Effects of 72 hours total sleep deprivation on male astronauts' executive functions and emotion

    Effects of 72 Hours Total Sleep Deprivation on Male Astronauts’ Executive Functions and Emotion Qing Liu PII: DOI: Reference:

S0010-440X(15)00090-5 doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.05.015 YCOMP 51527

To appear in:

Comprehensive Psychiatry

Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

29 October 2014 8 May 2015 27 May 2015

Please cite this article as: Liu Qing, Effects of 72 Hours Total Sleep Deprivation on Male Astronauts’ Executive Functions and Emotion, Comprehensive Psychiatry (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.05.015

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Effects of 72 Hours Total Sleep Deprivation on Male Astronauts’

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Qing Liu1,2

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Executive Functions and Emotion

Beijing Key Lab of Applied Experimental Psychology, School of Psychology, Beijing Normal

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University, Beijing, China

State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University,

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Beijing, China

Running Head: EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND SLEEP DEPRIVATION

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Corresponding Author at

Address: School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China Tel: +86 10 58802021 Fax: +86 10 58802021 E-mail: [email protected] 1

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Abstract Background——To provide evidence for better understanding stressful situations, the present

stressful situations like social isolation and sleep deprivation.

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study was designed to investigate the specific physiological and psychological responses under

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Methods——Twelve healthy male adults (age: 18~30 years old) who participated in our study were randomized to the 72 hours of social isolation and 72 hours of sleep deprivation

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experimental conditions. Performances (event-related potentials and physiological activities) on the Go/Nogo task which reflected the executive functions were accessed at baseline (Pretest) and after 72-hour of the experiment (Posttest).

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Results——The results showed that compared to the social isolation, the participants got

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strengthened heart rate (HR), weakened HR variability and smaller amplitude of the P300 under the sleep deprivation condition; moreover, they had lower positive emotion and higher negative

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mood in the posttest.

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Conclusions——The present study indicated that sleep deprivation specifically influenced the intensity of task-relevant information processing, mood and vagal tone.

Keywords：social isolation; sleep deprivation; executive functions; event-related potentials; galvanic skin response; heart rate variability

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1. Introduction Recent research has underlined the severity of astronauts’ fatigue during spaceflight. Crew

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members often suffer from disrupted sleep and desynchronized circadian rhythms because of demanding flight schedules, while the combination of which threatens their alertness and

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performance [1]. The air travel has a severe influence on both the sleep and circadian rhythm owing to basic factors of human fatigue, the measurement of individual cognition, physiological

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states and neural activity would reflect the general trends of fatigue during spaceflight. Sleep has an important homeostatic function, and sleep deprivation (SD) is a stressor that has consequences for the brain, as well as many body systems [2]. Studies have shown that sleep

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deprivation is condition often associated with mild, temporary increases in the activity of the

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major neuroendocrine stress systems, i.e., the autonomic sysmpatho-adrenal system [3]. Sleep deprivation impairs many cognitive abilities, while the ability to inhibit responding is particularly

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susceptible to SD [4]. Response inhibition was the cognitive process for inhibiting individuals

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from making prepotent responses when they were not appropriate [5]. The Go/Nogo task was often applied to measure individuals’ response inhibition because the participants should conduct (Go) or inhibit (Nogo) motor responses in the task [6]. The Go/Nogo task requires frequent automatic responses to stimuli that were interspersed with the need to withhold responses from specific, less frequently occurring stimuli [7]. It is well known that sleep deprivation can influence tasks that require automatic responses and that it results in slow and unstable responses [8]. Therefore, the participants' performance on Go/Nogo tasks under sleep deprivation would be deteriorated. For example, two studies demonstrated that the Go/Nogo task performances, which represents 3

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response inhibition, were damaged by sleep deprivation recently [8,9]. Studies underlying the neuromechanism of Go/Nogo task demonstrated that the Nogo stimuli in the visual version

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usually induced a frontal negativity of 200 to 300ms (Nogo-N2), which reflects an inhibition process that related to the signal detection and discrimination [10]. Positive amplitudes with a

