Effect of gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis) powder on in vitro starch digestibility, nutritional quality, textural and sensory characteristics of pasta

Journal Pre-proof Effect of gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis) powder on in vitro starch digestibility, nutritional quality, textural and sensory characteristics of pasta Charoonsri Chusak, Passavoot Chanbunyawat, Poorichaya Chumnumduang, Praew Chantarasinlapin, Tanyawan Suantawee, Sirichai Adisakwattana PII:

S0023-6438(19)31198-3

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108856

Reference:

YFSTL 108856

To appear in:

LWT - Food Science and Technology

Received Date: 10 August 2019 Revised Date:

11 November 2019

Accepted Date: 17 November 2019

Please cite this article as: Chusak, C., Chanbunyawat, P., Chumnumduang, P., Chantarasinlapin, P., Suantawee, T., Adisakwattana, S., Effect of gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis) powder on in vitro starch digestibility, nutritional quality, textural and sensory characteristics of pasta, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108856. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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Effect of gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis) powder on in vitro starch

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digestibility, nutritional quality, textural and sensory characteristics of pasta

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Charoonsri Chusak, Passavoot Chanbunyawat, Poorichaya Chumnumduang, Praew

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Chantarasinlapin, Tanyawan Suantawee, Sirichai Adisakwattana*

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*

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Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,

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10330, Thailand

Phytochemical and Functional Food Research Unit for Clinical Nutrition, Department of

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*Correspondence: [email protected] Tel: (+66) 2-218-1099 ext. 111

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Abstract

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This research reports the effects of gac fruit powder (5-15% w/w) on in vitro starch digestion, the

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characteristics and sensory acceptability of pasta. Incorporation of unripe (10-15%) and ripe (5-

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15%) gac fruit powder containing phenolic compounds and carotenoids remarkedly reduced the

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starch digestibility of pasta. Furthermore, gac fruit powder also decreased the percentage of

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rapidly digestible starch with a concomitant increase in the percentage of undigested starch in

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pasta. The dietary fiber content was markedly increased by the addition of gac fruit powder into

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pasta. The cooking loss, yellowness (b*), hardness and cohesiveness of pasta was increased with

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higher amount of ripe gac fruit powder. The replacement of wheat flour with unripe (5%) and

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ripe gac fruit powder (5-10%) had no effect on sensory acceptability of pasta. The findings

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suggest that gac fruit seems to be a promising functional ingredient to incorporate with pasta for

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reduction of starch digestibility.

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Key word: Gac fruit; pasta; starch digestibility; carotenoids

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1. Introduction

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Today, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) have become a serious global health issue in

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populations in developing countries. The number of mortality and morbidity from NCDs has

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been rapidly increasing worldwide, affecting people of all ages and income levels in all regions

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of the world (Islam et al., 2014). The excessive and imbalanced consumption of high

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carbohydrate diet contributes to postprandial hyperglycemia associated with increasing risk of

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developing NCDs including diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (Ludwig, 2002).

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The incorporation of phytochemical-rich ingredients in staple foods has recently ascertained to

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be one of effective approaches to suppress the rise in postprandial glucose (Barrett, Farhadi &

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Smith, 2018; Hanhineva et al., 2010).

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Pasta is a popular convenience staple food worldwide and receives sensory consumer

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acceptance all age groups. However, it is produced mainly by mixing ingredients with high

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content of starch and low amounts of phytochemical constituents (Gull, Prasad, & Kumar, 2018).

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Several reports have focused on the addition or substitution of natural substituents to improve

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physical property and nutritional quality of pasta (Li, Zhu, Guo, Brijs, & Zhou, 2014; Padalino,

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Mastromatteo, Lecce, Cozzolino, & Del Nobile, 2013). For example, the addition of plant

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ingredients such as unripe banana flour (Ovando-Martinez, Sáyago-Ayerdi, Agama-Acevedo,

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Goñi, & Bello-Pérez, 2009) or chickpea flour (Goñi & Valentı́n-Gamazo, 2003) causes a delay in

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the digestibility of carbohydrate, leading to reduce the glycemic response. Furthermore, pasta

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incorporating sorghum flour also increased resistant starch, total phenolic acids and antioxidant

67

capacity (Khan, Yousif, Johnson, & Gamlath, 2013). In addition, pasta incorporated with

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elderberry extract contributes to increase the content of protein, total dietary fiber and

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polyphenol and antioxidant activity (Sun-Waterhouse, Jin, & Waterhouse, 2013). The literatures

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also suggest that natural ingredients containing phytochemical compounds could slow

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carbohydrate digestion by inhibiting pancreatic α-amylase and α-glucosidase (Hanhineva et al.,

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2010). In addition to bioactive polyphenols, dietary fibers in fruits, vegetables and whole grains

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can alter the rate of carbohydrate digestion, impair the uptake of glucose or prolong the

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absorption of glucose in the small intestine (Barrett et al., 2018).

