- Email: [email protected]
Effect of inorganic fertilizers (N, P, K) on methane emission from tropical rice field of India
Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Atmospheric Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
Effect of inorganic fertilizers (N, P, K) on methane emission from tropical rice field of India A. Datta a, b, *, S.C. Santra c, T.K. Adhya b a
School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom Crop Production Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, India c Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kalyani, Paschimbanga, India b
h i g h l i g h t s < Study of methane emission from Aeric Endoaquept. < Significant reduction of methane emission with P and K-fertilizers. < Low methane emission from N þ P þ K applied plots.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 30 July 2012 Received in revised form 29 August 2012 Accepted 1 September 2012
In the tropical experimental rice field of Central Rice Research Institute, Odisha, India, an experiment was conducted during the dry season (JanuaryeApril) and wet season (JulyeNovember) of rice cultivation to study the effect of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilizer application on grain yield and methane (CH4) emission. The experiment was carried out with five treatments (No fertilizer (control), N-fertilizer, P-fertilizer, K-fertilizer and N þ P þ K fertilizer) with three replicates of each under a completely randomized block design. Significantly higher CH4 emission was recorded from all plots during wet season. Among fertilizer applied plots, significantly higher CH4 emission was recorded from N-fertilizer applied plots (dry season: 80.27 kg ha1; wet season: 451.27 kg ha1), while significantly lower CH4 emission was recorded from N þ P þ K applied plots (dry season: 34.60 kg ha1; wet season: 233.66 kg ha1). Low cumulative CH4 emission to grain yield ratio was recorded from N þ P þ K applied plots during both seasons (83.57 kg Mg1 grain yield during dry season and 77.14 kg Mg1 grain yield during wet season). CH4 emission from different treatment was positively correlated with microbial biomass carbon (r ¼ 0.516), readily mineralizable carbon (r ¼ 0.621) and sugar (r ¼ 0.340) content of the soil. Negative CH4 emission was recorded during the fallow period which may be attributed to higher methanotrophic bacterial population. Study suggests that the effects of P and K-fertilizer on CH4 emission from rice field along with the CH4 emission during the fallow period need to be considered to reduce the uncertainty in upscaling process. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fertilizer management Rice field Methane emission Seasonal variation
1. Introduction At present, there are extensive discussions in the scientific community about the possible future range of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from different anthropogenic sources (Forster et al., 2007). Each GHG has a specific global warming potential
* Corresponding author. School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, 23 St. Machar Drive, Aberdeen AB24 3UU, United Kingdom. Tel.: þ44 7721007905. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A. Datta). 1352-2310/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.001
(GWP) over 100 years time frame. Methane (CH4) is a potent GHG with relative GWP 25 times higher than that of CO2 (Forster et al., 2007). Present atmospheric mixing ratio of CH4 is 1.84 ppmv (Datta et al., 2011). CH4 accounts for 1/3 of the current global warming phenomenon (Dlugokencky et al., 2003). About 592 Tg of CH4 is globally emitted to the atmosphere per annum, of which about 550 Tg is lost in various sinks (Forster et al., 2007). It ultimately results into an annual increase of about 40 Tg of CH4 in the atmosphere. Anthropogenic activities account for 60% of global annual CH4 budget (Insum and Wett, 2008). Rice cultivation is a major source of atmospheric CH4. It contributes about 5e20% of total CH4 emission (Forster et al., 2007) to the atmosphere. Yan
124
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
et al. (2009) have estimated the emission of 25.5 Tg CH4 yr1 from rice fields of the world using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guideline, 2006. They have estimated 6.08 Tg of annual CH4 emission from the rice fields of India. CH4 emission from the rice field shows large variability resulting from complex suite of factors such as transport and nature of the organic matter, cultivar morphology, soil type, nature of the applied manure and fertilizer, atmospheric background concentration, topography, geomorphology etc. Precise estimation of CH4 emission from the rice field has been difficult due to the large temporal and spatial variability. The results of the field experiments in the rice fields of India, have suggested that the annual CH4 emission from rice field ranges from 9.5 g m2 (Gupta et al., 2009) to 63 g m2 (Mitra, 1992). However, rice production needs to be increased by about 40% to feed the burgeoning population by 2030 (FAO, 2009). To achieve this production target, the average rice production in the present irrigated area (4.9 Mg ha1) and rainfed area (2.5 Mg ha1) need to be increased to 8 Mg ha1 and 3.5 Mg ha1 respectively (FAO, 2010). The efficiency of the production input like fertilizer, manure, pesticide etc. must be improved to achieve the targeted yield. Efficient use of the nitrogen (N) fertilizer is vital to achieve a sustained crop yield (Snyder et al., 2009), although long term Napplication has a negative trade off on nutrient cycling efficiency of the soil (Jagadamma et al., 2007). The world average rate of Nfertilizer application to the rice soil is 73 kg ha1, with a range between 27 and 151 kg ha1 (FAO, 2009). Integrated nutrient management (INM) is an approach of judicial application of other fertilizers (e.g. P-fertilizer, K-fertilizer etc.) along with the Nfertilizer to achieve the maximum yield (Wienhold et al., 2004) while decreasing the environmental effects of the applied nutrients. Phosphate (P) and potassium (K) fertilizers are widely used along with the N-fertilizer to increase the grain yield. Plant nutrients either naturally occurring or applied as fertilizer to the paddy soil affect GHG emissions from soil (Jia et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2009), either by influencing the growth of the rice plant (e.g. development of aerenchyma, formation of root exudates) or soil microbial community (methanogens and methanotrophs) or by changing different soil physicochemical properties. Addition of N-fertilizer to the soil increases CH4 emission by 97% and reduces CH4 uptake in the soil by 34% (Liu and Greaver, 2009). N-fertilizer stimulates CH4 production in soil while inhibiting CH4 oxidation in soil (Bodilier, 2011). Jarecki et al. (2008) have also concluded that application of inorganic N fertilizer to the sandy loam soil increases the CH4 emission from soil. However, studies (Prasanna et al., 2002; Cai et al., 2007; Xie et al., 2010; Shrestha et al., 2010; Zang et al., 2011) have also reported stimulation of methanotrophic bacteria and increase uptake of CH4 in soil with the application of N-fertilizer. Incubation studies have concluded that NHþ 4 inhibits CH4 oxidation at low CH4 concentration; however, it stimulates CH4 oxidation at high CH4 concentration (De Visscher and Van Cleemput, 2003). Application of phosphate (P) fertilizer increases the rate of Nfixation to the soil (Rao et al., 1986) while decreasing the CH4 emission significantly (Adhya et al., 1998). Application of Pfertilizer may stimulate CH4 uptake in the soil (Zang et al., 2011) and inhibits the acetoclastic methanogenic activity in the rice rhizosphere (Conrad et al., 2000) which leads to inhibition of CH4 emission from soil. However, concentration of phosphate required (>20 mM) for such inhibition may be irrelevant under in situ condition. Application of potassium (K) fertilizer is known to alleviate the soil reducing condition and associated imbalances in plant (Chen et al., 1997) while inhibiting the CH4 emission from rice field (Babu et al., 2006). Again, Wassmann et al. (1993) have reported no effect of K-fertilizer application on CH4 emission from
rice field. Conrad and Klose (2005) have stated that the inhibition of CH4 emission from soil with the application of P- and Kfertilizer may be due to their effect on plant ventilation and root exudates. CH4 emission from nutrient P and K deficient rice field plots was reported significantly low than that of balanced nutrient N, P, K applied plot in China (Yang et al., 2010; Shang et al., 2011). India is the largest user of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer in rice field (Heffer, 2009). However, the effect of P and K fertilizers on CH4 emission from the rice field is still uncertain. It is important to study their effects on CH4 emission and grain yield from the rice field to develop proper mitigation strategies to reduce CH4 emission and develop the emission factor of CH4 emission from different rice growing environment of India. The objective of the present experiment was to study the effect of N, P and K fertilizers on CH4 emission and different soil parameters in rice field during both wet and dry seasons of rice cultivation. 2. Materials and methods The field experiment was conducted during the wet season or Kharif (JulyeNovember) and dry season or Rabi (January to April) at the experimental farm of Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack (Latitude 20 270 2000 N and longitude 85 550 4800 E), Odisha, India. The general elevation of the farm is 24 m MSL. Meteorological parameters during the study period were collected from the weather station within the farm. The mean annual maximum and minimum air temperatures were 39.2 C and 22.5 C respectively with the mean annual temperature of 27.7 C. The annual average rainfall was 1550 mm of which 75e80% being received during June to November. The average relative humidity during the study period was ranged between 78% (January) to 92% (September). The soil (Aeric Endoaquept) of the area is alluvial in nature with pH 6.8, bulk density 1.20 Mg m3, organic carbon 0.009 kg C kg1 soil, 0.8 g N kg1 soil, 12 mg NO3eN kg1 soil, 1 soil, 8 mg available P kg1 soil, 120 kg available 40 mg NHþ 4 eN kg 1 soil. K ha1, 25.9% clay and 30.7 mg SO2 4 kg 2.1. Field experiment The experiment was laid in randomized block design with three replicates each of the five treatments, (i) Control (without fertilizer); (ii) Urea (80 kg N ha1 and 120 kg N ha1 during wet and dry seasons respectively) N; (iii) Single super phosphate (60 kg P ha1) P60; (iv) Muriate of potash (60 kg K ha1) K60; (v) N þ P60 þ K60. Nfertilizer was applied in three splits: 50% of the total N-fertilizer was applied during the seedling stage; remaining 50% was applied in two equal halves during maximum tillering and grain filling stages. However, P and K fertilizers were applied as basal one day before the transplantation. Rice cultivar cv. IR64 was transplanted during January in dry season and with the onset of the southwest (SW) monsoon (July) during the wet season. The field was ploughed and puddled thoroughly before the transplantation of rice. Transplantation followed a spacing of 15 cm 15 cm during both the seasons to plots (5 m 5 m) well-separated by levees. Pesticides or herbicides were not applied to the field to avoid their effect on the CH4 emission from soil. Weeds were removed manually at weekly interval throughout the crop growing period. Irrigation water was applied to the field during dry season during seedling, maximum tillering and grain filling stages of the rice crop to maintain at least 10 cm water level over the soil surface. The field was drained out towards maturity of the crop during dry season. However, no irrigation was provided during wet season.