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parietal region maximum between 300 and 600 ms (Nogo-P3) then followed [11]. The P300 component was thought to reflect the neurophysiology activity that related to cognitive processes

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such as attention, discrimination and working memory. Meanwhile, the P300 was also regarded as an index that would be affected by alertness, circadian rhythm and drugs [12]. Lee and his colleagues found that the P300 changes under sleep deprivation were an expression of detrimental

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alertness. Similar results came from Drummond, Paulus and Tapert [5]. They used the Go/Nogo

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task to investigate the effects of two nights of sleep deprivation and recovery on individual response inhibition with 38 healthy participants. Their results showed that it was difficult for

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participants to prevent making inappropriate responses under sleep deprivation, although they

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could focus on the input stimuli and made specifically correct responses. In 2010, Qi and his colleagues repeatedly confirmed the impact of sleep deprivation on executive functions by means of electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings. Their study emphasized the effect of 43 hours of total sleep deprivation (TSD) on forty participants’ executive functions with the Go/Nogo task [13]. Their data showed that the amplitudes of the N2 and P3 elicited by the Nogo stimuli were smaller in the TSD group than in the control group in terms of prolonged latencies. Thus, the Go/Nogo task was sensitive to detect variations on response inhibition under sleep deprivation conditions. A critical question was to what extent executive functions were damaged by sleep loss [14]. Studies on recovery from sleep issues demonstrated that simple tasks which accessed one 4

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cognitive domain were more likely to be influenced by sleep loss than complicated tasks that measured multiple domains. These findings might be due to the compensatory effects of other

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cognitive domains that were unaffected [15-18]. Therefore, our study adopted the classical Go/Nogo task, which reflected only the behavioral inhibition competency, to investigate the

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effects of 72 hours of sleep deprivation and 72 hours of social isolation on individual executive functions. By the way, the present study used an equal possibility Go/Nogo task (percentage of Go

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stimuli and Nogo stimuli were both 50%) in order to remove the bias that establishing “prepotency” of the Go response to enhance inhibitory efforts (namely weighted with more Go than Nogo stimuli). Secondly, based on the fact that the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) was mostly

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influenced by sleep system, whereas the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) was mostly

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influenced by circadian system [12,19], we chose the galvanic skin response (GSR), heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) to test variations of individual physiology before and after sleep

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deprivation. Furthermore, the positive emotions that were accessed by instant feelings during work

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and rest periods found to be associated with the lower cortical level and higher HRV [20]. The present study will also observe the emotion variations simultaneously under sleep deprivation. Above all, the present study investigates the effects of social isolation and sleep deprivation on individual executive functions from a perspective of the combination of emotion, cognition and physiological arousal. Our purpose was to investigate the specific physiological and psychological responses under stressful situations (social isolation and sleep deprivation). Specifically, we adopted the numeric Go/Nogo task to measure the variation of individual executive functions after 72 hours of social isolation or 72 hours of sleep deprivation. Physiological indices, such as GSR, HR and HRV as well as the ERP neural markers like P300 and N200 components would be 5

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recorded simultaneously. Moreover, the profile of mood state (POMS) and the positive affect and negative affect scale (PANAS) were used to access the variations of emotion. Our hypotheses

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were that 72 hours of sleep deprivation and social isolation would harm individual executive functions and affect their mood. Meanwhile, the relation of individual emotion and executive

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function under stressful situations might be physiological indices such as GSR and HRV.

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2. Methods 2.1 Participants

The subjects were recruited via flyers in the University and campus network. Subjects eligible for participation in the present study met the following criteria: male undergraduates whose age

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range from 18 to 30 years old; physically and psychologically healthy, having no cardiovascular

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and endocrine disorders together with no psychiatric and family medical history; having good

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sleep habits and quality as well as no clinical sleep disorders like insomnia; nonsmokers and no history of alcohol or drug abuse together with no addiction of nervous excitation drinks like coffee