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Gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng), a tropical fruit belonging to Cucurbitaceae

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family, has been used as food colorant and traditional remedy in East and Southeast Asia

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(Kubola & Siriamornpun, 2011). The ripe fruit of this plant is found to be rich multi-

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phytochemicals, especially a highly nutritional carotenoid pigment such as β-carotene, lycopene,

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zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin (Aoki, Kieu, Kuze, Tomisaka, & Van Chuyen, 2002). The most

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essential part of the fruit is the thin and red flesh surrounding the seeds, the aril which has been

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popularly used for development of healthy and functional drink (Aoki et al., 2002; Kubola et al.,

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2011). In addition to high nutritional content and bioactive compounds of its aril, unripe pulp of

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gac fruit representing approximate half of the weight of an entire fresh fruit is conventionally

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cooked in the mixture of vegetable curry, however, the ripe fruit does not appear to be used for

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this purpose (Abdulqader, Ali, Ismail, & Esa, 2018). In general, the ripe pulp of gac fruit has

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become to be food waste in the environment. Therefore, utilizing of these components has

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becoming to be a possible key for reducing food waste and enhancing economic value-added gac

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fruit. That is why, in the present study, the objective of this research was to develop the

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functional pasta with partial replacement of unripe and ripe pulp of gac fruit. Additionally, this

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research was also investigated the in vitro starch digestion, physicochemical properties and

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sensory acceptability of the functional pasta.

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2. Materials and methods

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2.1. Materials

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Unripe and ripe gac fruits (Momordica cochinchinensis) were purchased from the local

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market in Bangkok, Thailand. The stage of unripe (fully green skin, white pulp and light-yellow

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aril) and ripe gac fruit (fully orange or red skin, yellow pulp and red aril) was 8 and 14 weeks

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after pollination, respectively. Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine),

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porcine bile extract, porcine pepsin and porcine pancreatin were obtained from the Sigma-

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Aldrich Chemical Co. Ltd (St. Louis, MO, USA). Amyloglucosidase was purchased from Roche

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Diagnositics (CityIndianapolis, IN, USA). The glucose oxidase-peroxidase (GOPOD) kit was

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purchased from HUMAN GmbH (Wiesbaden, Germany).

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2.2. Preparation of Gac fruit powder

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The unripe and ripe pulp of gac fruit was cleaned with water, then peeled and cut into small

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pieces. The small pieces of the fruit were dried at 60°C for 24 h in a hot air oven, ground using a

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commercial grinder (DXM-500, DXFILL Machine, China) to pass a 150 sieve and stored in a

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laminated aluminum foil bag at 25°C. Then, the content of dietary fiber was measured according

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to AOAC 985.29 (2003) by Food Research and Testing Laboratory (FRLT), Faculty of Science,

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Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

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2.3. Particle size distribution and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of gac fruit powder

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Particle size distribution of wheat flour and gac fruit powder was determined by a Laser

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particle size analyzer (Mastersizer 3000, Malvern Instrument Ltd., Worcestershinre, UK). The

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dried particle of samples was thinly spread onto circular metal stubs with double-side adhesive

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carbon tape, coated with 12 nm gold and examined in a JSM-IT500HR InTouchScope™

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scanning electron microscope (JEOL Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).

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2.4. Carotenoids, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity

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The analysis of carotenoids was performed according to the method reported by Speek,

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Temalilwa and Schrijver (1986). The sample powder or pasta (3 g) was extracted with 30 mL of

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80% methanol for 2 h at 1000 rpm. Then, the supernatant was dried by an evaporator. The dried

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sample was stored at -20 °C prior to the analysis. The quantification of carotenoids was

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determined using High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ODS reversed phase

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column (250 x 4.6 mm id) and the detector set at a wavelength of 445 nm. The column was

126

eluted isocratically with the mobile phase (methanol: acetonitrile: chloroform: water = 200: 250:

127

90: 11 (v/v)) at the flow rate of 1.5 ml/min. Lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, α-

128

carotene and β-carotene was used as the standard. The results were expressed as µg/100 g flour.

129

The amount of total phenolic compounds was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteau reagent

130

(Pasukamonset, Kwon, & Adisakwattana, 2016). Briefly, 50 µL of dried extract in 80%

131

methanol was mixed with 10% (v/v) Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. After incubation for 5 min at room

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temperature, 50 µL of 10% (w/v) Na2CO3 was added and further left in the dark for 30 min at

133

room temperature. The absorbance of sample was read at 760 nm. Gallic acid was used as the

134

standard. The results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent per 100 g sample.

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The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay was performed according to a previous

136

study with minor modifications (Pasukamonset et al., 2016). The FRAP reagent was freshly

137

prepared by the mixture of 0.3 M acetate buffer, pH 3.6, 10 mM TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-

138

triazine) in 40 mM HCl and 20 mM FeCl3 in ratio of 10:1:1, respectively. Thereafter, 10 µL of

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dried extract in 80% methanol was incubated with 90 µL of the FRAP reagent for 30 min in the

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dark. The absorbance was measured at 595 nm. The results were shown as mmol FeSO4

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equivalents/100 g sample.