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
2.2. CH4 emission measurement from the field CH4 emission from the field was measured using the manual static closed chamber method (Datta et al., 2009, 2012) at 5 days interval throughout the crop growth period and 10 days interval during fallow periods. Samples were collected twice (8:00 he 11:00 h and 15:00 he17:00 h) on each sampling day and the average of them was reported as the emission of the day. 2.3. Analysis of headspace air sample The chamber headspace air samples were analyzed with gas chromatograph (Varian 3600) equipped with FID and porapak N (S/ S column; 2 m length; 80/100 mesh). The injector, column and detector were maintained at 80 C, 70 C and 150 C respectively. Helium (He) was used as carrier gas at 30 ml min1. Under this condition the retention time (RT) for CH4 was 0.53 min. The instrument was calibrated with 10.00, 5.00, 2.00 and 1.00 ppm CH4 under N2 atmosphere (ScottyÒ II analyzed gases, M/s Altech Associates Inc., USA). 2.4. CH4 flux calculation Daily flux of GHGs was estimated from the concentration in the chamber headspace over the 60 min collection period. Quadratic regression model (Wagner et al., 1997) was used to calculate the gas flux. Daily average flux of CH4 was expressed as mg m2 h1. Seasonal cumulative CH4 flux (kg ha1) was calculated from the daily flux values following the trapezium rule (Jarecki et al., 2008). 2.5. Analysis of soil sample Changes in the oxidationereduction potential (Eh) of soil was measured in situ using a combined platinum electrode (Barnant Co., IL, USA) following the method mentioned by Datta et al. (2013). Soil samples were collected from 0 to 30 cm depth at different crop growth stages (viz. seedling, maximum tillering, grain filling and maturity) for in vitro analysis of microbial biomass carbon (MBC) (Witt et al., 2000), readily mineralizable carbon (RMC) (Mishra et al., 1997) and sugar content (Yoshida et al., 1976). 2.6. Soil microbial analysis Anaerobic culture tube technique (Kasper and Tiedje, 1982) was used for the most probable number (MPN) estimate of acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens. The population of methanotrophs with soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) activity was estimated in soil samples by colorimetric assay as described by Graham et al. (1992). 2.7. Yield and yield attributes The grain and straw after harvest of the fully matured crop were sun-dried to a constant weight and the values were recorded as Mg ha1. 2.8. Statistical analyses SPSS (IBMÒ SPSSÒ Statistics 19) analytical tool was used for the analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA results were used to compare mean of replicates using Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test and Tukey’s HSD test. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between the fluxes and soil parameters. The significance level was set to 0.05 for all
125
tests. Standard error was calculated from the standard deviation of dataset of all replicates.
3. Results and discussion 3.1. CH4 emission from different treatments During the early stages of crop growth (seedling) CH4 emission was recorded in the range of 0.05e4.08 mg m2 h1 during dry season and 1.05e18.59 mg m2 h1 during wet season (Fig. 1). Significantly (p < 0.05) lower CH4 emission during the early stages of crop growth during both seasons may attribute to low methanogenesis rate in the soil and poor conductance of CH4 from bulk of the reduced (Eh: 50 mV to 20 mV) soil to the atmosphere through poorly developed internal structure of rice aerenchyma (Parlanti et al., 2011). Studies have already established that about 90% of CH4 emission from rice field to the atmosphere is transported through the well developed aerenchyma of the rice plant (Nouchi and Mariko, 1993; Butterbach-Bahl et al., 1997; Aulakh et al., 2002). Cumulative seasonal CH4 emission was recorded significantly (p < 0.05) higher during wet season (Table 1). Corton et al. (2000) and Epule et al. (2011) have also recorded significantly higher CH4 emission from rice field during wet season. Longer standing water duration in the field leads to higher reduction of soil during wet season (Mean Eh 284 mV) than that of the dry season (Mean Eh 200 mV). Corton et al. (2000) have reported about 10% increase in the soil organic carbon content during the wet season compare to that of the dry season in a rice field. Higher reduce condition and organic carbon content in soil during the wet season may have facilitated the methanogenic activities to produce higher CH4compare to that during the dry season. During both seasons highest CH4 emission was recorded from plots treated with Nfertilizer. Average CH4 emission from the N-fertilizer applied plots during dry season was 5.20 mg m2 h1 whereas during wet season the average emission was 28.50 mg m2 h1. Application of Nfertilizer decreases the soil C/N value and increases the soil microbial activity, leading to higher CH4 production in the bulk soil } tz et al., 1989; Liang et al., 2011). However, Lynch (1990) has (Schu suggested that rhizodeposition of organic acids as root exudates increase under stress condition of the plant. P and K limitation in the soil causes physiological stress condition in the plant. The release of the organic acids to the rhizosphere as root exudates under P or K deficient condition (as P and K-fertilizers were not applied to the plots with N-fertilizer) may also increase the CH4 production in the rhizosphere in the N-fertilizer applied plots. Applications of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizers have recorded significantly lower CH4 emission from soil compare to that of N-fertilizer applied plots during both the seasons. Average CH4 emission from P-fertilizer applied plots were 2.40 mg m2 h1 and 15.52 mg m2 h1 during dry and wet seasons respectively. Lu et al. (1999) and Wassmann et al. (2000) have also reported significant reduction of CH4 emission from soil with the application of Pfertilizer. Average CH4 emission from K-fertilizer applied plots were 3.02 mg m2 h1 and 15.62 mg m2 h1 during dry and wet seasons respectively. K-fertilizer retards the development of the aerenchyma in the rice plants, leading to decrease in the gas transport pathway to the atmosphere (Trolldenier, 1977). However, K-fertilizer application might also have stimulated the oxidative condition in the rice rhizosphere (Babu et al., 2006), which can increase the CH4 oxidation and reduce the CH4 emission from the soil. Significantly lower cumulative CH4 emission from N þ P þ K applied plots (Table 1) during dry season (34.60 kg ha1) and wet season (233.66 kg ha1) may attribute to combined effects of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer on reduction of CH4 emission from soil. Yang et al.
126
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Fig. 1. Variation of methane emission from rice field during dry season and wet season with different inorganic fertilizer application. A. Control; B. N-fertilizer; C. P-fertilizer; D. K-fertilizer; E. N þ P þ K Mean of three replicate observations. Bars indicate standard error.
(2010) have also reported lower CH4 emission from N þ P þ K applied plots compare to that of the N-fertilizer applied plots. 3.2. CH4 flux and grain yield Significantly higher grain yield was recorded irrespective of the treatments during the dry season, may be due to more sunshine hour and higher photosynthesis rate. Epule et al. (2011) have also recorded significantly higher grain yield during the dry season along with low CH4 emission. Compare to the other plots, significantly (p < 0.05) higher grain yield was recorded from the N þ P þ K
applied plots during both the season (Table 1). Significantly, higher CH4 emission to grain yield (15.35 kg CH4 Mg1 grain yield) was recorded from N-fertilizer applied plots during wet season; whereas lower CH4 emission to grain yield was recorded from the N þ P þ K applied plots during both the season (Table 1). 3.3. Changes in soil MBC, RMC and sugar concentrations MBC is an indicator of the microbial population in the soil. Significant positive correlation (r ¼ 0.516) was recorded between the CH4 emission and MBC during the study period. Das et al. (2011)
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
127
Table 1 CH4 emission and yield from a tropical alluvial field planted to rice (cv. IR64) with different inorganic fertilizers. Treatment
N0 N P60 K60 NþPþK Fcalc Fcrit LSD
CH4 flux (kg ha1)
Straw yield (Mg ha1)
Grain yield (Mg ha1)
kg CH4 emission Mg1 grain yield
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
42.05a 80.27b 41.64a 46.61a 34.60a
190.87a 451.27c 260.67b 277.45b 233.66a
148.82* 371.00* 219.03* 230.84* 199.86*
3.24a 5.42b 3.54a 4.04b 5.97c
4.13a 6.10b 5.75b 4.46a 6.65c
0.89* 0.68* 2.21* 0.42* 0.68*
2.74a 5.64c 3.22a 4.24b 5.38c
1.83a 2.34b 2.01a 1.95a 2.79c
1.39* 3.30* 0.72* 2.29* 2.58*
15.35c 14.23c 12.93b 10.99b 6.43a
104.30a 192.85c 129.49b 142.48b 83.57a
88.95* 178.62* 116.56* 131.29* 77.14*
38.59 3.48 9.21
36.03 3.48 52.38
16.80 3.48 1.46
22.92 3.48 0.75
44.47 3.48 0.57
9.16 3.48 0.38
12.90 3.48 3.18
9.67 3.48 41.28
N0 e No fertilizer; N e Nitrogen fertilizer; P60 e Phosphate fertilizer; K60 e Potassium fertilizer; N þ P þ K e Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium fertilizer. Mean of three replicate observations. *Significant at p < 0.05. Positive difference corresponds to higher value during wet season and viceversa. In a column mean followed by a common letter are not significantly different.