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or tea. Moreover, the subjects should have normal or corrected to normal vision and hearing. A total of 12 male subjects passed the screening criteria and completed our study. The subjects would undergo both the 72 hours of social isolation condition (subjects under social isolated environment with normal sleep, SI) and the 72 hours of total sleep deprivation condition (subjects under social isolated environment with total sleep deprivation, TSD). The subjects were further randomly divided into four subgroups, which each subgroup included three subjects. The order of the experiment conditions (first SI then TSD or first TSD then SI) was counterbalanced among the four subgroups. The subjects were instructed to maintain a regular sleep schedule (10:00 pm to 08:00 am) 6

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without alcohol consumption for three weeks before the experiment. The subjects were not allowed to drink coffee, tea or any other caffeinated beverage from arrival until the termination of

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the laboratory setting. Since the subjects should finish the SI and TSD, which means they accepted the same experiment test twice. There was a subject excluded from the analysis because of

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missing data, this means that 11 subjects were included in the final data analysis. All participants provided written informed consent to participate in the present experiment. Experimental

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procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neurosciences and Learning of Beijing Normal University.

2.2 Materials

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2.2.1 Go/Nogo task

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The present study adopted the numeric Go/Nogo task to measure individual executive functions. The task had two blocks. Each block was composed of 80 trials, which resulted in 160 trails totally.

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The stimulus in each trial was the digit “1”or “9”, which appeared randomly. The size of the digit

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was “2.0cm * 0.5cm” (width: 1.5°; height: 0.4°). In the experiment, the participants were asked to respond to the digits. When they saw the digit “1”, they were asked to press the “q” button, and when they saw the digit “9”, they were asked not to press any button. We adopted an equal probability Go/Nogo task, which means the percentages of digit “1” and digit “9” were both 50% [21-24]. In each trial, the presentation time for a stimulus was 100ms, the inter-stimulus interval was 500ms. The whole test period lasted for 3.5 minutes. The participants should make responses as soon as possible, which had a premise of responding to the Go stimuli (digit “1”) rather than Nogo stimuli (digit “9”).

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2.2.2 Subjective rating (1) Profile of Mood State (POMS)

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The POMS was formed by 48 adjectives on a five-point Likert type scale and was used to access seven emotion dimensions, which included tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue,

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confusion and self-esteem. The dependent variables were the sums of the scores of the seven emotion dimensions. The POMS had good reliability (alphas 0.83 ~ 0.84) and validity, which

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could reflect that it is an effective measurement for individual mood variation [25]. (2) Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS)

The PANAS included 20 items, which was divided into positive (10 items) and negative (10

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items), yielding two emotion dimensions. The participants were asked to make decisions

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according to their current emotion states [26]. The PANAS was a Likert-style questionnaire (1“very slightly or not at all” to 5 “extremely”). The sum scores were used for data analysis.

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Specifically, the 10 positive items added together for the positive sum scores while the 10 negative

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items added together for the negative sum scores. The raw score for each dimension (positive and negative) ranged from 10 to 50. The Chinese version of the PANAS had well-established validity and reliability [27].

2.3 Procedure The experiment was performed in the China Astronaut Research and Training Center (ACC). There was a laboratory that had social isolation and sleep deprivation conditions in the ACC. The area of the test room in the lab was 8m2, which had a bathroom in it. There were tables, chairs, computers and monitoring equipments in the test room. The room was separated from the outside monitoring room by two doors and kept draughty. The participants in the test room could contact 8

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the outside monitoring room only by computers. During the social isolation or sleep deprivation, the participants and the experimenter did not have direct contact, and the experimenters

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transferred the food and daily necessities though a small window in the door. The participants could not make calls or search the internet when they were in the test room during the experiment.

morning and half an hour in the evening).

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However, they had a period of time everyday which was at their disposal (half an hour in the

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The experiment period for social isolation (SI) condition or total sleep deprivation (TSD) condition of the participants was six days. The measurement time days were set at the day before the experiment (SI or TSD condition) and the day after the experiment (SI or TSD condition). The

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specific test time was between 8am and 11 am every time. Under the SI condition, the sleep hours

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for the participants were guaranteed to be eight hours each night. Under sleep deprivation, the participants were to stay awake and not allowed to sleep. When they felt sleepy, an alarm clock

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would warn them with cacophony.