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2.5. Pasta preparation

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The ingredients in the control pasta (100% wheat flour) formulation consisted of 100 g

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wheat flour; 1 g salt, 50 g whole egg and 5 g vegetable oil. The powder of unripe and ripe pulp

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of gac fruits were then to replace 5%, 10% or 15% of wheat flour in the control formulation. The

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dry ingredients were mixed by the mixing chamber and vegetable oil and egg was then added.

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After mixing for 30 min, dough was rested for 20 min at room temperature and then passed

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through a 180 MM Detachable Pasta Machine (Changzhou Shule Kitchen Utensils Co. Ltd.,

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Jiangsu, China). Samples were cut into fettuccini and dried at 60 °C for 18 h using a hot-air

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oven. The dried pasta samples were stored at the room temperature until analysis. The proximate

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analysis of pasta including carbohydrate, moisture, ash, total fat, protein and total dietary fiber

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was determined using the method of AOAC (2003).

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2.6. Color and texture properties

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The color of pasta was measured by ColorFlex 4.5/0 colorimeter (Hunter Associates

157

Laboratory, Inc., VA, USA). The results were expressed as the values of L* (lightness; 0= black,

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100 = white), a* (+a* = redness, -a* = greenness) and b* (+b* = yellowness, -b* = blueness).

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Texture properties of samples were measured by TA.XT-Plus Texture analyzer (Technologies

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Corp. and Stable Micro Systems Ltd., MA, USA). A single stand of each pasta sample was cut to

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a 3-cm length. To measure the color profiles, an aluminum cylinder probe (35 mm) compressed

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pasta at a speed of 1 mm/s for the pretest, test and post-test with a constant rate of deformation to

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75% of the original pasta thickness. The textural parameters recorded from the instrument were

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hardness, adhesiveness and cohesiveness.

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2.7. Cooking properties

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The cooking loss (CL), water absorption (WA) and swelling index (SI) was determined by

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the method of AACC-approved method 66-50.01 (AACC, 2010) with minor modifications. Pasta

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(8 g) was boiled in 125 mL of distilled water for 12 min until the white and hard core of pasta

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disappeared. Then, cooked pasta was placed into cold water to prevent overcooking for 5 min

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and then weight after drain. Cooking water and rinse water were put into beaker and dried at 105

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°C for 24 h until constant weight. Finally, the sample was kept at 40 °C for overnight until

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constant weight. The cooking properties were calculated as follows:

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CL (%)

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x100

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WA (%)

= (Weight of cooked pasta – weight of pasta)/weight of pasta x100

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SI

= (Weight of cooked pasta – weight of cooked pasta after drying)/ weight of

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= (Weight of dried residue in cooking water and rinse water/Weight of pasta)

cooked pasta after drying 2.8. Carotenoids, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity in cooked pasta Carotenoids, total phenolic content and FRAP value in cooked pasta were performed according to the above-mentioned method.

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2.9. Starch digestibility of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit flour

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In vitro starch digestion of the pasta was conducted by the previous method (Pasukamonset et

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al., 2016) with modifications. Cooked pasta (500 mg) was cut into small pieces. Thereafter, 3 mL

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of the porcine pepsin solution (40 mg/mL in 0.1 N HCl) was added and adjusted the pH to 2.0 ±

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0.1 to initiate the gastric phase digestion. The mixture was incubated at 37°C for 1 h in a water

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bath shaker at 100 rpm. At the end of gastric phase, the pH of the mixture was adjusted to 4.5 to

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inactive pepsin. The amyloglucosidase solution (150 µL; 10 mg/mL) was added and incubated at

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37°C for 30 min in a water bath shaker at 100 rpm. Afterwards, the combination of 100 mM

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NaHCO3 and 1.0 N NaOH was added to adjust the pH to 5.3, followed by addition of 9 mL of

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the small intestinal solution consisting of pancreatin (3 mg/mL) and bile acid (12 mg/mL) in 100

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mM NaHCO3. The final digestion sample was adjusted the pH to 7.2 ± 0.1 and made up volume

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to 20 mL with 0.9% (w/v) NaCl. After the incubation at 37°C in a water bath shaker, the aliquot

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was removed at 0, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 min and then boiling at 100 °C for 10 min. After

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centrifugation at 10000 rpm for 10 min, the concentration of glucose in digesta was carried out

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using the glucose assay kit. The results were expressed as mg glucose/ g pasta. The different

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starch fractions were calculated as rapidly digested starch (RDS): the amount of glucose released

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after 20 min, slowly digested starch (SDS): the amount of glucose released between 20 and 120

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min of in vitro digestion and undigested starch or resistant starch: the amount of glucose over

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120 min (Englyst, Kingman & Cummings, 1992). The glucose was conversed to starch by

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multiplying with 0.9. The incremental area under the curve (iAUC) was calculated using the

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trapezoidal rule.

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2.10. Sensory evaluation

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The pasta samples were evaluated by untrained sensory panelists (n = 50).

