- Email: [email protected]
Effects of additives on the rheological and mechanical properties of non-conventional fresh handmade tagliatelle
Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cereal Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcs
Effects of additives on the rheological and mechanical properties of non-conventional fresh handmade tagliatelle S. Chillo b, N. Suriano a, C. Lamacchia a, b, M.A. Del Nobile a, b, * a b
Department of Food Science, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy `, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy Istituto per la Ricerca e le Applicazioni Biotecnologiche per la Sicurezza e la Valorizzazione dei Prodotti Tipici e di Qualita
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 18 December 2007 Received in revised form 25 July 2008 Accepted 5 September 2008
The effects of the following additives on the amaranth (A), quinoa (Q) and oat (O) dough rheological properties and the extruded tagliatelle dough mechanical characteristics were evaluated: carboxymethylcellulose of sodium (CMC), whey protein isolate (WPI), casein (CAS), chitosan (CHIT) and pregelatinized starch (PS). The amaranth, quinoa and oat rheological dough properties and amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle mechanical characteristics were compared to those of their respective controls (ACTRL, QCTRL and OCTRL) and of the SEMOLINA sample. The storage modulus (G0 ) and loss modulus (G00 ) values of the quinoa and oat doughs with PS were similar to those of the semolina dough. For all tagliatelle samples, WPI reduced the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus towards that of the semolina tagliatelle. Moreover, the additives did not have particular influence on the tenacity with the exception of the amaranth tagliatelle added with WPI. Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fresh handmade pasta Additives Rheological characteristics Mechanical properties
1. Introduction Fresh handmade pasta is a widespread product in Italy. It is made from durum wheat semolina and water. However, grains different from durum wheat can be used in the production of particular types of fresh handmade pasta with healthy characteristics or directed to specific targets, such as those following a celiac diet (Kasarda, 2001). Despite the increasing demand for this pasta, to the authors’ knowledge, no research has been done on fresh handmade pasta for people following particular types of diet, such as those. Among alternative grains, amaranth has attracted much interest. In fact, amaranth has a protein content of 18% (Tosi et al., 2002) is recognized as a lysine rich high-protein grain and contains calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorous, vitamins and dietary fibre (Escudero et al., 1999). Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal with a highprotein content (14–16%) (Koziol, 1990a, 1992) and, in particular, the amino acid composition of the seed protein is rich in histidine and lysine, and is close to the ideal protein balance recommended by FAO (Gross et al., 1989). Quinoa has a relatively high quantity of vitamins and minerals, iron and calcium (Risi and Galwey, 1984); moreover, lipids present in the quinoa seeds appear to have a high quality of edible vegetable oil, similar in fatty-acid composition to
* Corresponding author. Department of Food Science, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy. Tel.: þ39 881 589 242; fax: þ39 881 740 242. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A. Del Nobile). 0733-5210/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2008.09.002
soybean oil (Wood et al., 1993) and are particularly rich in linoleate and linolenate (Koziol, 1990b). Oat has recently attracted research and commercial attention mainly due to its high content of b-glucan and compounds with antioxidant activity (Gray et al., 2000; Peterson et al., 2001). Oat contains 70% carbohydrates, 15% proteins and 15% fat. Moreover, it has a high content of mineral salts, in particular, iron and calcium. It is also a good source of dietary fibre, thiamine, phosphorus, selenium and manganese. To obtain pasta of good quality from new meals it is often necessary to modify the traditional manufacture process (Kent and Evers, 1994). In particular, the additive use and/or an adequate technological production process have to be adopted to counteract any changes in the rheological properties (Marconi and Carcea, 2001). Significant studies have been carried out on gluten-free products involving diverse approaches which have included the use of additives such as starches, hydrocolloids, dairy products, gums and other non-gluten proteins, prebiotics and combinations, as alternatives to gluten, to improve the structure, texture, acceptability and shelf-life of gluten-free products (Anon, 2002; Kenny et al., 2001; Mannie and Asp, 1989; Ylimaki et al., 1991). Some interesting possibilities are chitosan, a natural non-toxic biopolymer derived by deacetylation of chitin and a major component of the shells of crustacea such as crab, shrimp, and crawfish. Chitosan has attracted considerable interest due to its biological activities; that is, antimicrobial (Sekiguchi et al., 1994; Sudarshan et al., 1992), antitumoral (Tokoro et al., 1988), and hypocholesterolemic functions (Sugano et al., 1992). Whey proteins are used for a variety of functional applications in the food industry.