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The participants were asked to finish the profile of mood (POMS), the positive affect and negative affect scale (PANAS) as well as the Go/Nogo task at baseline (Pretest) and after the experiment period (Posttest). The participants’ neural activity (event-related potentials, ERP) and physical state (galvanic skin response, GSR; heart rate, HR; heart rate variability, HRV) were recorded simultaneously when they performed the Go/Nogo task. We included ‘task sequence (for the subjects accepted the SI first then TSD or accepted the TSD first then the SI)’ as a between-subjects factor before analysis the data from participants to see whether there was an interaction between the conditions (SI and TSD). The degree of practice effects were the same for the participants under SI and TSD since we didn’t got any significant main effects of ‘task 9

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sequence’ on individual physiology data, ERP data of Go/Nogo task, PANAS and POMS.

2.4 Data recording

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Electroencephalographic (EEG) data were recorded using a Quick-cap with 40 Ag/AgCl electrodes (NeuroScan Inc., USA), which were arranged according to the International 10-20

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System and referenced to the unilateral mastoid. The resistances of all of the recording electrodes were lower than 5KΩ. The sample rate was 1000 Hz, and the low-pass bandwidth was 100 Hz.

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The grand electrode was placed at the midpoint between Cz and FPz. Electrooculographic activity was collected from electrodes placed above and below the right orbit and on the outer canthus of each eye to record bipolar eye movements [28]. Since the recording environment failed to shield

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from Electromagnetic disturbances, we used a 50 Hz notch filter to eliminate the power line

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disturbances. The offline ERP processing included DC rejection, eye blink correction using an ocular artifact reduction, low-pass filtering (30Hz, 24dB/octave), the creation of a stimulus-

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locked epoch (-200 to 1,200 ms relative to stimulus onset), baseline correction (-200 to 0 ms

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prestimulus period), and artifact rejection (the epochs with signals that exceeded ± 80 mV were rejected). The participants’ ERP averages were derived for correct trials of trial type (Go, Nogo). Data from trials in which the subject responded incorrectly (false alarms and misses) were excluded from further analysis. In the classical Go/Nogo task, there were two main ERP components, which were N200 and P300. The N200 amplitude was defined as the mean amplitude within a 100-300 ms window following the stimulus onset; the N200 latency was defined as the peak latency (baseline to peak) within a 100-300 ms window. The P300 amplitude was defined for the mean amplitude within a 250-500 ms window following the stimulus onset. During the recording process, the participants were prevented from moving their head and eyes frequently. 10

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Physiological activity data were collected via MP150 system amplifier modules that included specific modules for the acquisition, conversion, amplification and storage of signals. We used the

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digital filter to process the physiological signals. Specifically, we chose the spectrum analysis to extract the wave band of interest. The bipolar electrodes which were used to collect the galvanic

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skin response (GSR) data were attached to the index and middle fingers of the subjects’ left hands (VIN+ and VIN–, respectively). The amplifier gain of the GSR was 5µmho/V, the high-pass filter

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was DC, and the low-pass filter was 1Hz. The sample rate was 250 Hz, and the units were in µmho. The HR of each participant was obtained on the basis of the R-R interval, which was immediately extracted from the electrocardiograph (ECG) signal. The ground (GND) was

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connected to the right lower limb, the VIN+ was connected to the left lower limb, and the VIN–,

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which showed the electrode connections to the ECG for the lead measurements, was connected to the left upper limb. The amplifier gain was 500, the high-pass filter was 0.5Hz, the low-pass filter

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was 35Hz, and the sample rate was 500Hz. The heart rate was derived from the EEG, which units

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were beats per minute (bpm). The resting-state GSR and ECG data were recorded while the subjects were in comfortable and relaxed states and recorded serially for five minutes after all of the components of the apparatuses had been attached. The unit of the HR was beats/minute. We used the Acknowledge 4.1 software to extract and analyze the GSR, HR and HRV physiological data. The analysis of HRV analysis should have pre-processing of R-R interval time series. Because the Acknowledge 4.1 software contains a visual view of the actual point positions in the ECG signal of the R-peak detection process and the possibility to correct any false points, so we could get the high-quality R-R interval data through the deletion process. Specifically, the abnormal R–R intervals are removed and the preceding normal R–R intervals are then shifted to 11