have also reported significant positive correlation between MBC and CH4 emission from rice soil. Significantly (p < 0.05) higher MBC was recorded during wet season from all plots (Fig. 2). Higher MBC during the maximum tillering stage of the rice growing season may attribute to higher CH4 emission during the period. Methanogenic population and their activity in flooded soil are influenced by the availability of fermentable substrates, usually expressed as soil RMC and sugar content (Mishra et al., 1997; Mohanty et al., 2004). Soil RMC content and sugar content was recorded significantly lower
during dry season (Fig. 2). Significant positive correlation (r ¼ 0.620) was recorded between RMC and CH4 emission (Table 2). Low availability of the fermentable substances (RMC and sugar) during dry season may attribute to low activity of methanogenic bacteria in the soil, which results into significantly lower CH4 emission during dry season (Table 1) compare to that of the wet season. Compare to other fertilizer applied plots, significantly (p < 0.05) lower soil RMC content was recorded from N þ P þ K applied plots during both the season, which may have influenced
Fig. 2. Variation of fermentable carbon content in soil at different crop growth stages during dry season and wet season with different inorganic fertilizer application A. Microbial biomass carbon; B. Sugar; C. Readily mineralizable carbon. Mean of three replicate observations. Bars indicate standard error.
128
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Table 2 Correlation matrix of different soil physicochemical parameters with CH4 emission.
MBC Sugar RMC pH Eh
CH4
MBC
Sugar
RMC
pH
0.516* 0.340 0.621* 0.806* 0.735*
0.787* 0.748* 0.508* 0.482*
0.629* 0.388 0.453
0.639* 0.524*
0.819*
df ¼ 58. *Significant at p < 0.05.
the significantly (p < 0.05) lower cumulative CH4 flux from N þ P þ K plots (Table 1). 3.4. Changes in soil microbial population Soil methanogenic and methanotrophic bacterial populations were recorded at different plant growth stages. Lower methanogenic bacterial population was recorded irrespective of the treatment during the seedling stage of the crop (Fig. 3), this may also attribute to lower CH4 emission during the early stage of the rice crop. Both acetclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogenic bacterial population was recorded higher during the flowering stage of the crop. However, acetoclastic methanogenic bacterial population was much higher than that of the hydrogenotrophs. Similar result was also reported by Das et al. (2011) from rice field. Low
hydrogenotrophic methanogen bacterial population from K-fertilizer applied plots during both seasons (Fig. 3), indicates that there may be influence of K-fertilizer application on hydrogenotrophic methanogen bacterial population. On the other hand, methanotroph population was recorded higher from the K-fertilizer applied plots during both seasons (Fig. 3). Price et al. (2004) have also reported increase in the methnotrophic bacterial population in soil with K-fertilizer under incubated condition. Higher methanotrophic bacterial population in K-fertilizer applied plots may attribute to lower CH4 emission by increasing the CH4 oxidation potential in the soil. Compare to the N-fertilizer applied plots, higher methanothrophic bacterial population was recorded in the P-fertilizer applied plots. P-fertilizer stimulates the CH4 oxidation in rice rhizosphere, which leads to reduction of CH4 emission from rice fields (Adhya et al., 1998). We have recorded the CH4 emission from the field during the fallow period between two seasons (data not shown). Pulses of CH4 emission and consumption were recorded from field plots, when the soil gets dried during the fallow period. During the fallow period CH4 emission from the field was ranged from 1.22 mg m2 h1 (N0) to 3.53 mg m2 h1 (N). Joulian et al. (1996) have also reported that the methanogenic bacterial population gradually decreases during the fallow period, while methanotrophic bacterial population increases. Increase in the methanotrophic bacterial population may attribute to the negative CH4 emission (CH4 oxidation) during the fallow period.
Fig. 3. Dynamics of soil methanogenic and methanotrophic bacterial population during the study period. A. Methanogen (Acetoclastic); B. Methanogen (Hydrogenotrophic); C. Methanotroph.
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
4. Conclusion Application of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer significantly reduces CH4 emission from soil. The study suggests increase of CH4 emission with the application of N-fertilizer. However, combined application of N þ P þ K significantly decreases CH4 emission to grain yield ratio (dry season: 6.43 kg CH4 Mg1 grain yield and wet season: 83.57 kg CH4 Mg1 grain yield) from rice field. P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer may have a significant effect on the development of plant aerenchyma, which enable them to be effective in reducing CH4 emission from the rice ecosystems. Microbial analysis of soil has recorded stimulation of methanotrophic bacterial population with the application of P and K-fertilizer (Fig. 3), which may also be responsible for reduction of CH4 emission from P and K-fertilizer applied plots. Detail microbial analysis may explain the negative CH4 emission during the fallow period. However, the study suggests that the estimation of CH4 emission during the fallow period is also important to reduce the measurement uncertainty in annual CH4 flux estimation from the rice field. The study also suggests that the effect of P and K-fertilizer application on CH4 emission should be included during the upscaling of CH4 emission from rice paddy. Acknowledgment Authors are thankful to Director, CRRI, Odisha, India for providing permission to conduct the experiment at the experimental field of the farm. References Adhya, T.K., Pattanaik, P., Satpathy, S.N., Kumarswamy, S., Sethunathan, N., 1998. Influence of phosphorus application on methane emission and production in flooded paddy soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 30 (2), 177e181. Aulakh, M.S., Wassmann, R., Rennenberg, H., 2002. Methane transport capacity of twenty-two rice cultivars from five major Asian rice-growing countries. Agril. Ecosyst. Environ. 91, 59e77. Babu, Y.J., Nayak, D.R., Adhya, T.K., 2006. Potassium application reduces methane emission from flooded field planted to rice. Biol. Fert. Soil 42 (6), 532e541. Bodilier, P.L.E., 2011. Interaction between nitrogenous fertilizers and methane cycling in wetland and upland soils. Curr. Option Env. Sust. 3 (5), 379e388. Butterbach-Bahl, K., Papen, H., Rennenberg, H., 1997. Impact of gas transport through rice cultivars on methane emission from rice paddy fields. Plant Cell. Environ. 20, 1175e1183. Cai, Z., Shan, Y., Xu, H., 2007. Effects of nitrogen fertilization on CH4 emissions from rice fields. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 53 (4), 353e361. Chen, J., Xuan, J., Du, C., Xie, J., 1997. Effect of potassium nutrition of rice on rhizosphere redox status. Plant Soil 188, 131e137. Conrad, R., Klose, M., 2005. Effect of potassium phosphate fertilization on production and emission of methane and its 13C-stable isotope composition in rice microcosms. Soil Biol. Biochem. 37, 2099e2108. Conrad, R., Klose, M., Claus, P., 2000. Phosphate inhibits acetotrophic methanogenesis on rice roots. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 828e831. Corton, T.M., Bajita, J.B., Grospe, F.S., Pamplona, R.R., Asis, C.A., Wassmann, R., Lantin, R.S., Buendia, L.V., 2000. Methane emission from irrigated and intensively managed rice fileds in Central Luzon (Phillipines). Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 58, 37e53. Das, Suvendu, Ghosh, A., Adhya, T.K., 2011. Nitrous oxide and methane emission from a flooded rice field as influenced by separate and combined application of herbicides bensulfuron methyl and pretilachlor. Chemosphere 84, 54e62. Datta, A., Nayak, D.R., Sinhababau, D.P., Adhya, T.K., 2009. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from an integrated rice-fish farming system of Eastern India. Agril. Ecosyst. Environ. 129, 228e237. Datta, A., Santra, S.C., Adhya, T.K., 2011. Relationship between CH4 and N2O flux from soil and their ambient mixing ratio in A Riparian rice-based agroecosystem of tropical region. J. Env. Monit. 13 (12), 3469e3474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/ C1EM10478K. Datta, A., Das, S., Manjunath, K.R., Adhya, T.K., 2012. Comparison of Two Methods for the Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Flux from Rice Ecosystems in India. Greenhouse Gas Measure. Manage. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20430779.2012. 699771. Datta, A., Yeluripati, J.B., Nayak, D.R., Mahato, K.R., Santra, S.C., Adhya, T.K., 2013. Seasonal variation of methane flux from coastal saline rice field with the application of different organic manures. Atmos. Environ 66, 114e122.