Before

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evaluation, all panelists were asked for possible wheat and/or gac fruit allergies. Pasta (100 g)

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were cooked freshly in boiling water for 12 min, rinsed and cooled in water at room temperature

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for 5 min. Each cooked pasta was placed in the plastic cup with a random three-digit code.

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Participants were instructed to rinse the oral cavity with water before and between testing of

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samples. The cooked sample was evaluated for the appearance, color, odor, texture, taste,

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elasticity and overall acceptability. Sensory attributes were recorded using a nine-point hedonic

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scale (dislike extremely =1; neither like nor dislike =5; like extremely = 9).

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2.11. Statistical analysis

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Data were presented as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM). Statistical analyses were

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performed using One-way ANOVA followed by Duncan’s multiple range test at p<0.05. Data

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obtained from uncooked and cooked pasta were analyzed using Student’s t-test.

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Results and discussion

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3.1. The particle size and scanning electron microscopic (SEM) of gac fruit powder

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Figure 1A-C demonstrate photographs of wheat flour, unripe and ripe gac fruit powder. A

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significant difference of particle size distribution was observed between wheat, unripe and ripe

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pulp of gac fruit powder. The smallest particle size can be seen in wheat flour (59.35 ± 0.05 µm),

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followed by ripe gac fruit flour (93.65 ± 0.15 µm) and unripe gac fruit flour (115.00 ± 1 µm). It

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is noted that differences in particle size of starch and non-starch fractions present in various plant

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sources affect the functional and physiochemical properties of products (Kaur, Shevkani, Singh,

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Sharma, & Kaur, 2015). Based on the SEM, unripe and ripe gac fruit powder represented a

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mixture of irregular granule shapes, whereas starch granules of wheat exhibited an oval shape

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(Figure 1D-F). The particle size and the shape of gac fruit powder was similar to the previous

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report of fruit powder (Gurak, De Bona, Tessaro, & Marczak, 2014). The various particle size

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may be related to the different compositions of hydrophilic fibrous substances in fruit powder

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such as fiber, sugar and protein and also porous nature of whole fruit (Adiba, Salem, Nabil, &

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Abdelhakim, 2011).

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3.2. The total phenolics, carotenoids and antioxidant activity

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The identification of carotenoids, total phenolics and antioxidant activity of unripe and ripe

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gac fruit powder are shown in Table 1. The results showed that only lutein was found in unripe

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gac fruit powder. In contrast, carotenoids including lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin,

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lycopene, α-carotene and β-carotene were present in ripe gac fruit powder which are consistent

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with the results reported by Aoki et al. (2002). Similar findings have been reported in several

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other fruits such as mango, banana or papaya (Khoo, Prasad, Kong, Jiang, & Ismail, 2011). The

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previous report also revealed that the degradation of chlorophyll contributes to the synthesis of

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carotenoids during ripening process (Lusty, Akyeampong, Davey, Ngoh, & Markham, 2006).

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Our findings suggest that gac fruit powder is carotenoid-enrich diets which have been associated

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with beneficial health effect on eye-protection from free radicals (Krishnan, Menon, Padmaja,

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Sajeec, & Moorthy, 2012). Furthermore, the results also showed that unripe and ripe gac fruit

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powder had higher total phenolic content and FRAP value than wheat flour. This finding is

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attributed to the content of phenolic compounds in gac fruit powder. There was significant

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difference in the total phenolics and FRAP value between unripe and ripe gac fruit powder. In

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addition, our findings were similar to a previous study indicating that total phenolic content in

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unripe peel and pulp of gac fruit had higher than that of ripe gac fruit (Kubola et al., 2011).

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As shown in Table 1, the results showed that carotenoids were only detected in pasta with

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ripe gac fruit power (10%). Moreover, cooked pasta with ripe gac fruit power (10%) had lower

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contents of carotenoids than uncooked pasta. These findings suggest that cooking process

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reduces the content of carotenoids in pasta with ripe gac fruit power. In the similar finding of

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Crizel et al. (2015), a reduction in the carotenoid content in pasta enriched with orange by

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products was found after cooking process. In addition, pasta with unripe gac fruit power (10%)

259

showed significantly higher polyphenol and FRAP value than the control pasta (p<0.05).

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Moreover, the presence of unripe and ripe gac fruit power in pasta caused a significant increase

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in FRAP value when compared to the control pasta (p<0.05. The similar results were reported in

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a study of Gull et al. (2018), the addition of millet flour and carrot pomace increased antioxidant

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activity in pasta due to a potent source of antioxidant compounds. However, there were no

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significant differences in the content of polyphenol and FRAP value between uncooked and

265

cooked pasta.