164
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
They have a superior biological value to most other proteins and they also have a high content of sulphur-containing amino acids which support antioxidant functions (Sinha et al., 2007). Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is a derivative of cellulose which is widely used to modify viscosity of various food products such as dairy products, frozen desserts, jellies, cake mixes and salad dressings. Its chemical and physical properties have been studied in a great deal (Arbuckle, 1977; Zecher and Van Collie, 1992). Casein is the main proteinaceous component of milk, where it accounts for about 80% of the total protein inventory. However, the dominant physiological feature of the casein micelle system has more recently been proven to be the prevention of pathological calcification of the mammary gland (Holt, 1997). The pregelatinized starch is composed of small gel particles, that when dissolved, yield solutions of high viscosity (BeMiller and Whistler, 1996). Many foods utilize pregelatinized starch to provide texture at room and refrigerated temperatures, among these are instant puddings, gravy mixes, pie fillings and glazes (Moore et al., 1984). Rheological and mechanical characterisation of non-conventional dough pasta is important in predicting the processing behaviour and in controlling the quality of fresh pasta products. Dynamic rheological and static-mechanical tests are good ways of fundamentally studying the changes in product characteristics due to processing or formulations. Moreover, the dough components (starch, protein and additives) and their interactions play an important role in conformational structure as well as rheological properties (Shiau and Yeh, 2001). The aim of this work is to study the rheological characteristics of tagliatelle doughs and static and dynamic-mechanical properties of the extruded tagliatelle dough produced with non-conventional meals (amaranth, quinoa and oat) with additives. 2. Materials and methods
prepare samples and the tagliatelle typologies obtained are reported in Table 1. The kneading time was 15 min. Forty-five kinds of tagliatelle were produced and compared with both their respective controls (CTRL), made only of tap water and non-conventional flour without additives and standard semolina dough. The tagliatelle samples were made and immediately tested. 2.5. Dynamic-mechanical properties Dynamic-mechanical properties for each tagliatelle dough were investigated by means of a controlled-strain rotational rheometer (ARES model, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA) equipped with a force rebalance transducer (model 1K-FRTN1, 1–1000 g cm, 200 rad/s, 2–2000 gmf) and parallel plates (superior plate diameter of 25 mm). A steady temperature was ensured with an accuracy of 0.1 C by means of a controlled fluid bath unit and an external thermostatic bath. Three repetitions of the dynamicmechanical experiment were performed on each sample. The experiments were carried out at 25 C. In order to prevent water evaporation, a suitable cover tool sealing the top of the superior plate was used during testing. G0 (storage modulus), G00 (loss modulus) and tan d (G00 /G0 ) were measured in a frequency range of 0.05–10 Hz. Storage modulus is a measure of the energy stored and recovered per cycle, whereas the loss modulus is a measure of the energy dissipated or lost as heat per cycle of sinusoidal deformation (Ferry, 1980). tan d is a parameter which describes viscoelastic behaviour of a material. It is dimensionless and gives a clear indication of whether the material behaves as solid-like or liquid-like. The strain value was obtained by preliminary strain sweep oscillatory trials to determine the linear viscoelastic region. In order to compare the G0 , G00 and tan d values, among the investigated tagliatelle doughs, an oscillatory frequency of 3 Hz was chosen as the reference.
2.1. Materials 2.6. Static-mechanical properties The amaranth, quinoa, oat flours and semolina were bought from Bongiovanni Mill (Mondovı`, Cuneo, Italy). Carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt with 1500–4500 mPa s for a 1% aqueous solution at 25 C, the casein sodium salt from bovine milk and the chitosan were bought from Fluka Chemie (GmbH, Deisenhofen, Germany). WPI (97.9% protein, 0.3% fat, 1.7% ash, 4.8% moisture and pH ¼ 6.8) was purchased from BiPRO (Davisco Foods International, Le Sueur, MN, USA). 2.2. Preparation of additive solutions The prepared additive solutions and their compositions are reported in Table 1. The additives were added to water. The solutions were heated on a hotplate at 50 C, until the solutions were homogenised. Afterwards, these were added to the flour to prepare the tagliatelle doughs. 2.3. Preparation of pregelatinized starch To obtain the pregelatinized starch, water with a percentage of flour (Table 1) was heated at 80 C. Afterwards, the pregelatinized starch, cooled at about 40 C, was added to the flour to prepare the tagliatelle doughs. 2.4. Preparation of tagliatelle The tagliatelle samples were prepared with a fresh pasta maker (Pastamatic, Simac 1400N, Treviso, Italy) equipped with a bronze head. The percentage weight fraction of raw materials used to
A tagliatelle strand (length 25 mm) was used to determine the elastic modulus in tension (EC). The sample was submitted to stress–strain tests using a Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA-Q 800, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA). One end of the strand was attached to a superior mobile clamp and the other end attached to a lower fixed clamp. Tests were carried out at room temperature, with a preload of 103 N and a force ramp of 0.1 N/ min. Ten repetitions were carried out for each sample. The elastic modulus was evaluated from the initial slope of the stress–strain curve using the following exponential equation (Del Nobile et al., 2007):
sT ¼ EC $3T $expð3T $KÞ
(1)
where 3T and sT are the true strain and the true stress, respectively, calculated according to Mancini et al. (1999); EC is the elastic modulus (i.e., the tangent to the stress strain curve at the origin); K is a constant value, regarded as a fitting parameter. The measure of tenacity of tagliatelle samples was obtained by numerical integration of the area under the stress–strain curve. 2.7. Statistical analysis The results were compared by a one-way variance analysis (ANOVA). A Duncan’s multiple range test, with the option of homogeneous groups (p < 0.05), was carried out to determine significant differences between tagliatelle samples. STATISTICA 7.1 for Windows (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA) was used for this purpose.
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
165
Table 1 Formulations used in the preparation of the different tagliatelle typologies. Tagliatelle samples
CMCa (%)
WPIb (%)
PSc (%)
Caseind (%)
Chitosane (%)
Amaranthf (%)
Quinoag (%)
Oath (%)
Wateri (%)
ACMC 0.1 ACMC 0.2 ACMC 0.3 AWPI 0.1 AWPI 0.2 AWPI 0.3 APS 5 APS 10 APS 15 ACAS 0.1 ACAS 0.2 ACAS 0.3 ACHIT 0.1 ACHIT 0.2 ACHIT 0.3 QCMC 0.1 QCMC 0.2 QCMC 0.3 QWPI 0.1 QWPI 0.2 QWPI 0.3 QPS 5 QPS 10 QPS 15 QCAS 0.1 QCAS 0.2 QCAS 0.3 QCHIT 0.1 QCHIT 0.2 QCHIT 0.3 OCMC 0.1 OCMC 0.2 OCMC 0.3 OWPI 0.1 OWPI 0.2 OWPI 0.3 OPS 5 OPS 10 OPS 15 OCAS 0.1 OCAS 0.2 OCAS 0.3 OCHIT 0.1 OCHIT 0.2 OCHIT 0.3
0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – 5 10 15 – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 10 15 – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 10 15 – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3
69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
a b c d e f g h i
69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Carboxymethylcellulose of sodium (% w/w dough basis). Whey protein isolate (% w/w dough basis). Pregelatinized starch (% w/w flour basis). Casein (% w/w dough basis). Chitosan (% w/w dough basis). Amaranth (% w/w dough basis). Quinoa (% w/w dough basis). Oat (% w/w dough basis). % w/w dough basis.
