assessment policy and practice. Aspects of selective assessment (range of criteria, school-based assessment in the intellectual domain and the determination of ability) are also used to demonstrate significant differences. For example, selection criteria in China include the intellectual, moral and physical domains. All three are assessed at every level. The technical issues are dealt with in chapters on criteria for the HSCE and the introduction of the equating process, by Cai Jianmin and Ke Kongbiao, respectively. Wolf suggests that the fundamental problem with creating criterion-referenced assessment systems is the difficulty of constructing clear and unambiguous 'domain descriptors' to facilitate writing test items~However, attention to this requirement inevitably leads to longer specifications and narrower tests, which tend to atomise learning. Goldstein discusses examination standards, reference tests, crossmoderation, exemplars, building up experience, socialising assessors and the great difficulty in attaining the transparency which criterion-referencing claims to offer. The final chapters make the links between assessment, teaching and learning more explicit. Ji Ming-ze describes how foreign influences (such as Western psychological testing and Soviet and American assessment practices) have affected educational measurement and evaluation in China. Meng Hong-wei describes how the first national data on student achievement were collected and used to monitor the quality of primary education for the whole country. Chapters on motivation and learning by Pu Guoming and Guo Yuanhua describe experimental work, which to my mind is the most exciting and important contribution to this collection. The problem of how to foster motivation is addressed through student selfevaluation: self-cognition drives students to improve. Wang Binhua presents a case study on student moral assessment in secondary schools, where students summarise their experience, progress and shortcomings in relation to their own targetg Educational Assessment has broad appeal and much to recommend it. The comparisons of developments in China and England are enlightening, important technical issues are illuminated and questions for research are raised. VALENTINE KLENOWSKI Hong Kong Institute of Education
Education and Development in East Asia: Paul Morris and Anthony Sweeting (eds). Garland Publishing, New York, 1995, ISBN 08153-1598-8, x + 293 pp., $47. This book, edited by two University of Hong Kong academics, is especially timely in view of the worldwide interest in the 'East Asian miracle' and the role that human capital development is supposed to have played in promoting economic growth in that region. The book examines the links between formal education and the development process in eight East Asian countries: China, Japan, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. The term 'development' is broadly defined to
include not only economic growth and improved living standards, but also improvements in the social and political domains. Morris' introduction recognises that these countries vary considerably in size, ethnic mix, economic structure and political systems. The book's guiding assumption is that the role of education in development varies in ways not amenable to simplistic or singular explanations. The eight country-specific chapters vary in length and style, but most succeed in providing admirably comprehensive analyses. Among the best chapters is Sweeting's analysis of Hong Kong. He displays a masterful grasp of the complexities and vicissitudes of educational policy and relates his findings to theoretical approaches to education and development. Leung Yat Ming, on China, shows convincingly how education policy is influenced by shifting political goals. Leung observes that human capital theory was taboo in China when it was in vogue elsewhere; it has since been severely criticised but is being uncritically accepted by Chinese educators. The chapter on South Korea is the most disappointing. There is hardly any analysis of its social and political changes and their relationship to education. In the final chapter, the editors provide a detailed and useful summary of the major similarities and differences across the eight countries. They note substantial variations in sources of funding; state responsiveness in educational provision, especially at tertiary level; the extent of state control; emphasis on technical and vocational education; and the nature of the school curriculum. However, several broad patterns are discernible. First, high levels of basic education were in place before industrialisation began. Secondly, the move from low-technology, labourintensive production to higher value-added production was accompanied by the quantitative expansion of secondary education and qualitative improvements of both primary and secondary schooling. Tertiary education opportunities were expanded along with further economic development. Another similarity across countries (except for Hong Kong and Macau) is the way educational systems have been used to foster social cohesion and political stability. A major observation that emerges from these studies is that education has not been the primary source of economic growth, but has supported or facilitated the growth process. The editors conclude by drawing several important implications for economic policies. First, economic growth and development have been pursued single-mindedly as national prioritieg Secondly, they caution against the notion that these societies have serendipitously acquired some magical formula for success that will work well in other social contexts. They attribute successful development in this region to 'the pursuit of sensible economic policies and to hard work, perseverance, adaptability, a readiness to take risks and to plough the benefits of economic growth back into educational and social equities' (p. 262). At the same time, they recognise the part played by such factors as good fortune, geographic location and the relative abundance of natural resources. The book achieves what the editors hoped it would. It leaves a lasting impression of the complex links between education and the wider socio-political and economic context. It also reminds one that 'East Asia' is not a monolithic entity, but encompasses a rich degree of diversity; narrowly deterministic theories of the relationship between education and development are not useful here. ENG THYE JASON TAN State University of New York at Buffalo
Pergamon
BOOK REVIEWS International Encyclopaedia of National Systems of Education (2rid edition): T. Neville Postlethwaite (ed.). Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1995, ISBN 0-08-0423027, 1105pp., £215.