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replace the deleted ones. The fast Fourier transformation (FFT) was used to transform the R-R interval, which converted from the raw R wave to the HRV frequency domain information. The

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frequency indices included the high frequency of the HRV (HF, 0.15Hz—0.40Hz), the low frequency of the HRV (LF, 0.04 Hz—0.15 Hz), the ratio of the LF and HF (LF/HF), the very low

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frequency of the HRV (VLF, 0.01 Hz—0.04 Hz) and the total power (TP).

2.5 Data analysis

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The SPSS 16.0 software was used to process and analyze data in the present study. In order to test the effect of sleep deprivation on individual executive function, emotions and physiological indices, we conducted three-way repeated-measures ANOVA based on the data of experiment

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group (Ne=11) under different conditions. Therefore, the three within-subjects factors were Time

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(pretest, posttest), Type (Go stimuli, Nogo stimuli) and Condition (72 hours of social isolation condition, 72 hours of sleep deprivation condition).

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All of the significant analysis used the two-way test (p<0.05), while the partial eta squared

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(ηp2) was the effect size. Since the distribution of the HRV data had skewness, we adopted the logarithmic transformation to normalize the data [29]. Paired-sample t tests were used for further analysis of the main effect, while simple effect analysis was used to test significant interactions. For within-subject analysis, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used where appropriate. The data were expressed as the mean ± S.D.

3. Results 3.1 Effects of social isolation and sleep deprivation on individual executive functions Based on the group average result, the stimuli induced the P300 (Figure 1) in the parietal cortex (Cz) and N200 (Figure 2) in the frontal area (Fz). 12

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A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed on the individual executive functions to test the effect of sleep deprivation within the experiment group. This analysis included three

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independent variables, Time (pretest, posttest), Type (Go stimuli, Nogo stimuli), and Condition (social isolation, sleep deprivation). The dependent variable was still the neural activity of the

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Go/Nogo task (P300 amplitude, N200amplitude and N200 latency). The analysis found that there was a main effect of Type on the N200 amplitude, F(1,10)=7.027，p=0.024，η2=0.413. The only

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significant interaction we got was the Time × Condition interaction on the P300 amplitude, F(1,10)=6.441，p=0.029，η2=0.392. A further simple effect found that, in the posttest, the P300 amplitude under sleep deprivation (M=1.42, SD=1.71) was significantly lower than the P300

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amplitude under social isolation (M=5.76, SD=1.95), F(1,10)=9.66, p=0.011 in responses to Go

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stimuli.

3.2 Effects of social isolation and sleep deprivation on individual emotions

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The scores of the Profile of Mood State, short form, (POMS-SF) and Positive Affect and

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Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) were analyzed under different time points and experiment conditions. The raw data of PANAS are in Table 1. To test the effect of sleep deprivation on individual emotion, we conducted repeated-measures ANOVAs on POMS and PANAS with Time (pretest, posttest) and Condition (social isolation, sleep deprivation) as the within-subject variables. This analysis was based on the data from participants of the experiment group (N=11). The results showed that there was a significant main effect of Condition (social isolation, sleep deprivation) on the positive affect for experiment group, F(1,10)=10.871, p=0.008, η2=0.521. The paired-sample t-test found that, compared to the social isolation condition, the positive affect of participants in the experiment 13

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group decreased significantly under sleep deprivation in the posttest, t(10)=3.139, p=0.011, d=0.773. The only significant interaction that we obtained was the Time × Condition on POMS,

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F(1,10)=5.693, p=0.038, η2=0.363. Further simple effect analysis showed that, compared to the social isolation condition, the participants of experiment group under sleep deprivation increased

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significantly on the POMS in the posttest, which can be seen in Figure3, F(1,10)=6.77, p=0.026.