266 267

3.3. In vitro starch digestibility of pasta

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The photographs of pasta with partial replacement of unripe and ripe gac fruit powder (5-

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15%) are presented in Figure 1G-M. The effects of unripe and ripe gac fruit powder on in vitro

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starch digestion of pasta are shown in Figure 2A. At the first step in the intestinal digestion,

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glucose can be released from pasta with all formulations. However, no significant differences

272

were observed in the amounts of glucose between the control pasta and pasta with gac fruit

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powder. The results showed that pasta was rapidly digested and released its glucose after 20 min

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of intestinal digestion. At this point, pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder exhibited a

275

significant reduction in the release of glucose when compared with the control. Figure 2B

276

demonstrates the incremental area under the curves (iAUCs) for glucose release of pasta with

277

unripe and ripe gac fruit powder. The results presented that pasta with unripe (10-15%) or ripe

278

gac fruit powder (5-15%) caused a significant decrease in iAUCs for glucose release, as

279

compared to the control (p<0.05; except for unripe 5%). However, there were no significant

280

differences in iAUCs between unripe and ripe gac fruit powder at the same percentage of

281

replacement in pasta. The amount of RDS, SDS and undigested starch in pasta with unripe and

282

ripe gac fruit powder are presented in Figure 2C. When comparing with the control, the partial

283

replacement of unripe and ripe gac fruit flour (5-15%) resulted in a significantly lower level of

284

RDS (p<0.05). Our findings are similar to a previous study indicating that addition of plants into

285

pasta was able to decrease the amount of RDS (Lu et al., 2018). In pasta with unripe (15%) and

286

ripe gac fruit power group (15%), a significant increase in undigested starch was also observed

287

as compared to the control. Nevertheless, the amount of SDS did not significantly change among

288

all groups. It has been shown that addition of phenolic-enriched pistachio green hull extract

289

(Lalegani, Gavlighi, Azizi, & Sarteshnizi, 2018) into pasta could reduce starch digestibility to

290

absorbable monosaccharides. This effect may be due to the inhibitory activity of phenolic

291

compounds against carbohydrate digestive enzymes (Hanhineva et al., 2010; Lalegani et al.,

292

2018). Other reports support this effect associating with the interaction of phenolics with

293

protein/starch to form indigestible complexes which could not be digested by carbohydrate

294

hydrolyzing enzymes (Świeca, Gawlik-Dziki, Dziki, Baraniak, & Czyż, 2013).

295

Moreover, the low starch digestibility in foods are govern by the structure and composition

296

of starch such as dietary fiber (Barrett et al., 2018). The results found that the dietary fiber in gac

13

297

fruit powder of unripe and ripe gac fruit was 42.68 g/ 100 g and 47.60 g/100g. These values were

298

higher than the previous study of Nagarani et al. (2014) who reported that the content of dietary

299

fiber of gac fruit was 1.1 – 29 g/100 g. In meantime, the addition of unripe (10%) and ripe gac

300

fruit powder (10%) in pasta led to increase its content of dietary fiber and moisture (Table 2).

301

The supplementation of pasta by substances containing dietary fiber, in this study, may alter its

302

starch digestibility leading to decrease the content of RDS and increase undigested starch (Figure

303

2C). Based on high undigested starch and low content of RDS, pasta containing gac fruit powder

304

might be a diet for the management of glycemic response in diabetes and obesity (Krishnan et

305

al., 2012).

306 307

3.4. Cooking properties of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder

308

Cooking loss, water absorption and swelling index of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit

309

powder are summarized in Table 3. Cooking loss, one of important indicators for cooking quality

310

of pasta/macaroni, is stated as the amount of solid lost into the cooking water (Ajila, Aalami,

311

Leelavathi, & Rao, 2010). During cooking process, the soluble components of starch and other

312

soluble parts such as non-starch polysaccharides leach into cooking water. After the substitution

313

of wheat flour with both unripe and ripe gac fruit powder at 15%, cooking loss of pasta markedly

314

increased when compared with the control. Our results agreed with the previous report showing

315

that cooking loss of macaroni and fettuccini pasta was significantly increased after the addition

316

of fruit powder such mango peel (Ajila et al., 2010) and grape marc (Sant'Anna, Christiano,

317

Marczak, Tessaro, & Thys, 2014). The reason supports the explanation of increased cooking loss

318

is due to the amount of dietary fiber in gac fruit which can disrupt the gluten protein network,

319

causing the unstable distribution of water inside the pasta (Ajila et al., 2010). Moreover, the

14

320

substitution of non-gluten powder or flour in pasta also attenuated the gluten strength leading to

321

weaken the whole structure of the sample and consequently increased the release of solid from

322

pasta into cooking water (Rayas-Duarte, Mock, & Satterlee, 1996). Although the increased

323

percentage of cooking loss was markedly observed in pasta containing gac fruit, but the values of

324

all replacing levels were within an acceptable range as compared to a previous study (Sant'Anna

325

et al., 2014). If cooking loss was smaller than 12%, indicating that pasta containing gac fruit had

326

a desirable property of good quality of pasta (Sant'Anna et al., 2014).