lent value for money. Any university or college library with an education section should be encouraged to have a copy. KEITH WATSON
Pergamon should be congratulated for their investment of time, effort and capital into this revision of one of its now familiar educational encyclopaedias. The editor deserves Qur thanks for compiling and editing this ambitious overview of 152 systems of education throughout the world. As such, it is a basic resource book, at least as a starting point, on most of the world's education systems, whether or not the reader is interested in comparative education. Many of the contributions have been drawn from Pergamon's 1994 second edition of the International Encyclopaedia of Education, but modifications have been made where necessary to make the Encyclopaedia under review as up-to-date as possible. Inevitably a few countries which are experiencing prolonged civil wars, such as Angola, have no entries, yet there are entries for Afghanistan, Burundi and Rwanda, which are also facing instability. A book like this could easily become dated, given the rapidity of educational and political reform in many parts of the world. The publication of this second edition, only seven years after the first, is testimony to this. But by insisting, wherever possible, that the author is a national of the country being described and either within or nominated by the local Ministry of Education, the publishers have ensured a sympathetic autbentieity for each entry. Nevertheless, the rapid and confusing changes in the former Soviet Union as new republics and states have emerged means that entries appear only for the Baltic states and Russia itself. Far more important, however, by insisting that all entries follow a specified format it is possible to make some useful comparisons` Each entry provides general background data; gives information on the politics and goals of the education system; describes administration and finance of the formal education system and how teachers are trained, provided and monitored; and examines curriculum development, teaching methodology, assessment, examinations, certification and evaluation. Sections dealing with major reforms undertaken in the 1980s and 1990s and the major problems likely to be encountered before, or in, the year 2000 are particularly significant. A final section directs the reader to further reading and information. In spite of the broadly uniform format there is sufficient scope for considerable personal and national variation. Should this encyclopaedia be upgraded, say at the turn of the century, it might be worth considering entries on a regional basis, say Latin America or Southeast Asia, with a brief introduction section for each. It would certainly be useful to have a chapter that identifies current trends and problems that emerge from some of these entries. This would help to focus readers' attention on certain countries and would also provide some useful links, In the meantime, this encyclopaedia is excel-
University of Reading, UK. Edta:ational ~ t : Sino-British Pe~lm=tives:Angela Little, Wang Gang and Alison Wolf (eds). International Centre for Research on Assessment, Institute of Education, University of London, 1995, ISBN 0-85473--454-6, 120 pp., paper. Assessment is a powerful catalyst for educational change. Current social changes are fueling dissatisfaction with existing forms of assessment. Educational Assessment is a timely publication which deepens our understanding of the complexities of the development and implementation of assessment change through analyses of assessment-related issues and research conducted in China and England. The importance of context is a recurring theme throughout the early chapters of this book. Little points out that China has the biggest education system in the world, with a long history of assessment for selection. Its use of educational assessment for the systematic monitoring of standards and accountability may be more recent than England's. Little stresses the importance of contextuality to inform and prevent the borrowing and lending of inappropriate ideas and practices. The 'deeper context' is analysed throughout the book, and it is this contribution rather than superficial comparisons of systems which enriches our understanding of assessment issues. The book is divided into four parts, dealing with China in the 1990s, technical issues in a changing assessment system, evaluation and monitoring, and motivation and learning. Emergent themes include the dilemmas associated with assessment reform, constraints on the implementation of reforms and the importance of training to help teachers develop their skills to assess and adjust their teaching approaches. Some of the dilemmas associated with assessment change in the nineties are outlined by Gu Zhiyue. They include 'teaching for the test'; examination of what can be tested to the detriment of developing more complex skills because alternative forms of assessment would be needed; the impact of strong teaching traditions; and the need to accept lower student scores during the implementation of reforms which require independent problem-solving and analysis. Developments in public examinations parallel the urgent need in Chinese society for professionals, whose scarcity is a legacy of the Cultural Revolution. Wang Gang reviews the development of the public examination system and the extension of its functions to include selection, certification, management and evaluation. The establishment of examination centres, studies on examinations and the interaction of research and reform, are discussed to illustrate the extent of these developments. 321
322
BOOK REVIEWS