129
De Visscher, A., Van Cleemput, O., 2003. Induction of enhanced CH4 oxidation in soils: NHþ 4 inhibition patterns. Soil Biol. Biochem. 35, 907e913. Dlugokencky, E.J., Houweling, S., Bruhwiler, L., Masarie, K.A., Lang, P.M., Miller, J.B., Tans, P.P., 2003. Atmospheric methane levels off: temporary pause or a new steady-state? Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (1992). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/ 2003GL018126. Epule, T.E., Peng, C., Mafany, M.N., 2011. Methane emissions from paddy rice fields: strategies towards achieving a win-win sustainability scenario between rice production and methane emission reduction. J. Sustainable Dev. 4 (6), 188e196. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations), 2009. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2011e2030. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations), 2010. How to Feed the World in 2050. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_ paper. Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fahey, D.W., Haywood, J., Lean, J., Lowe, D.C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M., Van Dorland, R., 2007. Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing. In: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M., Miller, H.L. (Eds.), Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Graham, D.W., Korich, D.G., Leblanc, R.P., Sinclair, N.A., Arnold, R.G., 1992. Application of colorimetric plate assay for soluble methane monooxygenase activity. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58, 2231e2236. Gupta, P.K., Gupta, V., Sharma, C., Das, S.N., Purkait, N., Adhya, T.K., Pathak, H., Ramesh, R., Baruah, K.K., Venkatratnam, L., Singh, G., Iyar, C.S.P., 2009. Development of methane emission factor for Indian paddy fields and estimation of national methane budget. Chemosphere 74, 590e598. Heffer, P., 2009. Assessment of Fertilizer Use by Crops at Global Level. International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) Report April 2009, France. Insum, H., Wett, B., 2008. Control of GHG emission at the microbial community level. Waste Manage. 28 (4), 699e706. IPCC [Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change], 2000. Good Practice Guideline and Uncertainty Management in National Green House Gas Inventory. Agriculture Sector: CH4 Emission from Rice Fields. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/ public/gp/bgp/4_7_CH4_Rice_ Agriculture.pdf. Jagadamma, S., Lal, R., Hoeft, R.G., Nafiger, E.D., Adee, E.A., 2007. Nitrogen fertilization and cropping system impacts on soil properties and their relationship to crop yield in the central Corn belt, USA. Soil Till. Res. 95, 348e356. Jarecki, M.K., Parkin, T.B., Chan, S.K.A., Hatfield, J.L., Raymond, J., 2008. Grrenhouse gas emissions from two soils receiving nitrogen fertilizer and swine manure slurry. J. Enviorn. Qual. 37, 1432e1438. Jia, Z., Cai, Z., Tsuruta, H., 2006. Effect of rice cultivar on CH4 production potential of rice soil and CH4 emission in a pot experiment. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 52, 341e348. Joulian, C., Ollivier, B., Neue, H.U., Roger, P.A., 1996. Microbiological aspects of methane emission by a ricefield soil from the Camargue (France): 1. Methanogenesis and related microflora. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 32 (2), 61e70. Kasper, H.F., Tiedje, J.M., 1982. Anaerobic bacteria and processes. In: Page, A.L., Miller, R.M., Keeney, R. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp. 989e1009. Liang, B., Yang, X., He, X., Zhou, J., 2011. Effects of 17-year fertilization on soil microbial biomass C and N and soluble organic C and N in loessial soil during maize growth. Biol. Fertil. Soil 47, 121e128. Liu, L.L., Greaver, T.L., 2009. A review of nitrogen enrichment effects on three biogenic GHGs: the CO2 sink may be largely offset by stimulated N2O and CH4 emission. Ecol. Lett. 12, 1103e1117. Lu, Y., Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., Huang, C., 1999. Impact of phosphorus supply on root exudation, aerenchyma formation and methane emission of rice plants. Biogeochemistry 47, 203e218. Lynch, J.M., 1990. The Rhizosphere. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Ma, J., Ma, E., Xu, H., Yagi, K., Cai, Z., 2009. Wheat straw management affect CH4 and N2O emissions from rice fields. Soil Biol. Biochem. 41 (5), 1022e1028. Mishra, S., Rath, A.K., Adhya, T.K., Rao, V.R., Sethunathan, N., 1997. Effect of continuous and alternate water regimes on methane efflux from rice under greenhouse conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soil 24, 399e405. Mitra, A.P., 1992. Greenhouse Gas Emission in India: 1991. Methane Campaign Scientific Report No. 2. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), New Delhi, 91 pp. Mohanty, S.R., Nayak, D.N., Babu, Y.J., Adhya, T.K., 2004. Butachlor inhibits production and oxidation of methane in tropical rice soils under flooded condition. Microbiol. Res. 159, 193e201. Nouchi, I., Mariko, S., 1993. Mechanism of methane transport by rice plants. In: Oremland, R.S. (Ed.), Biogeochemistry of Global Change: Radiatively Active Trace Gases. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 336e352. Parlanti, S., Kudahettige, N.P., Lombardi, L., Sodi, M.A., Alpi, A., Pireta, P., Puciarreallo, C., 2011. Distinct mechanisms for aerenchyma formation in leaf sheaths of rice genotypes displaying a quiescence or escape strategy for flooding tolerance. Annl. Bot. 107 (8), 1335e1343. Prasanna, R., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Yadav, A.K., Tripathy, U., Singh, A.K., Jain, M.C., Gupta, P.K., Singh, P.K., Sethunathan, N., 2002. Methane production in rice soil is inhibited by cyanobacteria. Microbiol. Res. 157, 1e6. Price, S.J., Kelliher, F.J., Sherlock, R.R., Tate, K.R., Condron, L.M., 2004. Environmental and chemical factors regulating methane oxidation in a New Zealand soil. Aus. J. Soil Sci. 42 (7), 767e776.
130
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Rao, V.R., Rao, J.L.N., Adhya, T.K., 1986. Heterotrophic nitrogen fixation (C2H2 reduction) as influenced by phosphorous application in paddy soil. Plant Soil 92, 125e132. } tz, H., Holzapfel-Pschorn, A., Conrad, R., Rennenberg, H., Seiler, W., 1989. Schu A three-year continuous record on the influence of daytime season and fertilizer treatment on methane emission rates from an Italian rice paddy field. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 16405e16416. Shang, Q., Yang, X., Gao, C., Wu, P., Liu, J., Xu, Y., Shen, Q., Zhou, J., Guo, S., 2011. Net annual global warming potential and greenhouse gas intensity in Chinese double rice-cropping systems: a 3-year field measurement in long-term fertilizer experiments. Global Change Biol. 17 (6), 2196e2210. Shrestha, M., Shrestha, P.M., Frenzel, P., Conrad, R., 2010. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on methane oxidation, abundance, community structure and gene expression of methanotroph in the rice rhizosphere. ISME J. 4, 1545e1556. Snyder, C.S., Bruulsema, T.W., Jensen, T.L., Fixen, P.E., 2009. Review of greenhouse gas emissions from crop production systems and fertilizer management effects. Agri. Ecosyst. Environ. 133, 247e266. Trolldenier, G., 1977. Mineral nutrition and reduction processes in the rhizosphere of rice. Plant Soil 38, 267e279. Wagner, S.W., Reicosky, D.C., Alessi, R.S., 1997. Regression model for calculating gas fluxes measured with closed chamber. Agron. J. 89, 279e284. Wassmann, R., Wang, M.X., Shangguan, X.J., Xie, X.L., Shen, R.X., Papen, H., Rennenberg, H., Seiler, W., 1993. First records of a field experiment on fertilizer effects on methane emission from rice fields in Hunan Province (PR China). Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 2071e2074.
Wassmann, R., Lantin, R.S., Neue, H.U., Buendia, L.V., Corton, T.M., Lu, Y., 2000. Characterization of methane emissions from rice fields in Asia. III. Mitigation options and future research needs. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 58, 23e36. Wienhold, B.J., Andrews, S.S., Karlen, D.L., 2004. Soil quality: a review of the science experiences in the USA. Environ. Geochem. Heal. 26, 89e95. Witt, C., Gaunt, J.L., Galcia, C.C., Ottow, J.C.G., Neue, H.U., 2000. A rapid chloroformfumigation extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen in flooded rice soils. Biol. Fertil. Soils 30, 510e519. Xie, B., Zheng, X., Zhou, Z., Gu, J., Zhu, J., Chen, X., Shi, Y., Wang, Y., Zhao, Z., Liu, C., Yao, Z., Zhu, J., 2010. Effects of nitrogen fertilizers on CH4 emissions from rice fields: multi-site field observations. Plant Soil 326, 393e401. Yan, X., Akiyam, H., Yagi, K., 2009. Global estimations of the inventory and mitigation potential of methane emissions from rice cultivation conducted using the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines. Global Biogeochem. Cy. 23, GB2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GB003299. Yang, X., Shang, Q., Wu, P., Liu, J., Shen, Q., Guo, S., Xiong, Z., 2010. Methane emission from double rice agriculture under long-term fertilizing system in Hunan, China. Agr. Ecosys. Environ. 137 (3e4), 308e316. Yoshida, S., Forno, D.A., Cock, J.H., Gomez, K.A., 1976. Determination of sugar and starch in plant tissue. In: Laboratory Manual of Physiological Studies of Rice, third ed. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, pp. 46e49. Zang, Y., Wang, Y.Y., Su, S.L., Li, C.S., 2011. Quantifying methane emissions from rice paddies in Northeast China by integrating remote sensing mapping with a biogeochemical model. Biogeosciences 8 (5), 1225e1235.