3. Results and discussion Dynamic-mechanical characterisation of fresh handmade tagliatelle doughs added with additives and the mechanical characterisation of the extruded tagliatelle were carried out by studying both the dynamic-mechanical properties by means of a rotational rheometer and the static-mechanical properties at small and large deformations by means of a DMA. In the following paragraphs, the above topics are discussed. 3.1. Dough rheological properties An example of the frequency sweep oscillatory curves for the SEMOLINA, OCTRL and OPS 5 are shown in Fig. 1. The curves were qualitatively similar for all dough samples. As can be seen in this figure, both G0 and G00 values of the dough samples were dependent
on frequency, indicating a viscoelastic behaviour of the food matrix. Moreover, the trends of G0 and G00 for the dough samples were similar. It can be inferred from Fig. 1 that the G0 values for the SEMOLINA, OCTRL and OPS 5 samples are larger than the G00 values. This is typical of a viscoelastic solid (Rao and Steffe, 1992) which presents a dominant contribution of the elastic component to the viscoelasticity (Subramanian and Gunasekaran, 1997). Moreover, the figure showed that all the dough formulations gave higher values of G0 and G00 at higher frequencies compared with low frequencies (Fig. 1). Dreese et al. (1988) and Agyare et al. (2004) reported a similar trend for flour dough with G0 and G00 increasing with frequency. In Table 2 the G0 , G00 and tan d values of the doughs at an oscillatory frequency of 3 Hz are reported. The G0 and G00 values of the amaranth doughs with PS and CMC were higher than those of the ACTRL dough, SEMOLINA sample and dough samples with other additives. The quinoa and oat doughs with the addition of PS and
166
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
Fig. 1. G0 (closed symbol) and G00 (open symbol) values as a function of oscillatory frequency for the dough samples: the SEMOLINA (- and ,), OCTRL (A and >) and OPS 5 (C and B).
CMC had higher G0 and G00 values than those of the respective controls and doughs with other additives. Moreover, the G0 values of QPS 5, QPS 10, OPS 5 and OPS 15 were statistically equal to those of the SEMOLINA dough sample. The G00 values of the QCMC, QPS 10, QPS 15 and all OPS dough samples were significantly equal with respect to the SEMOLINA dough. On the whole, the quinoa and oat doughs with PS had equal G0 and G00 values with respect to those of the semolina dough. As reported in Table 2, the tan d values for the dough samples varied from 0.18 to 0.63. ACTRL and OCTRL showed tan d equal (p < 0.05) to that of the SEMOLINA dough. QCTRL had a tan d value inferior to that of the SEMOLINA sample. In addition, chitosan, CMC and casein did not influence tan d for the oat dough. CMC did not affect tan d of the amaranth dough, along with 0.2% WPI and 0.2% chitosan. For the quinoa dough, only QWPI 0.2 had tan d equal to that of the SEMOLINA dough. The rheological test, carried out in the linear region, has been used to follow the structure and properties of doughs and to study the dough ingredients (Janssen et al., 1996; Miller and Hoseney, 1999). Song and Zheng (2007) stated that G0 , G00 and tan d can be
Table 2 G0 , G00 and tan d values of the dough samples at a frequency of 3 Hz. Tagliatelle samples SEMOLINA ACTRL ACMC 0.1 ACMC 0.2 ACMC 0.3 AWPI 0.1 AWPI 0.2 AWPI 0.3 APS 5 APS 10 APS 15 ACAS 0.1 ACAS 0.2 ACAS 0.3 ACHIT 0.1 ACHIT 0.2 ACHIT 0.3 QCTRL QCMC 0.1 QCMC 0.2 QCMC 0.3 QWPI 0.1 QWPI 0.2 QWPI 0.3 QPS 5 QPS 10 QPS 15 QCAS 0.1 QCAS 0.2 QCAS 0.3 QCHIT 0.1 QCHIT 0.2 QCHIT 0.3 OCTRL OCMC 0.1 OCMC 0.2 OCMC 0.3 OWPI 0.1 OWPI 0.2 OWPI 0.3 OPS 5 OPS 10 OPS 15 OCAS 0.1 OCAS 0.2 OCAS 0.3 OCHIT 0.1 OCHIT 0.2 OCHIT 0.3
G0 (Pa) a,c,d
170275.30 16025.95 9259.51b 104.91 l 785898.37 13821.64 906398.72m 44285.31 845067.22m 63844.19 6350.16b 146.12 10504.58b 355.97 9763.50b 1015.53 1191128.05o 4670.70 1027717.96n 3618.80 543963.54h 5459.52 4696.85b 229.19 12451.27b 312.37 20248.51b 9311.73 4571.58b 136.86 9100.38b 82.61 2422.13b 245.79 6317.63b 178.02 407773.54g 60466.18 308818.42f 34984.48 220355.97d,e 10440.04 2855.41b 303.15 10953.32b 1362.13 3981.33b 197.03 101768.20a 86685.55 222947.80d,e 59058.15 282880.36e,f 45125.83 5259.97b 39.01 5272.64b 110.61 10049.79b 251.36 4159.31b 582.29 8164.74b 158.34 4442.39b 119.85 7476.87b 183.30 676868.31i 7523.70 581631.52h 57450.86 517413.73h 20579.66 2996.50b 16.23 2379.22b 102.89 3140.65b 94.08 134565.36a,c 6358.29 328293.86f 18828.06 304453.81c,d 16906.17 5884.60b 296.26 5760.49b 149.31 3167.52b 99.76 5127.51b 317.40 6799.96b 17.18 6720.65b 266.26