Wang Binhau focuses on the need for educating teachers in assessment skills by comparing China's High School Certificate Examinations (HSCE) with England's General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The controversial notion of using examination results to evaluate the teaching quality of schools is raised. The UK's concept of value added and China's 'key schools' serve to contextualise and identify the differing approaches. Little's comparison examines varying degrees of centralised control over assessment and the size of swings in assessment policy and practice. Aspects of selective assessment (range of criteria, school-based assessment in the intellectual domain and the determination of ability) are also used to demonstrate significant differences. For example, selection criteria in China include the intellectual, moral and physical domains. All three are assessed at every level. The technical issues are dealt with in chapters on criteria for the HSCE and the introduction of the equating process, by Cai Jianmin and Ke Kongbiao, respectively. Wolf suggests that the fundamental problem with creating criterion-referenced assessment systems is the difficulty of constructing clear and unambiguous 'domain descriptors' to facilitate writing test items~However, attention to this requirement inevitably leads to longer specifications and narrower tests, which tend to atomise learning. Goldstein discusses examination standards, reference tests, crossmoderation, exemplars, building up experience, socialising assessors and the great difficulty in attaining the transparency which criterion-referencing claims to offer. The final chapters make the links between assessment, teaching and learning more explicit. Ji Ming-ze describes how foreign influences (such as Western psychological testing and Soviet and American assessment practices) have affected educational measurement and evaluation in China. Meng Hong-wei describes how the first national data on student achievement were collected and used to monitor the quality of primary education for the whole country. Chapters on motivation and learning by Pu Guoming and Guo Yuanhua describe experimental work, which to my mind is the most exciting and important contribution to this collection. The problem of how to foster motivation is addressed through student selfevaluation: self-cognition drives students to improve. Wang Binhua presents a case study on student moral assessment in secondary schools, where students summarise their experience, progress and shortcomings in relation to their own targetg Educational Assessment has broad appeal and much to recommend it. The comparisons of developments in China and England are enlightening, important technical issues are illuminated and questions for research are raised. VALENTINE KLENOWSKI Hong Kong Institute of Education
Education and Development in East Asia: Paul Morris and Anthony Sweeting (eds). Garland Publishing, New York, 1995, ISBN 08153-1598-8, x + 293 pp., $47. This book, edited by two University of Hong Kong academics, is especially timely in view of the worldwide interest in the 'East Asian miracle' and the role that human capital development is supposed to have played in promoting economic growth in that region. The book examines the links between formal education and the development process in eight East Asian countries: China, Japan, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. The term 'development' is broadly defined to
include not only economic growth and improved living standards, but also improvements in the social and political domains. Morris' introduction recognises that these countries vary considerably in size, ethnic mix, economic structure and political systems. The book's guiding assumption is that the role of education in development varies in ways not amenable to simplistic or singular explanations. The eight country-specific chapters vary in length and style, but most succeed in providing admirably comprehensive analyses. Among the best chapters is Sweeting's analysis of Hong Kong. He displays a masterful grasp of the complexities and vicissitudes of educational policy and relates his findings to theoretical approaches to education and development. Leung Yat Ming, on China, shows convincingly how education policy is influenced by shifting political goals. Leung observes that human capital theory was taboo in China when it was in vogue elsewhere; it has since been severely criticised but is being uncritically accepted by Chinese educators. The chapter on South Korea is the most disappointing. There is hardly any analysis of its social and political changes and their relationship to education. In the final chapter, the editors provide a detailed and useful summary of the major similarities and differences across the eight countries. They note substantial variations in sources of funding; state responsiveness in educational provision, especially at tertiary level; the extent of state control; emphasis on technical and vocational education; and the nature of the school curriculum. However, several broad patterns are discernible. First, high levels of basic education were in place before industrialisation began. Secondly, the move from low-technology, labourintensive production to higher value-added production was accompanied by the quantitative expansion of secondary education and qualitative improvements of both primary and secondary schooling. Tertiary education opportunities were expanded along with further economic development. Another similarity across countries (except for Hong Kong and Macau) is the way educational systems have been used to foster social cohesion and political stability. A major observation that emerges from these studies is that education has not been the primary source of economic growth, but has supported or facilitated the growth process. The editors conclude by drawing several important implications for economic policies. First, economic growth and development have been pursued single-mindedly as national prioritieg Secondly, they caution against the notion that these societies have serendipitously acquired some magical formula for success that will work well in other social contexts. They attribute successful development in this region to 'the pursuit of sensible economic policies and to hard work, perseverance, adaptability, a readiness to take risks and to plough the benefits of economic growth back into educational and social equities' (p. 262). At the same time, they recognise the part played by such factors as good fortune, geographic location and the relative abundance of natural resources. The book achieves what the editors hoped it would. It leaves a lasting impression of the complex links between education and the wider socio-political and economic context. It also reminds one that 'East Asia' is not a monolithic entity, but encompasses a rich degree of diversity; narrowly deterministic theories of the relationship between education and development are not useful here. ENG THYE JASON TAN State University of New York at Buffalo