3.3 Effects of social isolation and sleep deprivation on individual physiology

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The participants’ galvanic skin response (GSR), heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV: High frequency of HRV, HF; Low frequency of HRV, LF; LF/HF; Very low frequency of HRV,VLF; Total power of HRV, TP) are shown in Table 2.

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We adopted repeated-measures ANOVAs with two independent variables, Time (pretest,

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posttest) and Condition (social isolation, sleep deprivation), to test the effect of sleep deprivation on individual physiology (GSR, HR, HRV). This analysis was based on the data from participants

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of the experiment group (N=11). The results showed that there was a significant main effect of

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Time on GSR, F(1,10)=6.906, p=0.025, η2=0.408, which means that regardless of whether the participant of experiment group was under social isolation or sleep deprivation conditions, compared to the pretest, their GSR was significantly lower in the posttest. The specific trends are presented in Figure 4.

4. Discussion The present study had hypotheses that the social isolation and sleep deprivation conditions might impact individual executive functions, emotion and physiological states. As expected, the results showed that, after 72 hour sleep deprivation, the participants performed strengthened HR, weakened HRV, decreased positive emotions and increased negative mood than they were after 72 14

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hour social isolation. The purpose of present study was to assess whether and to what extent the executive functions

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would be impacted by stressful situations such as social isolation and sleep deprivation. As mentioned above, the results showed that the social isolation and sleep deprivation did impact

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individuals’ executive functions. Specifically, compared to the social isolation, the participants got smaller Go-P3 after sleep deprivation. This might due to the sleep deprivation itself, which made

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the participants generate fatigue and then affected their neural activity on the Go/Nogo task. The result was similar to the study of Lee, Kim and Suh (2003) as well as Qi et al (2010). Lee and his colleagues found that 38 hours of sleep deprivation had an effect on individuals’ reaction

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time, alertness and P300 components, which caused a delay in cognitive processing [7]. Qi and his

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colleagues also found that 43 hours of sleep deprivation had decreased Nogo-P300 amplitude, which reflects the impairment of task-related cognitive processes [13]. However, unlike the

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findings of Qi et al, the present study didn’t get smaller Nogo-N2 amplitude, which might be due

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to the factor of task difficulty. The present study adopted the classical Go/Nogo task to test the individual executive functions, which reflects only a single cognitive competency. This design was in accordance with the insights of Chee and Choo (2004) who thought that, compared to the complex cognitive tasks, tasks that measure one cognitive domain would be more sensitive to sleep loss due to the compensatory mechanisms [15]. Therefore, the impact of sleep loss on executive functions might only reflect on the attenuation of task-related stimuli, such as the amplitude of P300 in the present study. The P300 component reflects the neural activities that were related to the executive functions, meanwhile was also impacted by individual circadian rhythm [12]. Thayer, Hansen, Saus-Rose, 15

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Psychol and Johnsen (2009) proposed the neurovisceral integration theory to interpret the neural connections between the autonomic nervous system, emotion and cognition [30]. They thought

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that individual differences on the resting state HRV (rs-HRV) were correlated with the executive task performance, which reflects the activation of the prefrontal cortex. However, their study had a

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limitation was that they didn’t note which executive function specifically related to rs-HRV [31]. The present study found that, compared to the social isolation, the participants got elevated HR

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and attenuated HRV when they were under sleep deprivation condition. These autonomic changes generated simultaneously with the decreased amplitude of the Go-P3. This covariance might respond to the specific correlation between the resting HRV and the executive task type, which

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pointed to the response inhibition (Go/Nogo task).