Mean in the same column followed by different superscript letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
G00 (Pa)
tan d
63121.64a,e,f 5965.38 3024.69d 56.17 300264.76i,l 13821.64 331175.44l 44285.31 320132.97l 63844.19 1860.96d 146.12 3832.25d 355.97 4270.33d 1015.53 710435.47n 17928.30 643070.63m 25830.17 263469.34h,i 116458.02 1453.92d 229.19 5822.20d 312.37 13538.27c,d 9311.73 1974.02d 136.86 3008.22d 82.61 686.99d 245.79 1514.46d 70.89 92278.49e,f 22065.95 70094.23a,e,f 10705.65 42986.31a,b,c,d 4640.94 543.49d 69.87 3649.81d 616.50 778.90d 39.66 18021.00b,c,d 12232.01 59416.55a,b,e,f 17638.32 53820.94a,b,c,e 10733.16 1219.28d 79.84 1226.34d 19.97 3048.15d 199.05 841.66d 181.16 2192.68d 74.65 1026.81d 20.75 2638.59d 86.89 244972.67h 5886.46 205158.40g 21898.69 196711.20g 16292.30 838.86d 43.68 675.16d 54.92 901.40d 50.33 35641.06a,b,c,d 4670.70 99478.68f 3618.80 89430.61a,b,e,f 5459.52 1928.46d 127.03 1938.11d 28.29 942.81d 21.01 1895.99d 110.50 2536.86d 13.33 2532.28d 117.69
0.37a,p,q,r,s 0.007 0.33a,l,m,n 0.002 0.38s 0.005 0.37a,p,q,r,s 0.007 0.38q,r,s 0.020 0.29h,i,l,m 0.010 0.36a,p,q,r,s 0.005 0.44t 0.004 0.60v 0.002 0.63v 0.018 0.48u 0.090 0.31i,l,m,n 0.002 0.47t,u 0.009 0.67z 0.02 0.43b,t 0.011 0.33a,m,n,p 0.001 0.28h,i 0.028 0.24e,f,g 0.004 0.23b,c,d,e,f 0.020 0.23b,c,d,e,f 0.009 0.20b,c,o 0.011 0.19b,o 0.004 0.33a,m,n,p,q 0.014 0.20b,c,d,o 0.000 0.18o 0.036 0.27f,g,h 0.010 0.19b,o 0.007 0.23c,d,e,f,g 0.013 0.23d,e,f,g 0.001 0.30h,i,l,m,n 0.012 0.20c,d,e,o 0.015 0.27g,h,i 0.003 0.23c,d,e,f,g 0.001 0.35a,p,q,r,s 0.002 0.36a,p,q,r,s 0.004 0.35a,p,q,r,s 0.006 0.38s 0.016 0.28h,i 0.013 0.28h,i 0.010 0.29h,i,l 0.007 0.18f,g,h 0.022 0.27h,i,l,m,n 0.006 0.19b,o 0.001 0.33a,l,m,n 0.067 0.34a,n,p,q,r 0.003 0.30h,i,l,m,n 0.002 0.37p,q,r,s 0.001 0.37q,r,s 0.001 0.38r,s 0.002
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
167
where EC [MPa] is the slope of the initial curve and tenacity is the area under the curve. As can be observed in the graph, the semolina sample presented a stress–strain curve with the greatest area under the curve and the lowest slope of the initial curve. For the amaranth tagliatelle samples, the addition of CMC 0.3% did not cause a considerable change in the stress–strain curve. In fact, the stress– strain curve of ACMC 0.3 was similar to that of ACTRL, whereas, the addition of 0.3% WPI to the amaranth tagliatelle slightly improved the curve trend. Other investigated additives did not have a behaviour substantially different with respect to that of WPI 0.3 and CMC 0.3.
Fig. 2. Curves of stress–strain of the SEMOLINA (-), ACTRL (A), ACMC 0.3 (C) and AWPI 0.3 (;) tagliatelle samples.
related to bread-making performance. In particular, doughs made from good quality flour have lower tan d values than doughs made from poor quality flour. While, G0 and G00 show a reverse tendency. 3.2. Static-mechanical properties Fig. 2 reports an example of stress–strain curves for the SEMOLINA, ACTRL and ACMC 0.3 and AWPI 0.3 tagliatelle samples,
3.2.1. Small deformations Fig. 3a–c illustrates the values of EC for amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle with additives, respectively. For the sake of comparison, in the same figure, the EC values of the ACTRL, QCTRL, OCTRL and SEMOLINA tagliatelle sample are also reported. As can be seen in Fig. 3a, the elastic modulus of amaranth tagliatelle does not change to a great extent with the three CMC concentrations used. It was also found that the elastic modulus of amaranth tagliatelle with added CMC do not differ significantly from the ACTRL. The same behaviour was also found for the PS amaranth tagliatelle. However, WPI brought about a statistically significant decrease in the tagliatelle elastic modulus as compared to the ACTRL. On the other hand, a statistically significant increase in the amaranth tagliatelle elastic modulus with chitosan concentration was measured. Moreover, the EC of amaranth tagliatelle added with chitosan at the chitosan concentrations of 0.2% and 0.3% was found to be
Fig. 3. (a) EC values of amaranth tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the ACTRL. (b) EC values of quinoa tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the QCTRL. (c) EC values of oat tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the OCTRL. Error bars present on graphs are the standard deviations of ten repetitions. The different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among the tagliatelle samples.