327

Water absorption reflects the amount of water bound by the product during cooking process,

328

while swelling index indicates the relative volume change between uncooked and cook pasta

329

(Oikonomou & Krokida, 2011). The substitution of unripe and ripe gac fruit powder in pasta

330

significantly decreased water absorption and swelling index. These findings are in accordance

331

with Padailino et al. (2017) who described the effect of tomato by-product on the reduction of

332

water absorption and swelling index in pasta. In fact, a decrease in water absorption and swelling

333

index results from the high hydrophilicity of dietary fiber (Padalino et al. 2017). Our findings

334

suggest that high amount of dietary fiber in pasta containing gac fruit may be associated with the

335

alteration of swelling index and water absorption.

336 337

3.5. The color profile of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder

338

Table 3 represents the color profile of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder.

339

Comparing with the control, pasta containing unripe gac fruit powder (5-10%) had significantly

340

reduced brightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*). In addition, a decrease in L* and an

341

increase in a* and b* were observed in pasta containing 5-15% ripe gac fruit powder. It is

342

possible that, in our research, the substitution of wheat flour with ripe gac fruit powder decreased

15

343

lightness and increased in redness and yellowness of pasta because of the presence of

344

carotenoids. The findings are agreement with the results of Gull et al. (2018) who reported that

345

the incorporation of millet flours with carrot pomace into pasta markedly increased redness and

346

yellowness, resulting from the presence of water-soluble nature of carotenoids in carrot pomace.

347

3.6 Textural properties of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder

348

Textural properties of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder are presented in Table 3.

349

Unripe and ripe gac fruit powder (10%) significantly increased the hardness of pasta when

350

compared to the control (p<0.05). Earlier studies revealed that addition of vegetable flours such

351

as pumpkin, spinach and eggplant increased the hardness of spaghetti (Padalino et al., 2013). The

352

increased hardness of pasta was also detected by addition of dietary fiber from fruits and

353

vegetables. This could be explained by the fact that dietary fiber led to increase the

354

hydrophilicity and decrease swelling index of pasta (Rakhesh, Fellows, & Sissons, 2015). In

355

addition, cohesiveness, one of parameter meaning that the sample holds together upon cooking

356

has been associated with the consumer acceptability of noodles or pasta (Rizzello et al., 2017).

357

Our results showed that unripe and ripe gac fruit powder significantly increased the cohesiveness

358

of pasta, as compared with the control. Similarly, the study of Rizzello et al. (2017) revealed that

359

the cohesiveness was notably increased after the substitution of faba bean flour in pasta. The

360

change of this parameter was considered as a good indicator for pasta holding together during

361

cooking (Rizzello et al., 2017). Adhesiveness indicates as an assessment of the stickiness of

362

foods while eating (Krishnan et al., 2012). In this study, the presence of ripe gac fruit powder

363

(15%) in pasta caused a significant increase in the adhesiveness of pasta whereas unripe gac fruit

364

powder (5-15%) decreased the stickiness of pasta. These finding are in agreement with the

365

results reported by Zhang, Sun, He and Tian (2010) who found that the adhesiveness of noodles

16

366

was increased with increasing proportion of sweet potato flour (>10%). Additionally, Cleary and

367

Brennan (2006) indicated that incorporation of dietary fiber in pasta increased adhesiveness

368

because the fiber degrades the continuous structure of pasta. The changes in adhesiveness of

369

pasta were correlated to the high content of fiber and/or the solubility of compounds leached

370

from pasta during cooking process in hot water (Bouasla, Wójtowicz, & Zidoune, 2017).

371 372

3.7. Sensory evaluation of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder

373

The results describing the effect of unripe and ripe gac fruit powder on sensory attributes of

374

pasta are reported in Table 4. Sensory parameters of pasta incorporated with unripe and ripe gac

375

fruit power included appearance, color, odor, texture, taste and overall acceptability. The higher

376

scores of evaluated attributes are defined as high acceptability. Our results indicated that pasta

377

with 5% unripe gac fruit powder had the highest scores in all evaluated attributes. Besides, the

378

substitution of wheat flour with ripe gac fruit powder (5-15%) caused an increase in appearance,

379

color, odor, taste and overall acceptability, except the texture and taste of ripe gac fruit powder

380

(15%). Similarly, textural attributes were altered after addition of pomegranate peel fiber in

381

macaroni (Essa & Mohamed, 2018). This effect may be explained by the interaction of dietary

382

fiber with the structure of gluten protein network (Kaur, Sharma, Nagi, & Dar, 2012). However,

383

overall acceptability of pasta with unripe (5%) and ripe gac fruit (5-15%) was found to be higher,

384

indicating that the substitution of pasta by gac fruit powder had no negative effect on the tested

385

sensory attributes.

386 387

5. Conclusion

17

388

The gac fruit powder has a potential source of bioactive compounds, dietary fiber and

389

antioxidants. In vitro starch digestibility highlighted that the substitution of unripe and ripe gac

390

fruit powder could significantly decrease starch digestibility of pasta together with the reduction

391

of RDS and an increase in undigested starch. Besides, it caused a decrease in water absorption

392

index and swelling power with a concomitant increase in cooking loss of pasta. Consequently,

393

gac fruit powder led to increase hardness and cohesiveness with affecting color properties of

394

pasta. Pasta with unripe (5%) and ripe gac fruit (5-15%) powder demonstrated a good overall

395

acceptability. Thus, gac fruit powder may be a promising functional component for pasta

396

fortification.