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Atmospheric Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
Effect of inorganic fertilizers (N, P, K) on methane emission from tropical rice field of India A. Datta a, b, *, S.C. Santra c, T.K. Adhya b a
School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom Crop Production Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, India c Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kalyani, Paschimbanga, India b
h i g h l i g h t s < Study of methane emission from Aeric Endoaquept. < Significant reduction of methane emission with P and K-fertilizers. < Low methane emission from N þ P þ K applied plots.
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 30 July 2012 Received in revised form 29 August 2012 Accepted 1 September 2012
In the tropical experimental rice field of Central Rice Research Institute, Odisha, India, an experiment was conducted during the dry season (JanuaryeApril) and wet season (JulyeNovember) of rice cultivation to study the effect of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) fertilizer application on grain yield and methane (CH4) emission. The experiment was carried out with five treatments (No fertilizer (control), N-fertilizer, P-fertilizer, K-fertilizer and N þ P þ K fertilizer) with three replicates of each under a completely randomized block design. Significantly higher CH4 emission was recorded from all plots during wet season. Among fertilizer applied plots, significantly higher CH4 emission was recorded from N-fertilizer applied plots (dry season: 80.27 kg ha1; wet season: 451.27 kg ha1), while significantly lower CH4 emission was recorded from N þ P þ K applied plots (dry season: 34.60 kg ha1; wet season: 233.66 kg ha1). Low cumulative CH4 emission to grain yield ratio was recorded from N þ P þ K applied plots during both seasons (83.57 kg Mg1 grain yield during dry season and 77.14 kg Mg1 grain yield during wet season). CH4 emission from different treatment was positively correlated with microbial biomass carbon (r ¼ 0.516), readily mineralizable carbon (r ¼ 0.621) and sugar (r ¼ 0.340) content of the soil. Negative CH4 emission was recorded during the fallow period which may be attributed to higher methanotrophic bacterial population. Study suggests that the effects of P and K-fertilizer on CH4 emission from rice field along with the CH4 emission during the fallow period need to be considered to reduce the uncertainty in upscaling process. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fertilizer management Rice field Methane emission Seasonal variation
1. Introduction At present, there are extensive discussions in the scientific community about the possible future range of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from different anthropogenic sources (Forster et al., 2007). Each GHG has a specific global warming potential
* Corresponding author. School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, 23 St. Machar Drive, Aberdeen AB24 3UU, United Kingdom. Tel.: þ44 7721007905. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A. Datta). 1352-2310/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.001
(GWP) over 100 years time frame. Methane (CH4) is a potent GHG with relative GWP 25 times higher than that of CO2 (Forster et al., 2007). Present atmospheric mixing ratio of CH4 is 1.84 ppmv (Datta et al., 2011). CH4 accounts for 1/3 of the current global warming phenomenon (Dlugokencky et al., 2003). About 592 Tg of CH4 is globally emitted to the atmosphere per annum, of which about 550 Tg is lost in various sinks (Forster et al., 2007). It ultimately results into an annual increase of about 40 Tg of CH4 in the atmosphere. Anthropogenic activities account for 60% of global annual CH4 budget (Insum and Wett, 2008). Rice cultivation is a major source of atmospheric CH4. It contributes about 5e20% of total CH4 emission (Forster et al., 2007) to the atmosphere. Yan
124
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
et al. (2009) have estimated the emission of 25.5 Tg CH4 yr1 from rice fields of the world using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guideline, 2006. They have estimated 6.08 Tg of annual CH4 emission from the rice fields of India. CH4 emission from the rice field shows large variability resulting from complex suite of factors such as transport and nature of the organic matter, cultivar morphology, soil type, nature of the applied manure and fertilizer, atmospheric background concentration, topography, geomorphology etc. Precise estimation of CH4 emission from the rice field has been difficult due to the large temporal and spatial variability. The results of the field experiments in the rice fields of India, have suggested that the annual CH4 emission from rice field ranges from 9.5 g m2 (Gupta et al., 2009) to 63 g m2 (Mitra, 1992). However, rice production needs to be increased by about 40% to feed the burgeoning population by 2030 (FAO, 2009). To achieve this production target, the average rice production in the present irrigated area (4.9 Mg ha1) and rainfed area (2.5 Mg ha1) need to be increased to 8 Mg ha1 and 3.5 Mg ha1 respectively (FAO, 2010). The efficiency of the production input like fertilizer, manure, pesticide etc. must be improved to achieve the targeted yield. Efficient use of the nitrogen (N) fertilizer is vital to achieve a sustained crop yield (Snyder et al., 2009), although long term Napplication has a negative trade off on nutrient cycling efficiency of the soil (Jagadamma et al., 2007). The world average rate of Nfertilizer application to the rice soil is 73 kg ha1, with a range between 27 and 151 kg ha1 (FAO, 2009). Integrated nutrient management (INM) is an approach of judicial application of other fertilizers (e.g. P-fertilizer, K-fertilizer etc.) along with the Nfertilizer to achieve the maximum yield (Wienhold et al., 2004) while decreasing the environmental effects of the applied nutrients. Phosphate (P) and potassium (K) fertilizers are widely used along with the N-fertilizer to increase the grain yield. Plant nutrients either naturally occurring or applied as fertilizer to the paddy soil affect GHG emissions from soil (Jia et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2009), either by influencing the growth of the rice plant (e.g. development of aerenchyma, formation of root exudates) or soil microbial community (methanogens and methanotrophs) or by changing different soil physicochemical properties. Addition of N-fertilizer to the soil increases CH4 emission by 97% and reduces CH4 uptake in the soil by 34% (Liu and Greaver, 2009). N-fertilizer stimulates CH4 production in soil while inhibiting CH4 oxidation in soil (Bodilier, 2011). Jarecki et al. (2008) have also concluded that application of inorganic N fertilizer to the sandy loam soil increases the CH4 emission from soil. However, studies (Prasanna et al., 2002; Cai et al., 2007; Xie et al., 2010; Shrestha et al., 2010; Zang et al., 2011) have also reported stimulation of methanotrophic bacteria and increase uptake of CH4 in soil with the application of N-fertilizer. Incubation studies have concluded that NHþ 4 inhibits CH4 oxidation at low CH4 concentration; however, it stimulates CH4 oxidation at high CH4 concentration (De Visscher and Van Cleemput, 2003). Application of phosphate (P) fertilizer increases the rate of Nfixation to the soil (Rao et al., 1986) while decreasing the CH4 emission significantly (Adhya et al., 1998). Application of Pfertilizer may stimulate CH4 uptake in the soil (Zang et al., 2011) and inhibits the acetoclastic methanogenic activity in the rice rhizosphere (Conrad et al., 2000) which leads to inhibition of CH4 emission from soil. However, concentration of phosphate required (>20 mM) for such inhibition may be irrelevant under in situ condition. Application of potassium (K) fertilizer is known to alleviate the soil reducing condition and associated imbalances in plant (Chen et al., 1997) while inhibiting the CH4 emission from rice field (Babu et al., 2006). Again, Wassmann et al. (1993) have reported no effect of K-fertilizer application on CH4 emission from
rice field. Conrad and Klose (2005) have stated that the inhibition of CH4 emission from soil with the application of P- and Kfertilizer may be due to their effect on plant ventilation and root exudates. CH4 emission from nutrient P and K deficient rice field plots was reported significantly low than that of balanced nutrient N, P, K applied plot in China (Yang et al., 2010; Shang et al., 2011). India is the largest user of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer in rice field (Heffer, 2009). However, the effect of P and K fertilizers on CH4 emission from the rice field is still uncertain. It is important to study their effects on CH4 emission and grain yield from the rice field to develop proper mitigation strategies to reduce CH4 emission and develop the emission factor of CH4 emission from different rice growing environment of India. The objective of the present experiment was to study the effect of N, P and K fertilizers on CH4 emission and different soil parameters in rice field during both wet and dry seasons of rice cultivation. 2. Materials and methods The field experiment was conducted during the wet season or Kharif (JulyeNovember) and dry season or Rabi (January to April) at the experimental farm of Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack (Latitude 20 270 2000 N and longitude 85 550 4800 E), Odisha, India. The general elevation of the farm is 24 m MSL. Meteorological parameters during the study period were collected from the weather station within the farm. The mean annual maximum and minimum air temperatures were 39.2 C and 22.5 C respectively with the mean annual temperature of 27.7 C. The annual average rainfall was 1550 mm of which 75e80% being received during June to November. The average relative humidity during the study period was ranged between 78% (January) to 92% (September). The soil (Aeric Endoaquept) of the area is alluvial in nature with pH 6.8, bulk density 1.20 Mg m3, organic carbon 0.009 kg C kg1 soil, 0.8 g N kg1 soil, 12 mg NO3eN kg1 soil, 1 soil, 8 mg available P kg1 soil, 120 kg available 40 mg NHþ 4 eN kg 1 soil. K ha1, 25.9% clay and 30.7 mg SO2 4 kg 2.1. Field experiment The experiment was laid in randomized block design with three replicates each of the five treatments, (i) Control (without fertilizer); (ii) Urea (80 kg N ha1 and 120 kg N ha1 during wet and dry seasons respectively) N; (iii) Single super phosphate (60 kg P ha1) P60; (iv) Muriate of potash (60 kg K ha1) K60; (v) N þ P60 þ K60. Nfertilizer was applied in three splits: 50% of the total N-fertilizer was applied during the seedling stage; remaining 50% was applied in two equal halves during maximum tillering and grain filling stages. However, P and K fertilizers were applied as basal one day before the transplantation. Rice cultivar cv. IR64 was transplanted during January in dry season and with the onset of the southwest (SW) monsoon (July) during the wet season. The field was ploughed and puddled thoroughly before the transplantation of rice. Transplantation followed a spacing of 15 cm 15 cm during both the seasons to plots (5 m 5 m) well-separated by levees. Pesticides or herbicides were not applied to the field to avoid their effect on the CH4 emission from soil. Weeds were removed manually at weekly interval throughout the crop growing period. Irrigation water was applied to the field during dry season during seedling, maximum tillering and grain filling stages of the rice crop to maintain at least 10 cm water level over the soil surface. The field was drained out towards maturity of the crop during dry season. However, no irrigation was provided during wet season.