168
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
statistically equal to that of ACTRL. On the other hand, the tagliatelle sample with 0.1% of chitosan concentration had lower EC values of ACTRL. The elastic modulus of amaranth tagliatelle with added casein did not show any particular trend and it was found to be significantly inferior to that of the ACTRL at all casein concentrations investigated in this work. As can be highlighted in Fig. 3a, the tagliatelle containing additives showed EC values inferior or at most equal to those of ACTRL. In addition, all the tagliatelle samples with additives showed higher EC values with respect to those of the SEMOLINA tagliatelle, with the exception of ACHIT 0.1. The latter sample had an EC value statistically equal to that of the SEMOLINA sample. For the quinoa tagliatelle (Fig. 3b), a significant reduction in the EC values with increasing CMC concentration was measured. However, the elastic modulus of quinoa added with CMC was found to be statistically equal to that of QCTRL. The quinoa tagliatelle with added PS and casein presented EC values that rose with the additive concentrations. The increase of the WPI concentration did not lead to an increment of the EC values. It is worth noting that the tagliatelle samples with PS, casein and WPI had the EC values equal or inferior to those of QCTRL. For the chitosan, no particular trend was found. The other tagliatelle samples with different concentrations of chitosan showed EC values statistically equal to those of QCTRL. On the whole, the tagliatelle samples with additives showed EC values inferior or equal to those of QCTRL. Moreover, the tagliatelle samples with additives had superior EC values with respect to the SEMOLINA tagliatelle, with the exception of all QWP, QPS 5 and QCAS 0.1. These samples showed an EC value statistically equal to that of the SEMOLINA sample. For the oat tagliatelle (Fig. 3c), WPI, casein, 0.1%
and 0.2% of chitosan caused a decrease of the elastic modulus if compared to the OCTRL sample. In fact, the tagliatelle samples added with the above-mentioned additives showed EC values statistically inferior to those of OCTRL. The 0.3 OCHIT sample had an EC value equal to OCTRL. For the oat tagliatelle with PS and CMC, at the three concentrations studied in this work, the EC data did not show any particular trend. However, the elastic modulus of the oat tagliatelle with 0.1% and 0.3% of CMC was found to be equal to that of OCTRL. However, the 0.2% CMC concentration showed a significantly lower EC value if compared to OCTRL. As can be inferred from the data, all tagliatelle with additives showed EC values inferior to those of OCTRL, with the exception of 0.1 OCMC, 0.3 OCMC and 0.3 OCHIT, which had an EC value equal to that of OCTRL. Furthermore, the EC values of the oat tagliatelle samples containing additives were significantly superior to those of the SEMOLINA sample. 3.2.2. Large deformations The tenacities of the amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle with additives are shown in Fig. 4a–c, respectively. For the sake of comparison, in the figure the tenacity of the ACTRL, QCTRL, OCTRL and SEMOLINA tagliatelle samples is also shown. As can be seen in the data presented in Fig. 4a, the amaranth tagliatelle with addition of CMC, PS, WPI and casein showed no particular trend with increasing concentration. For chitosan, there was an increase of tenacity with increasing chitosan concentration. It is worth noting that the tenacity of amaranth tagliatelle with WPI was higher than that of the control and the difference was statistically significant. The tenacity of the tagliatelle samples with CMC, PS, CAS and CHIT,
Fig. 4. (a) Tenacity values of amaranth tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the ACTRL. (b) Tenacity values of quinoa tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the QCTRL. (c) Tenacity values of oat tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the OCTRL. Error bars present on graphs are the standard deviations of ten repetitions. The different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among the tagliatelle samples.
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
however, was statistically equal to that of ACTRL. In addition, the amaranth tagliatelle samples with additives showed lower tenacity values with respect to those of the SEMOLINA tagliatelle. The quinoa tagliatelle samples had tenacity values inferior to those of the SEMOLINA sample (Fig. 4b). Moreover, all quinoa tagliatelle had equal tenacity with respect to QCTRL. The tenacity of oat tagliatelle with added CMC, WPI, PS, CAS and CHIT (Fig. 4c) is not affected by the additive concentration. The oat tagliatelle samples with additives showed equal tenacity values with respect to those of OCTRL, whereas, the OPS 15 sample had a considerably lower tenacity value of OCTRL. From the data it is possible to state that the amaranth tagliatelle with added WPI showed the highest tenacity. The static-mechanical results suggest that the addition of additives to the fresh handmade pasta does not have the same effect in the dry pasta (Chillo et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2001; Sukhcharn et al., 2004). The above-mentioned authors found that gluten-free pasta containing additives (CMC, PS, Arabic gum and modified starch) showed good quality characteristics. This could be due to a number of factors such as shear stress, shear rate and temperature drying used to manufacture the dry pasta. Furthermore, shear stress and shear rate used in manufacturing the handmade tagliatelle do not allow the additives to develop a structure that generally improves the mechanical properties of pasta. In fact, it seems that with the shear rate and shear stress experienced in handmade tagliatelle manufacturing, most of the additives do not have a strong effect on mechanical properties. Besides, it is likely that the manufacturing conditions do not allow bond formation between the additives and the flour substances (protein and starch). Among the additives, WPI slightly improved the mechanical properties of the amaranth tagliatelle samples. WPI, most probably bonded to the amaranth components and shear rate and shear stress were sufficient to promote the bond formation for these additives. However, the shear rate and shear stress need to be increased in the next experiment in order to obtain the nonconventional tagliatelle samples with mechanical properties similar to the semolina tagliatelle. 4. Conclusions The investigated additives influenced the rheological and mechanical properties of amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle. A decrease of elastic modulus was observed in some tagliatelle samples containing additives. In particular, whey protein isolate reduced elastic modulus tending towards that of the semolina tagliatelle. Moreover, they caused a rise in tenacity of the amaranth tagliatelle, whereas, they did not have any effect on the quinoa and oat tagliatelle. On the other hand, it seems that the quinoa and oat doughs with pregelatinized starch showed similar rheological properties to those of the semolina dough. To sum up, this paper gives information to pasta manufacturers on the rheological and mechanical properties of non-conventional fresh handmade tagliatelle with additives. In future work, a study of pasta quality, such as mechanical and sensorial characteristics during cooking and overcooking, will be carried out. Acknowledgments This research work, which falls into the Strategic Project ‘Innovazione di processo nella produzione di paste funzionali’, was financially supported by the Apulia Region. References Agyare, K.K., Xiong, Y.L., Addo, K., Akoh, C.C., 2004. Dynamic rheological and thermal properties of soft wheat flour dough containing structured lipid. Journal of Food Science 69, 297–299.