397 398 399

Conflicts of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

400 401

Acknowledgments

402

Dr. Charronsri Chusak wishes to thank Rachadapisek Sompote Fund for Postdoctoral

403

Fellowship, Chulalongkorn University. This research was supported by Grant for International

404

Research

405

Ratchadaphiseksomphot Endowment Fund, Chulalongkorn University (CU-GRS-62-04-37-01).

Integration:

Chula

Research

Scholar,

and

Grant

for

Join

Funding,

406 407

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Figure legends

528

Figure 1. Photograph (A-C) and scanning electron micrographs (D-F; 1500X) of wheat, unripe

529

gac fruit powder and ripe gac fruit powder, respectively. Photograph of wheat pasta (control; G)

530

and pasta with 5-15% (w/w) unripe (H-J) and ripe (K-M) gac fruit powder, respectively.

531

Figure 2. Kinetic of glucose release during in vitro digestion (A), area under the curve for

532

glucose (B) and starch fraction (C) of control pasta and pasta with gac fruit powder. Values are

533

mean ± SEM, n=3. RDS: Rapidly digested starch, SDS: Slowly digested starch. Different letters

534

show a significant difference at the level of p<0.05. Control (
: control, : 5% unripe,
:10%

535

unripe,  : 15% unripe, : 5% ripe, : 10% ripe and : 15% ripe gac fruit powder)

24

536

Figure 1.

537

25

538

Figure 1. (Cont.)

539 540 541 542

543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553

26

554 555

Figure 2.

556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 27

573 574

Figure 2. (Cont.)

575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592

28

593 594

Figure 2. (Cont.)

595 596 597 598

29

599

Table 1. Carotenoids, total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of unripe and ripe gac fruit powder and pasta Total phenolic

Carotenoids (µg/100 g sample)

FRAP content (mg FeSO4 (mg gallic acid Lutein

Zeaxanthin

β-cryptoxanthin

Lycopene

α-carotene

β- carotene

equivalent/100 g equivalent/100 sample) g sample)

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.09 ± 0.01a

233.87 ± 19.54a

4.49 ± 0.45

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

0.65 ± 0.01b

4,071.08 ± 285.52b

163.45 ± 4.50

2,145.95 ± 85.30

1,488.24 ± 48.07

2,589.21 ± 33.58

636.29 ± 6.09

10,763.65 ± 290.85

0.53 ± 0.02c

4,231.49 ± 287.56b

Control

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

2.76 ± 1.10a

1.19 ± 0.49a

10% unripe gac fruit

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

7.28 ± 0.96b

4.08 ± 0.87b

2.02 ± 0.39 a

27.15 ± 3.01a

19.58 ± 2.86a

33.61 ± 7.23 a

9.09 ± 2.01 a

135.80 ± 27.05 a

5.79 ± 0.81a,b

4.90 ± 1.20b

Control

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

2.30 ± 1.38a

1.65 ± 0.54a

10% unripe gac fruit

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

ND

6.70 ± 0.32b

5.01 ± 0.45b

1.29 ± 0.15 b

16.53 ± 3.72 b

10.81 ± 2.86 b

17.68 ± 4.73 b

5.58 ± 1.19 b

80.40 ± 20.99 b

5.89 ± 1.38a,b

5.80 ± 0.24b

Wheat flour Unripe gac fruit powder Ripe gac fruit powder Uncooked pasta

powder 10% ripe gac fruit powder Cooked pasta

powder 10% ripe gac fruit powder

600

The results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M., (n=3). Values with different letters in each column are a significant difference (p<0.05);

601

ND, not detectable.

30

602

Table 2. Proximate analysis of the pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder

Total dietary Carbohydrate

Protein

Fat

Moisture

Ash

fiber Control pasta

66.74 ± 0.01 a

16.09 ± 0.01a

9.44 ± 0.01a

5.57 ± 0.01a

6.30 ± 0.01a

1.43± 0.01a

62.55 ± 0.01b

16.03 ± 0.01a

9.58 ± 0.01a

9.34 ± 0.01b

9.27 ± 0.01b

2.57 ± 0.01b

64.28 ± 0.01c

16.54 ± 0.01b

7.26 ± 0.01b

9.10 ± 0.01b

9.16 ± 0.01b

2.76 ± 0.01b

Pasta with 10% unripe gac fruit powder Pasta with 10% ripe gac fruit powder

603 604 605

Values are gram on a 100 g dry basis. The results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M., n= 3 Values

606

with different letters in each column are a significant difference (p<0.05).