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
2.2. CH4 emission measurement from the field CH4 emission from the field was measured using the manual static closed chamber method (Datta et al., 2009, 2012) at 5 days interval throughout the crop growth period and 10 days interval during fallow periods. Samples were collected twice (8:00 he 11:00 h and 15:00 he17:00 h) on each sampling day and the average of them was reported as the emission of the day. 2.3. Analysis of headspace air sample The chamber headspace air samples were analyzed with gas chromatograph (Varian 3600) equipped with FID and porapak N (S/ S column; 2 m length; 80/100 mesh). The injector, column and detector were maintained at 80 C, 70 C and 150 C respectively. Helium (He) was used as carrier gas at 30 ml min1. Under this condition the retention time (RT) for CH4 was 0.53 min. The instrument was calibrated with 10.00, 5.00, 2.00 and 1.00 ppm CH4 under N2 atmosphere (ScottyÒ II analyzed gases, M/s Altech Associates Inc., USA). 2.4. CH4 flux calculation Daily flux of GHGs was estimated from the concentration in the chamber headspace over the 60 min collection period. Quadratic regression model (Wagner et al., 1997) was used to calculate the gas flux. Daily average flux of CH4 was expressed as mg m2 h1. Seasonal cumulative CH4 flux (kg ha1) was calculated from the daily flux values following the trapezium rule (Jarecki et al., 2008). 2.5. Analysis of soil sample Changes in the oxidationereduction potential (Eh) of soil was measured in situ using a combined platinum electrode (Barnant Co., IL, USA) following the method mentioned by Datta et al. (2013). Soil samples were collected from 0 to 30 cm depth at different crop growth stages (viz. seedling, maximum tillering, grain filling and maturity) for in vitro analysis of microbial biomass carbon (MBC) (Witt et al., 2000), readily mineralizable carbon (RMC) (Mishra et al., 1997) and sugar content (Yoshida et al., 1976). 2.6. Soil microbial analysis Anaerobic culture tube technique (Kasper and Tiedje, 1982) was used for the most probable number (MPN) estimate of acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogens. The population of methanotrophs with soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) activity was estimated in soil samples by colorimetric assay as described by Graham et al. (1992). 2.7. Yield and yield attributes The grain and straw after harvest of the fully matured crop were sun-dried to a constant weight and the values were recorded as Mg ha1. 2.8. Statistical analyses SPSS (IBMÒ SPSSÒ Statistics 19) analytical tool was used for the analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA results were used to compare mean of replicates using Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test and Tukey’s HSD test. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between the fluxes and soil parameters. The significance level was set to 0.05 for all
125
tests. Standard error was calculated from the standard deviation of dataset of all replicates.
3. Results and discussion 3.1. CH4 emission from different treatments During the early stages of crop growth (seedling) CH4 emission was recorded in the range of 0.05e4.08 mg m2 h1 during dry season and 1.05e18.59 mg m2 h1 during wet season (Fig. 1). Significantly (p < 0.05) lower CH4 emission during the early stages of crop growth during both seasons may attribute to low methanogenesis rate in the soil and poor conductance of CH4 from bulk of the reduced (Eh: 50 mV to 20 mV) soil to the atmosphere through poorly developed internal structure of rice aerenchyma (Parlanti et al., 2011). Studies have already established that about 90% of CH4 emission from rice field to the atmosphere is transported through the well developed aerenchyma of the rice plant (Nouchi and Mariko, 1993; Butterbach-Bahl et al., 1997; Aulakh et al., 2002). Cumulative seasonal CH4 emission was recorded significantly (p < 0.05) higher during wet season (Table 1). Corton et al. (2000) and Epule et al. (2011) have also recorded significantly higher CH4 emission from rice field during wet season. Longer standing water duration in the field leads to higher reduction of soil during wet season (Mean Eh 284 mV) than that of the dry season (Mean Eh 200 mV). Corton et al. (2000) have reported about 10% increase in the soil organic carbon content during the wet season compare to that of the dry season in a rice field. Higher reduce condition and organic carbon content in soil during the wet season may have facilitated the methanogenic activities to produce higher CH4compare to that during the dry season. During both seasons highest CH4 emission was recorded from plots treated with Nfertilizer. Average CH4 emission from the N-fertilizer applied plots during dry season was 5.20 mg m2 h1 whereas during wet season the average emission was 28.50 mg m2 h1. Application of Nfertilizer decreases the soil C/N value and increases the soil microbial activity, leading to higher CH4 production in the bulk soil } tz et al., 1989; Liang et al., 2011). However, Lynch (1990) has (Schu suggested that rhizodeposition of organic acids as root exudates increase under stress condition of the plant. P and K limitation in the soil causes physiological stress condition in the plant. The release of the organic acids to the rhizosphere as root exudates under P or K deficient condition (as P and K-fertilizers were not applied to the plots with N-fertilizer) may also increase the CH4 production in the rhizosphere in the N-fertilizer applied plots. Applications of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizers have recorded significantly lower CH4 emission from soil compare to that of N-fertilizer applied plots during both the seasons. Average CH4 emission from P-fertilizer applied plots were 2.40 mg m2 h1 and 15.52 mg m2 h1 during dry and wet seasons respectively. Lu et al. (1999) and Wassmann et al. (2000) have also reported significant reduction of CH4 emission from soil with the application of Pfertilizer. Average CH4 emission from K-fertilizer applied plots were 3.02 mg m2 h1 and 15.62 mg m2 h1 during dry and wet seasons respectively. K-fertilizer retards the development of the aerenchyma in the rice plants, leading to decrease in the gas transport pathway to the atmosphere (Trolldenier, 1977). However, K-fertilizer application might also have stimulated the oxidative condition in the rice rhizosphere (Babu et al., 2006), which can increase the CH4 oxidation and reduce the CH4 emission from the soil. Significantly lower cumulative CH4 emission from N þ P þ K applied plots (Table 1) during dry season (34.60 kg ha1) and wet season (233.66 kg ha1) may attribute to combined effects of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer on reduction of CH4 emission from soil. Yang et al.
126
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Fig. 1. Variation of methane emission from rice field during dry season and wet season with different inorganic fertilizer application. A. Control; B. N-fertilizer; C. P-fertilizer; D. K-fertilizer; E. N þ P þ K Mean of three replicate observations. Bars indicate standard error.
(2010) have also reported lower CH4 emission from N þ P þ K applied plots compare to that of the N-fertilizer applied plots. 3.2. CH4 flux and grain yield Significantly higher grain yield was recorded irrespective of the treatments during the dry season, may be due to more sunshine hour and higher photosynthesis rate. Epule et al. (2011) have also recorded significantly higher grain yield during the dry season along with low CH4 emission. Compare to the other plots, significantly (p < 0.05) higher grain yield was recorded from the N þ P þ K
applied plots during both the season (Table 1). Significantly, higher CH4 emission to grain yield (15.35 kg CH4 Mg1 grain yield) was recorded from N-fertilizer applied plots during wet season; whereas lower CH4 emission to grain yield was recorded from the N þ P þ K applied plots during both the season (Table 1). 3.3. Changes in soil MBC, RMC and sugar concentrations MBC is an indicator of the microbial population in the soil. Significant positive correlation (r ¼ 0.516) was recorded between the CH4 emission and MBC during the study period. Das et al. (2011)
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
127
Table 1 CH4 emission and yield from a tropical alluvial field planted to rice (cv. IR64) with different inorganic fertilizers. Treatment
N0 N P60 K60 NþPþK Fcalc Fcrit LSD
CH4 flux (kg ha1)
Straw yield (Mg ha1)
Grain yield (Mg ha1)
kg CH4 emission Mg1 grain yield
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
Dry season
Wet season
Seasonal difference
42.05a 80.27b 41.64a 46.61a 34.60a
190.87a 451.27c 260.67b 277.45b 233.66a
148.82* 371.00* 219.03* 230.84* 199.86*
3.24a 5.42b 3.54a 4.04b 5.97c
4.13a 6.10b 5.75b 4.46a 6.65c
0.89* 0.68* 2.21* 0.42* 0.68*
2.74a 5.64c 3.22a 4.24b 5.38c
1.83a 2.34b 2.01a 1.95a 2.79c
1.39* 3.30* 0.72* 2.29* 2.58*
15.35c 14.23c 12.93b 10.99b 6.43a
104.30a 192.85c 129.49b 142.48b 83.57a
88.95* 178.62* 116.56* 131.29* 77.14*
38.59 3.48 9.21
36.03 3.48 52.38
16.80 3.48 1.46
22.92 3.48 0.75
44.47 3.48 0.57
9.16 3.48 0.38
12.90 3.48 3.18
9.67 3.48 41.28
N0 e No fertilizer; N e Nitrogen fertilizer; P60 e Phosphate fertilizer; K60 e Potassium fertilizer; N þ P þ K e Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium fertilizer. Mean of three replicate observations. *Significant at p < 0.05. Positive difference corresponds to higher value during wet season and viceversa. In a column mean followed by a common letter are not significantly different.