169
Anon, M.C., 2002. Hydrocolloids improve shelf-life and moisture retention of shelfstable bagels. Food Technology 56, 50. Arbuckle, W.S., 1977. Ice Cream, third ed. The AVI Publishing Inc., Westport, CT, pp. 97–105. BeMiller, J., Whistler, R., 1996. Carbohydrates. In: Fennema (Ed.), Food Chemistry, third ed. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 157–223. Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P.M., Del Nobile, M.A., 2007. Effect of carboxymethylcellulose and pregelatinized corn starch on the quality of amaranthus spaghetti. Journal of Food Engineering 87, 492–500. Del Nobile, M.A., Chillo, S., Falcone, P.M., Laverse, J., Pati, S., Baiano, A., 2007. Textural changes of Canestrello Pugliese cheese measured during storage. Journal of Food Engineering 83, 621–628. Dreese, P.C., Faubion, J.M., Hoseney, R.C., 1988. Dynamic rheological properties of flour, gluten, and gluten-starch doughs. I. Temperature-dependent changes during heating. Cereal Chemistry 65, 348–353. Escudero, N.L., Albarracin, G., Ferna´ndez, S., De Arellano, L.M., Mucciarelli, S., 1999. Nutrient and anti-nutrient composition of Amaranthus muricatus. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 54, 327–336. Ferry, J.D., 1980. Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, third ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Gray, D.A., Auerbach, R.H., Hill, S., Wang, R., Campbell, G.M., Webb, C., 2000. Enrichment of oat antioxidant activity by dry milling and sieving. Journal of Cereal Science 32, 89–98. Gross, R., Koch, F., Malaga, I., De Miranda, A.F., Schoenberger, H., Trugo, L.C., 1989. Chemical composition and protein quality of some local Andean food sources. Food Chemistry 34, 25–34. Holt, C., 1997. The milk salts and their interaction with casein. In: Fox, P.F. (Ed.), Advanced Dairy Chemistry. Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 233–256. Huang, J., Knight, S., Goad, C., 2001. Model prediction for sensory attributes of nongluten pasta. Journal of Food Quality 24, 495–511. Janssen, A.M., van Vliet, T., Vereijken, J.M., 1996. Fundamental and empirical rheological behaviour of wheat flour doughs and comparison with bread making performance. Journal of Cereal Science 23, 43–54. Kasarda, D.D., 2001. Grain in relation to celiac disease. Cereal Foods World 46, 209–210. Kenny, S., Wehrle, K., Auty, M., Arendt, E.K., 2001. Influence of sodium caseinate and whey protein on baking properties and rheology of frozen dough. Cereal Chemistry 78, 458–463. Kent, N.L., Evers, A.D., 1994. Technology of Cereals, fourth ed. Elsevier Science, Oxford. Koziol, M.J., 1990a. Afrosimetric estimation of threshold saponin concentration for bitterness in quinoa. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 54, 211–219. Koziol, M.J., 1990b. Composicion quimica. In: Wahli, C. (Ed.), Quinua, hacia su cultivo commercial. Latinreco S.A., Casilla 17-110-6053, Quito, Equador, pp. 137–159. Koziol, M.J., 1992. Chemical composition and nutritional evaluation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Journal of Food and Computational Analysis 5, 35–68. Mancini, M., Moresi, M., Rancini, R., 1999. Mechanical properties of alginate gels: empirical characterization. Journal of Food Engineering 39, 369–378. Mannie, E., Asp, E.H., 1989. Dairy ingredients in baking. Cereal Foods World 44, 143–146. Marconi, E., Carcea, M., 2001. Pasta from nontraditional materials. Cereal Foods World 46, 522–530. Miller, K.A., Hoseney, R.C., 1999. Dynamic rheological properties of wheat starch– gluten doughs. Cereal Chemistry 76, 105–109. Moore, C., Tuschhoff, J., Hastings, C., Schanefelt, R., 1984. Applications of starches in foods. In: Whistler, R., BeMiller, J., Paschall, E. (Eds.), Starch: Chemistry and Technology, third ed. Academic Press, New York, pp. 575–592. Peterson, D.M., Emmons, C.L., Hibbs, A.H., 2001. Phenolic antioxidants and antioxidant activity in pearling fractions of oat groats. Journal of Cereal Science 33 (1), 97–103. Risi, J., Galwey, N.W., 1984. The Chenopodium grains of the Andes: Inca crops for modern agriculture. Advances in Applied Biology 10, 145–216. Rao, M.A., Steffe, J.F., 1992. Viscoelastic Properties of Foods. Elsevier Applied Science, New York, NY, USA. Sekiguchi, S., Miura, Y., Kaneko, H., Nishimura, S.I., Nishi, N., Iwase, M., Tokura, S., 1994. Molecular weight dependency of antimicrobial activity by chitosan oligomers. In: Nishinari, K., Doi, E. (Eds.), Food Hydrocolloids: Structures, Properties, and Functions. Plenum, New York, pp. 71–76. Shiau, S.-Y., Yeh, A.-I., 2001. Effects of alkali and acid on dough rheological properties and characteristics of extruded noodles. Journal of Cereal Science 33, 27–37. Sinha, R., Radha, C., Prakash, J., Kaul, P., 2007. Whey protein hydrolysate: functional properties, nutritional quality and utilization in beverage formulation. Food Chemistry 101, 1484–1491. Song, Y., Zheng, Q., 2007. Dynamic rheological properties of wheat flour dough and proteins. Trends in Food Science and Technology 18, 132–138. Subramanian, R., Gunasekaran, S., 1997. Small amplitude oscillatory shear studies on Mozzarella cheese. Part I. Region of linear viscoelasticity. Journal of Texture Studies 28, 633–642. Sudarshan, N.R., Hoover, D.G., Knorr, D., 1992. Antibacterial action of chitosan. Food Biotechnology 6, 257–272. Sugano, M., Yoshida, K., Hashimoto, M., Enomoto, K., Hirano, S., 1992. Hypocholesterolemic activity of partially hydrolyzed chitosan in rats. In: Brine, C.J., Sandford, P.A., Zikakis, J.P. (Eds.), Advances in Chitin and Chitosan. Elsevier, London, pp. 472–478. Sukhcharn, S., Charanjit, S.R., Amrinder, S.B., Dharmesh, C.S., 2004. Sweet potatobased pasta product: optimization of ingredient levels using response surface
170
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
methodology. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 39, 191–200. Tokoro, A., Tatewaki, N., Suzuki, K., Mikami, T., Suzuki, S., Suzuki, M., 1988. Growthinhibitory effect of hexa-N-acetylchitohexaose and chitohexaose against MethA solid tumor. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 36, 784–790. Tosi, E.A., Re´, E.D., Masciarelli, R., Sanchez, H., Osella, C., de la Torre, M.A., 2002. Whole and defatted hyperproteic amaranth flours tested as wheat flour supplementation in mold breads. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie 35, 472–475.