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The present study also focused on relation of autonomic system and emotion owing to the dysfunctions in the regulation of the emotional responses were related to poor psychological

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well-being and an increased impact of cardiovascular disease [32]. Compared to social isolation,

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the participants had decreased positive emotions and increased negative mood after sleep deprivation. Meanwhile, these emotional variations occurred simultaneously with the autonomic responses, such as the evaluated HR and decreased HRV. This synchronism was similar to the study of Lane et al (2009). Lane and his colleagues investigated the neural correlates of HRV under different emotions [33]. Their results showed that the neural correlates of high frequency HRV (HF) and emotion were real time. Lane et al also observed that the HF and emotion arousal shared the same brain activation area, such as the medial prefrontal cortex. This observation occurred under the context of emotion, and which reflects the neural correlates of emotion and the autonomic system [34]. 16

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Above all, in the present study, the neural correlates of emotion, heart rate variability and executive functions under stressful situations like sleep deprivation were integrated in the

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neurovisceral way, which means a substantial amount of the physiology and psychology of health. The present study expanded the neural correlates to stressful situations (social isolation and sleep

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deprivation), which were new and broaden the contents of the current research domain. At the same time, from a more general perspective, individual differences on the rs-HRV reflect the

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potential neural plasticity of self-regulation, adaptability and health. Therefore, further studies should attempt to use rs-HRV as a mediator of cognitive regulation and executive functions under

Acknowledgment

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stressful situations, to better cope with stress.

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This work was funded by the Main Test Technique Research Program of China

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(2011CB711000), the “973” project (2011CB711001 and 2011CB505101) and the Shangshan funding. The authors would like to express their gratitude for the support of these projects.

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[12] Polich J, Kok A. Cognitive and biological determinants of P300: An integrative review. Biol.

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damage affects physiological and psychological stress responses differently in men and women. Psychoneuroendocrino 2010;35:56–66.

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Figure Legends

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Figure 1. P300 (Cz) trends of participants under social isolation (SI) and sleep deprivation (SD) at the pretest and posttest.

The P300 amplitude changes under the social isolation and sleep deprivation in response to

b)

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the Go stimuli at the pretest and posttest.

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a)

b) The P300 amplitude changes under the social isolation and sleep deprivation in response to

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the Nogo stimuli at the pretest and posttest.

Figure 2. N200 (Fz) trends of participants under social isolation and sleep deprivation at the

The N200 amplitude changes under the social isolation and sleep deprivation in response to

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c)

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pretest and posttest.

the Go stimuli at the pretest and posttest. b) The N200 amplitude changes under the social isolation and sleep deprivation in response

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d)

to the Nogo stimuli at the pretest and posttest.

Figure 3. The participants’ scores of the profile of mood state (POMS) under social isolation and sleep deprivation conditions in the pretest and posttest.

Figure 4. The participants’ resting state galvanic skin response (GSR) under social isolation and sleep deprivation conditions in the pretest and posttest.

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Tables

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Table 1 The participants’ scores on the positive affect and negative affect scale (PANAS) in the

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pretest and posttest under social isolation and sleep deprivation conditions (M±SD). Conditions

Pretest

28.18±6.11

Posttest

26.36±9.28*

Pretest

12.55±3.21

Posttest

13.18±3.16

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Negative Affect

sleep deprivation

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Positive Affect

Time

33.27±8.59 13.91±4.74 12.27±2.97

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Note: Statistical level, * p<0.05.

33.45±9.17

Table 2 The resting state GSR (µmho/V), HR (beats per minute, bpm) and HRV (HF, LF, VLF, TP;

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ms2) in the pretest and posttest under social isolation (SI) and sleep deprivation (SD)

Physiological indices

SD

SI

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GSR

Condition

Time

Pretest

M

conditions.

HR

SD

M

SD

6.65(3.86) 75.90(9.53)

HF M

LF SD

3.06(0.23)

M

Balance SD

2.51(0.17)

M

SD

0.82(0.04)

VLF M

SD

TP M

SD

2.14(0.12) 7.72(0.35)

Posttest 3.87(3.52) * 78.64(16.62) 2.77(0.62)

2.18(0.58)

0.77(0.10) 1.98(0.53)

6.93(1.71)

Pretest

6.58(5.38)

70.63(7.28)

2.83(0.50)

2.26(0.48)

0.79(0.04) 2.06(0.14) 7.15(1.10)

Posttest

5.04(3.59) *

71.44(7.50)

3.04(0.11)

2.46(0.09)

0.81(0.02) 2.17(0.12) 7.67(0.28)

Note: Statistical level, * p<0.05.

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Figure 1

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Figure 2

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Figure 3

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Figure 4

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