have also reported significant positive correlation between MBC and CH4 emission from rice soil. Significantly (p < 0.05) higher MBC was recorded during wet season from all plots (Fig. 2). Higher MBC during the maximum tillering stage of the rice growing season may attribute to higher CH4 emission during the period. Methanogenic population and their activity in flooded soil are influenced by the availability of fermentable substrates, usually expressed as soil RMC and sugar content (Mishra et al., 1997; Mohanty et al., 2004). Soil RMC content and sugar content was recorded significantly lower
during dry season (Fig. 2). Significant positive correlation (r ¼ 0.620) was recorded between RMC and CH4 emission (Table 2). Low availability of the fermentable substances (RMC and sugar) during dry season may attribute to low activity of methanogenic bacteria in the soil, which results into significantly lower CH4 emission during dry season (Table 1) compare to that of the wet season. Compare to other fertilizer applied plots, significantly (p < 0.05) lower soil RMC content was recorded from N þ P þ K applied plots during both the season, which may have influenced
Fig. 2. Variation of fermentable carbon content in soil at different crop growth stages during dry season and wet season with different inorganic fertilizer application A. Microbial biomass carbon; B. Sugar; C. Readily mineralizable carbon. Mean of three replicate observations. Bars indicate standard error.
128
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Table 2 Correlation matrix of different soil physicochemical parameters with CH4 emission.
MBC Sugar RMC pH Eh
CH4
MBC
Sugar
RMC
pH
0.516* 0.340 0.621* 0.806* 0.735*
0.787* 0.748* 0.508* 0.482*
0.629* 0.388 0.453
0.639* 0.524*
0.819*
df ¼ 58. *Significant at p < 0.05.
the significantly (p < 0.05) lower cumulative CH4 flux from N þ P þ K plots (Table 1). 3.4. Changes in soil microbial population Soil methanogenic and methanotrophic bacterial populations were recorded at different plant growth stages. Lower methanogenic bacterial population was recorded irrespective of the treatment during the seedling stage of the crop (Fig. 3), this may also attribute to lower CH4 emission during the early stage of the rice crop. Both acetclastic and hydrogenotrophic methanogenic bacterial population was recorded higher during the flowering stage of the crop. However, acetoclastic methanogenic bacterial population was much higher than that of the hydrogenotrophs. Similar result was also reported by Das et al. (2011) from rice field. Low
hydrogenotrophic methanogen bacterial population from K-fertilizer applied plots during both seasons (Fig. 3), indicates that there may be influence of K-fertilizer application on hydrogenotrophic methanogen bacterial population. On the other hand, methanotroph population was recorded higher from the K-fertilizer applied plots during both seasons (Fig. 3). Price et al. (2004) have also reported increase in the methnotrophic bacterial population in soil with K-fertilizer under incubated condition. Higher methanotrophic bacterial population in K-fertilizer applied plots may attribute to lower CH4 emission by increasing the CH4 oxidation potential in the soil. Compare to the N-fertilizer applied plots, higher methanothrophic bacterial population was recorded in the P-fertilizer applied plots. P-fertilizer stimulates the CH4 oxidation in rice rhizosphere, which leads to reduction of CH4 emission from rice fields (Adhya et al., 1998). We have recorded the CH4 emission from the field during the fallow period between two seasons (data not shown). Pulses of CH4 emission and consumption were recorded from field plots, when the soil gets dried during the fallow period. During the fallow period CH4 emission from the field was ranged from 1.22 mg m2 h1 (N0) to 3.53 mg m2 h1 (N). Joulian et al. (1996) have also reported that the methanogenic bacterial population gradually decreases during the fallow period, while methanotrophic bacterial population increases. Increase in the methanotrophic bacterial population may attribute to the negative CH4 emission (CH4 oxidation) during the fallow period.
Fig. 3. Dynamics of soil methanogenic and methanotrophic bacterial population during the study period. A. Methanogen (Acetoclastic); B. Methanogen (Hydrogenotrophic); C. Methanotroph.
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
4. Conclusion Application of P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer significantly reduces CH4 emission from soil. The study suggests increase of CH4 emission with the application of N-fertilizer. However, combined application of N þ P þ K significantly decreases CH4 emission to grain yield ratio (dry season: 6.43 kg CH4 Mg1 grain yield and wet season: 83.57 kg CH4 Mg1 grain yield) from rice field. P-fertilizer and K-fertilizer may have a significant effect on the development of plant aerenchyma, which enable them to be effective in reducing CH4 emission from the rice ecosystems. Microbial analysis of soil has recorded stimulation of methanotrophic bacterial population with the application of P and K-fertilizer (Fig. 3), which may also be responsible for reduction of CH4 emission from P and K-fertilizer applied plots. Detail microbial analysis may explain the negative CH4 emission during the fallow period. However, the study suggests that the estimation of CH4 emission during the fallow period is also important to reduce the measurement uncertainty in annual CH4 flux estimation from the rice field. The study also suggests that the effect of P and K-fertilizer application on CH4 emission should be included during the upscaling of CH4 emission from rice paddy. Acknowledgment Authors are thankful to Director, CRRI, Odisha, India for providing permission to conduct the experiment at the experimental field of the farm. References Adhya, T.K., Pattanaik, P., Satpathy, S.N., Kumarswamy, S., Sethunathan, N., 1998. Influence of phosphorus application on methane emission and production in flooded paddy soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 30 (2), 177e181. Aulakh, M.S., Wassmann, R., Rennenberg, H., 2002. Methane transport capacity of twenty-two rice cultivars from five major Asian rice-growing countries. Agril. Ecosyst. Environ. 91, 59e77. Babu, Y.J., Nayak, D.R., Adhya, T.K., 2006. Potassium application reduces methane emission from flooded field planted to rice. Biol. Fert. Soil 42 (6), 532e541. Bodilier, P.L.E., 2011. Interaction between nitrogenous fertilizers and methane cycling in wetland and upland soils. Curr. Option Env. Sust. 3 (5), 379e388. Butterbach-Bahl, K., Papen, H., Rennenberg, H., 1997. Impact of gas transport through rice cultivars on methane emission from rice paddy fields. Plant Cell. Environ. 20, 1175e1183. Cai, Z., Shan, Y., Xu, H., 2007. Effects of nitrogen fertilization on CH4 emissions from rice fields. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 53 (4), 353e361. Chen, J., Xuan, J., Du, C., Xie, J., 1997. Effect of potassium nutrition of rice on rhizosphere redox status. Plant Soil 188, 131e137. Conrad, R., Klose, M., 2005. Effect of potassium phosphate fertilization on production and emission of methane and its 13C-stable isotope composition in rice microcosms. Soil Biol. Biochem. 37, 2099e2108. Conrad, R., Klose, M., Claus, P., 2000. Phosphate inhibits acetotrophic methanogenesis on rice roots. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 828e831. Corton, T.M., Bajita, J.B., Grospe, F.S., Pamplona, R.R., Asis, C.A., Wassmann, R., Lantin, R.S., Buendia, L.V., 2000. Methane emission from irrigated and intensively managed rice fileds in Central Luzon (Phillipines). Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 58, 37e53. Das, Suvendu, Ghosh, A., Adhya, T.K., 2011. Nitrous oxide and methane emission from a flooded rice field as influenced by separate and combined application of herbicides bensulfuron methyl and pretilachlor. Chemosphere 84, 54e62. Datta, A., Nayak, D.R., Sinhababau, D.P., Adhya, T.K., 2009. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from an integrated rice-fish farming system of Eastern India. Agril. Ecosyst. Environ. 129, 228e237. Datta, A., Santra, S.C., Adhya, T.K., 2011. Relationship between CH4 and N2O flux from soil and their ambient mixing ratio in A Riparian rice-based agroecosystem of tropical region. J. Env. Monit. 13 (12), 3469e3474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/ C1EM10478K. Datta, A., Das, S., Manjunath, K.R., Adhya, T.K., 2012. Comparison of Two Methods for the Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Flux from Rice Ecosystems in India. Greenhouse Gas Measure. Manage. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20430779.2012. 699771. Datta, A., Yeluripati, J.B., Nayak, D.R., Mahato, K.R., Santra, S.C., Adhya, T.K., 2013. Seasonal variation of methane flux from coastal saline rice field with the application of different organic manures. Atmos. Environ 66, 114e122.