Wood, S.G., Lawson, L.D., Fairbanks, D.J., Robison, L.R., Andersen, W.R., 1993. Seed lipid content and fatty acid composition of three quinoa cultivars. Journal of Food and Computational Analysis 6, 41–44. Ylimaki, G., Hawrysh, Z.J., Hardin, R.T., Thomson, A.B.R., 1991. Response surface methodology to the development of rice flour yeast breads: sensory measurements. Journal of Food Science 56, 751–759. Zecher, D., Van Collie, R., 1992. Cellulose derivatives. In: Imeson, A. (Ed.), Thickening and Gelling Agents for Food. Chapman & Hall, Glasgow, pp. 40–66.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cereal Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcs
Effects of additives on the rheological and mechanical properties of non-conventional fresh handmade tagliatelle S. Chillo b, N. Suriano a, C. Lamacchia a, b, M.A. Del Nobile a, b, * a b
Department of Food Science, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy `, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy Istituto per la Ricerca e le Applicazioni Biotecnologiche per la Sicurezza e la Valorizzazione dei Prodotti Tipici e di Qualita
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 18 December 2007 Received in revised form 25 July 2008 Accepted 5 September 2008
The effects of the following additives on the amaranth (A), quinoa (Q) and oat (O) dough rheological properties and the extruded tagliatelle dough mechanical characteristics were evaluated: carboxymethylcellulose of sodium (CMC), whey protein isolate (WPI), casein (CAS), chitosan (CHIT) and pregelatinized starch (PS). The amaranth, quinoa and oat rheological dough properties and amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle mechanical characteristics were compared to those of their respective controls (ACTRL, QCTRL and OCTRL) and of the SEMOLINA sample. The storage modulus (G0 ) and loss modulus (G00 ) values of the quinoa and oat doughs with PS were similar to those of the semolina dough. For all tagliatelle samples, WPI reduced the elastic modulus or Young’s modulus towards that of the semolina tagliatelle. Moreover, the additives did not have particular influence on the tenacity with the exception of the amaranth tagliatelle added with WPI. Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fresh handmade pasta Additives Rheological characteristics Mechanical properties
1. Introduction Fresh handmade pasta is a widespread product in Italy. It is made from durum wheat semolina and water. However, grains different from durum wheat can be used in the production of particular types of fresh handmade pasta with healthy characteristics or directed to specific targets, such as those following a celiac diet (Kasarda, 2001). Despite the increasing demand for this pasta, to the authors’ knowledge, no research has been done on fresh handmade pasta for people following particular types of diet, such as those. Among alternative grains, amaranth has attracted much interest. In fact, amaranth has a protein content of 18% (Tosi et al., 2002) is recognized as a lysine rich high-protein grain and contains calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorous, vitamins and dietary fibre (Escudero et al., 1999). Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal with a highprotein content (14–16%) (Koziol, 1990a, 1992) and, in particular, the amino acid composition of the seed protein is rich in histidine and lysine, and is close to the ideal protein balance recommended by FAO (Gross et al., 1989). Quinoa has a relatively high quantity of vitamins and minerals, iron and calcium (Risi and Galwey, 1984); moreover, lipids present in the quinoa seeds appear to have a high quality of edible vegetable oil, similar in fatty-acid composition to
* Corresponding author. Department of Food Science, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71100 Foggia, Italy. Tel.: þ39 881 589 242; fax: þ39 881 740 242. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A. Del Nobile). 0733-5210/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2008.09.002
soybean oil (Wood et al., 1993) and are particularly rich in linoleate and linolenate (Koziol, 1990b). Oat has recently attracted research and commercial attention mainly due to its high content of b-glucan and compounds with antioxidant activity (Gray et al., 2000; Peterson et al., 2001). Oat contains 70% carbohydrates, 15% proteins and 15% fat. Moreover, it has a high content of mineral salts, in particular, iron and calcium. It is also a good source of dietary fibre, thiamine, phosphorus, selenium and manganese. To obtain pasta of good quality from new meals it is often necessary to modify the traditional manufacture process (Kent and Evers, 1994). In particular, the additive use and/or an adequate technological production process have to be adopted to counteract any changes in the rheological properties (Marconi and Carcea, 2001). Significant studies have been carried out on gluten-free products involving diverse approaches which have included the use of additives such as starches, hydrocolloids, dairy products, gums and other non-gluten proteins, prebiotics and combinations, as alternatives to gluten, to improve the structure, texture, acceptability and shelf-life of gluten-free products (Anon, 2002; Kenny et al., 2001; Mannie and Asp, 1989; Ylimaki et al., 1991). Some interesting possibilities are chitosan, a natural non-toxic biopolymer derived by deacetylation of chitin and a major component of the shells of crustacea such as crab, shrimp, and crawfish. Chitosan has attracted considerable interest due to its biological activities; that is, antimicrobial (Sekiguchi et al., 1994; Sudarshan et al., 1992), antitumoral (Tokoro et al., 1988), and hypocholesterolemic functions (Sugano et al., 1992). Whey proteins are used for a variety of functional applications in the food industry.