31

607

Table 3. Cooking, color and texture properties of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder Cooking properties

Color properties

Texture properties Adhesiveness

CL (%)

WA (%)

SI

L*

a*

b*

Cohesiveness

Hardness (N) (g.sec)

Control pasta

5.65 ± 0.11a

216.21 ± 0.34a

2.38 ± 0.01a

26.30 ± 0.04a

3.40 ± 0.02a

9.16 ± 0.06a

157.01 ± 8.36ac

-23.42 ± 1.10ab

0.57 ± 0.04a

5% unripe pasta

5.39 ± 0.20a

194.63 ± 1.23bc

2.23 ± 0.04b

24.37 ± 0.03b

3.01 ± 0.05b

10.30 ± 0.06b

151.17 ± 1.90ab

-14.97 ± 0.49b

0.63 ± 0.02b

10% unripe pasta

5.53 ± 0.19a

162.69 ± 0.56e

1.87 ± 0.00d

17.44 ± 0.04c

2.05 ± 0.06c

9.24 ± 0.04ad

170.97 ± 1.00cd

-15.89 ± 2.82b

0.69 ± 0.02bc

15% unripe pasta

7.23 ± 0.02b

169.19 ± 2.50d

2.03 ± 0.05c

16.87 ± 0.03d

1.63 ± 0.02d

7.82 ± 0.01c

184.07 ± 4.16d

-15.81 ± 0.23b

0.73 ± 0.01c

5% ripe pasta

4.98 ± 0.42a

172.81 ± 0.25d

1.98 ± 0.03cd

19.18 ± 0.02e

3.84 ± 0.04e

9.35 ± 0.01d

168.75 ± 6.98acd

-20.65 ± 3.30ab

0.61 ± 0.01b

10% ripe pasta

5.64 ± 0.48a

190.94 ± 2.31c

2.20 ± 0.07b

18.53 ± 0.02f

3.63 ± 0.00f

10.18 ± 0.01b

177.08 ± 5.43d

-28.28 ± 1.59a

0.63 ± 0.01b

15% ripe pasta

7.11 ± 0.09b

197.58 ± 0.84b

2.30 ± 0.01b

25.96 ± 0.02g

4.50 ± 0.11g

14.49 ± 0.14e

185.85 ± 5.58d

-42.89 ± 3.66c

0.66 ± 0.01b

608 609

The results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M., (n=3). Values with different letters in each column are a significant difference (p<0.05).

610

CL: Cooking loss; WA: Water absorption; SI: Swelling index (g water/g dry sample)

611 612 613 614 615

32

616

Table 4. Sensory attributes of pasta with unripe and ripe gac fruit powder Sensory attributes Overall Appearance

Color

Odor

Texture

Taste acceptability

Control pasta

6.08 ± 1.43a

5.27 ± 1.62a

5.46 ±1.82ab

5.98 ± 1.42a

5.76 ± 1.61ab

6.02 ± 1.29a

5% unripe pasta

6.94 ± 1.52bc

6.66 ± 1.52b

5.86 ± 1.55ad

6.52 ± 1.13bc

6.24 ± 1.44be

6.58 ± 1.40bd

10% unripe pasta

6.24 ± 1.36ac

5.86 ± 1.60a

4.88 ± 1.91bc

5.90 ± 1.47c

5.06 ± 1.79c

5.69 ± 1.65a

15% unripe pasta

6.02 ± 1.33a

5.60 ± 1.36a

4.28 ± 1.49c

5.18 ± 1.35c

4.34 ± 1.47d

4.90 ± 1.33c

5% ripe pasta

6.18 ± 1.44ac

6.46 ± 1.34b

5.96 ± 1.64a

6.50 ± 1.11b

6.54 ± 1.03e

6.58 ± 1.14bd

10% ripe pasta

6.82 ± 1.35bc

6.76 ± 1.25b

6.32 ± 1.48ad

6.34 ± 1.30ab

6.22 ± 1.50abe

6.74 ± 1.21d

15% ripe pasta

6.70 ± 1.04c

6.46 ± 1.53b

6.06 ± 1.75a

5.68 ± 1.42ac

5.56 ± 1.58ac

6.14 ± 1.37abd

617 618

The results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M., (n=50). Values with different letters in each column are a significant difference (p<0.05).

33

Highlight •

Gac fruit powder contained dietary fiber, carotenoids and phenolic compounds.

•

Replacement of wheat flour by gac fruit powder reduced starch digestion of pasta.

•

Gac fruit powder reduced the level of RDS and increased undigested starch in pasta.

•

Gac fruit powder increased the cooking loss and hardness and cohesiveness of pasta.

•

Pasta with gac fruit powder showed acceptable range of sensory rating score.

Effect of gac fruit pulp waste (Momordica cochinchinensis) on nutritional quality, starch digestibility, textural and sensory characteristics of pasta Declaration of interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Charoonsri Chusak

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Passavoot Chanbunyawat

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Poorichaya Chumnumduang

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Praew Chantarasinlapin

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Tanyawan Suantawee

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Sirichai Adisakwattana

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Author 3: Poorichaya Chumnumduang ☐

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