129
De Visscher, A., Van Cleemput, O., 2003. Induction of enhanced CH4 oxidation in soils: NHþ 4 inhibition patterns. Soil Biol. Biochem. 35, 907e913. Dlugokencky, E.J., Houweling, S., Bruhwiler, L., Masarie, K.A., Lang, P.M., Miller, J.B., Tans, P.P., 2003. Atmospheric methane levels off: temporary pause or a new steady-state? Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (1992). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/ 2003GL018126. Epule, T.E., Peng, C., Mafany, M.N., 2011. Methane emissions from paddy rice fields: strategies towards achieving a win-win sustainability scenario between rice production and methane emission reduction. J. Sustainable Dev. 4 (6), 188e196. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations), 2009. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2011e2030. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations), 2010. How to Feed the World in 2050. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_ paper. Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fahey, D.W., Haywood, J., Lean, J., Lowe, D.C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M., Van Dorland, R., 2007. Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing. In: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M., Miller, H.L. (Eds.), Climate Change 2007: the Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Graham, D.W., Korich, D.G., Leblanc, R.P., Sinclair, N.A., Arnold, R.G., 1992. Application of colorimetric plate assay for soluble methane monooxygenase activity. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58, 2231e2236. Gupta, P.K., Gupta, V., Sharma, C., Das, S.N., Purkait, N., Adhya, T.K., Pathak, H., Ramesh, R., Baruah, K.K., Venkatratnam, L., Singh, G., Iyar, C.S.P., 2009. Development of methane emission factor for Indian paddy fields and estimation of national methane budget. Chemosphere 74, 590e598. Heffer, P., 2009. Assessment of Fertilizer Use by Crops at Global Level. International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA) Report April 2009, France. Insum, H., Wett, B., 2008. Control of GHG emission at the microbial community level. Waste Manage. 28 (4), 699e706. IPCC [Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change], 2000. Good Practice Guideline and Uncertainty Management in National Green House Gas Inventory. Agriculture Sector: CH4 Emission from Rice Fields. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/ public/gp/bgp/4_7_CH4_Rice_ Agriculture.pdf. Jagadamma, S., Lal, R., Hoeft, R.G., Nafiger, E.D., Adee, E.A., 2007. Nitrogen fertilization and cropping system impacts on soil properties and their relationship to crop yield in the central Corn belt, USA. Soil Till. Res. 95, 348e356. Jarecki, M.K., Parkin, T.B., Chan, S.K.A., Hatfield, J.L., Raymond, J., 2008. Grrenhouse gas emissions from two soils receiving nitrogen fertilizer and swine manure slurry. J. Enviorn. Qual. 37, 1432e1438. Jia, Z., Cai, Z., Tsuruta, H., 2006. Effect of rice cultivar on CH4 production potential of rice soil and CH4 emission in a pot experiment. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 52, 341e348. Joulian, C., Ollivier, B., Neue, H.U., Roger, P.A., 1996. Microbiological aspects of methane emission by a ricefield soil from the Camargue (France): 1. Methanogenesis and related microflora. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 32 (2), 61e70. Kasper, H.F., Tiedje, J.M., 1982. Anaerobic bacteria and processes. In: Page, A.L., Miller, R.M., Keeney, R. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp. 989e1009. Liang, B., Yang, X., He, X., Zhou, J., 2011. Effects of 17-year fertilization on soil microbial biomass C and N and soluble organic C and N in loessial soil during maize growth. Biol. Fertil. Soil 47, 121e128. Liu, L.L., Greaver, T.L., 2009. A review of nitrogen enrichment effects on three biogenic GHGs: the CO2 sink may be largely offset by stimulated N2O and CH4 emission. Ecol. Lett. 12, 1103e1117. Lu, Y., Wassmann, R., Neue, H.U., Huang, C., 1999. Impact of phosphorus supply on root exudation, aerenchyma formation and methane emission of rice plants. Biogeochemistry 47, 203e218. Lynch, J.M., 1990. The Rhizosphere. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Ma, J., Ma, E., Xu, H., Yagi, K., Cai, Z., 2009. Wheat straw management affect CH4 and N2O emissions from rice fields. Soil Biol. Biochem. 41 (5), 1022e1028. Mishra, S., Rath, A.K., Adhya, T.K., Rao, V.R., Sethunathan, N., 1997. Effect of continuous and alternate water regimes on methane efflux from rice under greenhouse conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soil 24, 399e405. Mitra, A.P., 1992. Greenhouse Gas Emission in India: 1991. Methane Campaign Scientific Report No. 2. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), New Delhi, 91 pp. Mohanty, S.R., Nayak, D.N., Babu, Y.J., Adhya, T.K., 2004. Butachlor inhibits production and oxidation of methane in tropical rice soils under flooded condition. Microbiol. Res. 159, 193e201. Nouchi, I., Mariko, S., 1993. Mechanism of methane transport by rice plants. In: Oremland, R.S. (Ed.), Biogeochemistry of Global Change: Radiatively Active Trace Gases. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 336e352. Parlanti, S., Kudahettige, N.P., Lombardi, L., Sodi, M.A., Alpi, A., Pireta, P., Puciarreallo, C., 2011. Distinct mechanisms for aerenchyma formation in leaf sheaths of rice genotypes displaying a quiescence or escape strategy for flooding tolerance. Annl. Bot. 107 (8), 1335e1343. Prasanna, R., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Yadav, A.K., Tripathy, U., Singh, A.K., Jain, M.C., Gupta, P.K., Singh, P.K., Sethunathan, N., 2002. Methane production in rice soil is inhibited by cyanobacteria. Microbiol. Res. 157, 1e6. Price, S.J., Kelliher, F.J., Sherlock, R.R., Tate, K.R., Condron, L.M., 2004. Environmental and chemical factors regulating methane oxidation in a New Zealand soil. Aus. J. Soil Sci. 42 (7), 767e776.
130
A. Datta et al. / Atmospheric Environment 66 (2013) 123e130
Rao, V.R., Rao, J.L.N., Adhya, T.K., 1986. Heterotrophic nitrogen fixation (C2H2 reduction) as influenced by phosphorous application in paddy soil. Plant Soil 92, 125e132. } tz, H., Holzapfel-Pschorn, A., Conrad, R., Rennenberg, H., Seiler, W., 1989. Schu A three-year continuous record on the influence of daytime season and fertilizer treatment on methane emission rates from an Italian rice paddy field. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 16405e16416. Shang, Q., Yang, X., Gao, C., Wu, P., Liu, J., Xu, Y., Shen, Q., Zhou, J., Guo, S., 2011. Net annual global warming potential and greenhouse gas intensity in Chinese double rice-cropping systems: a 3-year field measurement in long-term fertilizer experiments. Global Change Biol. 17 (6), 2196e2210. Shrestha, M., Shrestha, P.M., Frenzel, P., Conrad, R., 2010. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on methane oxidation, abundance, community structure and gene expression of methanotroph in the rice rhizosphere. ISME J. 4, 1545e1556. Snyder, C.S., Bruulsema, T.W., Jensen, T.L., Fixen, P.E., 2009. Review of greenhouse gas emissions from crop production systems and fertilizer management effects. Agri. Ecosyst. Environ. 133, 247e266. Trolldenier, G., 1977. Mineral nutrition and reduction processes in the rhizosphere of rice. Plant Soil 38, 267e279. Wagner, S.W., Reicosky, D.C., Alessi, R.S., 1997. Regression model for calculating gas fluxes measured with closed chamber. Agron. J. 89, 279e284. Wassmann, R., Wang, M.X., Shangguan, X.J., Xie, X.L., Shen, R.X., Papen, H., Rennenberg, H., Seiler, W., 1993. First records of a field experiment on fertilizer effects on methane emission from rice fields in Hunan Province (PR China). Geophys. Res. Lett. 20, 2071e2074.
Wassmann, R., Lantin, R.S., Neue, H.U., Buendia, L.V., Corton, T.M., Lu, Y., 2000. Characterization of methane emissions from rice fields in Asia. III. Mitigation options and future research needs. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 58, 23e36. Wienhold, B.J., Andrews, S.S., Karlen, D.L., 2004. Soil quality: a review of the science experiences in the USA. Environ. Geochem. Heal. 26, 89e95. Witt, C., Gaunt, J.L., Galcia, C.C., Ottow, J.C.G., Neue, H.U., 2000. A rapid chloroformfumigation extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen in flooded rice soils. Biol. Fertil. Soils 30, 510e519. Xie, B., Zheng, X., Zhou, Z., Gu, J., Zhu, J., Chen, X., Shi, Y., Wang, Y., Zhao, Z., Liu, C., Yao, Z., Zhu, J., 2010. Effects of nitrogen fertilizers on CH4 emissions from rice fields: multi-site field observations. Plant Soil 326, 393e401. Yan, X., Akiyam, H., Yagi, K., 2009. Global estimations of the inventory and mitigation potential of methane emissions from rice cultivation conducted using the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines. Global Biogeochem. Cy. 23, GB2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GB003299. Yang, X., Shang, Q., Wu, P., Liu, J., Shen, Q., Guo, S., Xiong, Z., 2010. Methane emission from double rice agriculture under long-term fertilizing system in Hunan, China. Agr. Ecosys. Environ. 137 (3e4), 308e316. Yoshida, S., Forno, D.A., Cock, J.H., Gomez, K.A., 1976. Determination of sugar and starch in plant tissue. In: Laboratory Manual of Physiological Studies of Rice, third ed. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, pp. 46e49. Zang, Y., Wang, Y.Y., Su, S.L., Li, C.S., 2011. Quantifying methane emissions from rice paddies in Northeast China by integrating remote sensing mapping with a biogeochemical model. Biogeosciences 8 (5), 1225e1235.