164
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
They have a superior biological value to most other proteins and they also have a high content of sulphur-containing amino acids which support antioxidant functions (Sinha et al., 2007). Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is a derivative of cellulose which is widely used to modify viscosity of various food products such as dairy products, frozen desserts, jellies, cake mixes and salad dressings. Its chemical and physical properties have been studied in a great deal (Arbuckle, 1977; Zecher and Van Collie, 1992). Casein is the main proteinaceous component of milk, where it accounts for about 80% of the total protein inventory. However, the dominant physiological feature of the casein micelle system has more recently been proven to be the prevention of pathological calcification of the mammary gland (Holt, 1997). The pregelatinized starch is composed of small gel particles, that when dissolved, yield solutions of high viscosity (BeMiller and Whistler, 1996). Many foods utilize pregelatinized starch to provide texture at room and refrigerated temperatures, among these are instant puddings, gravy mixes, pie fillings and glazes (Moore et al., 1984). Rheological and mechanical characterisation of non-conventional dough pasta is important in predicting the processing behaviour and in controlling the quality of fresh pasta products. Dynamic rheological and static-mechanical tests are good ways of fundamentally studying the changes in product characteristics due to processing or formulations. Moreover, the dough components (starch, protein and additives) and their interactions play an important role in conformational structure as well as rheological properties (Shiau and Yeh, 2001). The aim of this work is to study the rheological characteristics of tagliatelle doughs and static and dynamic-mechanical properties of the extruded tagliatelle dough produced with non-conventional meals (amaranth, quinoa and oat) with additives. 2. Materials and methods
prepare samples and the tagliatelle typologies obtained are reported in Table 1. The kneading time was 15 min. Forty-five kinds of tagliatelle were produced and compared with both their respective controls (CTRL), made only of tap water and non-conventional flour without additives and standard semolina dough. The tagliatelle samples were made and immediately tested. 2.5. Dynamic-mechanical properties Dynamic-mechanical properties for each tagliatelle dough were investigated by means of a controlled-strain rotational rheometer (ARES model, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA) equipped with a force rebalance transducer (model 1K-FRTN1, 1–1000 g cm, 200 rad/s, 2–2000 gmf) and parallel plates (superior plate diameter of 25 mm). A steady temperature was ensured with an accuracy of 0.1 C by means of a controlled fluid bath unit and an external thermostatic bath. Three repetitions of the dynamicmechanical experiment were performed on each sample. The experiments were carried out at 25 C. In order to prevent water evaporation, a suitable cover tool sealing the top of the superior plate was used during testing. G0 (storage modulus), G00 (loss modulus) and tan d (G00 /G0 ) were measured in a frequency range of 0.05–10 Hz. Storage modulus is a measure of the energy stored and recovered per cycle, whereas the loss modulus is a measure of the energy dissipated or lost as heat per cycle of sinusoidal deformation (Ferry, 1980). tan d is a parameter which describes viscoelastic behaviour of a material. It is dimensionless and gives a clear indication of whether the material behaves as solid-like or liquid-like. The strain value was obtained by preliminary strain sweep oscillatory trials to determine the linear viscoelastic region. In order to compare the G0 , G00 and tan d values, among the investigated tagliatelle doughs, an oscillatory frequency of 3 Hz was chosen as the reference.
2.1. Materials 2.6. Static-mechanical properties The amaranth, quinoa, oat flours and semolina were bought from Bongiovanni Mill (Mondovı`, Cuneo, Italy). Carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt with 1500–4500 mPa s for a 1% aqueous solution at 25 C, the casein sodium salt from bovine milk and the chitosan were bought from Fluka Chemie (GmbH, Deisenhofen, Germany). WPI (97.9% protein, 0.3% fat, 1.7% ash, 4.8% moisture and pH ¼ 6.8) was purchased from BiPRO (Davisco Foods International, Le Sueur, MN, USA). 2.2. Preparation of additive solutions The prepared additive solutions and their compositions are reported in Table 1. The additives were added to water. The solutions were heated on a hotplate at 50 C, until the solutions were homogenised. Afterwards, these were added to the flour to prepare the tagliatelle doughs. 2.3. Preparation of pregelatinized starch To obtain the pregelatinized starch, water with a percentage of flour (Table 1) was heated at 80 C. Afterwards, the pregelatinized starch, cooled at about 40 C, was added to the flour to prepare the tagliatelle doughs. 2.4. Preparation of tagliatelle The tagliatelle samples were prepared with a fresh pasta maker (Pastamatic, Simac 1400N, Treviso, Italy) equipped with a bronze head. The percentage weight fraction of raw materials used to
A tagliatelle strand (length 25 mm) was used to determine the elastic modulus in tension (EC). The sample was submitted to stress–strain tests using a Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA-Q 800, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA). One end of the strand was attached to a superior mobile clamp and the other end attached to a lower fixed clamp. Tests were carried out at room temperature, with a preload of 103 N and a force ramp of 0.1 N/ min. Ten repetitions were carried out for each sample. The elastic modulus was evaluated from the initial slope of the stress–strain curve using the following exponential equation (Del Nobile et al., 2007):
sT ¼ EC $3T $expð3T $KÞ
(1)
where 3T and sT are the true strain and the true stress, respectively, calculated according to Mancini et al. (1999); EC is the elastic modulus (i.e., the tangent to the stress strain curve at the origin); K is a constant value, regarded as a fitting parameter. The measure of tenacity of tagliatelle samples was obtained by numerical integration of the area under the stress–strain curve. 2.7. Statistical analysis The results were compared by a one-way variance analysis (ANOVA). A Duncan’s multiple range test, with the option of homogeneous groups (p < 0.05), was carried out to determine significant differences between tagliatelle samples. STATISTICA 7.1 for Windows (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA) was used for this purpose.
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
165
Table 1 Formulations used in the preparation of the different tagliatelle typologies. Tagliatelle samples
CMCa (%)
WPIb (%)
PSc (%)
Caseind (%)
Chitosane (%)
Amaranthf (%)
Quinoag (%)
Oath (%)
Wateri (%)
ACMC 0.1 ACMC 0.2 ACMC 0.3 AWPI 0.1 AWPI 0.2 AWPI 0.3 APS 5 APS 10 APS 15 ACAS 0.1 ACAS 0.2 ACAS 0.3 ACHIT 0.1 ACHIT 0.2 ACHIT 0.3 QCMC 0.1 QCMC 0.2 QCMC 0.3 QWPI 0.1 QWPI 0.2 QWPI 0.3 QPS 5 QPS 10 QPS 15 QCAS 0.1 QCAS 0.2 QCAS 0.3 QCHIT 0.1 QCHIT 0.2 QCHIT 0.3 OCMC 0.1 OCMC 0.2 OCMC 0.3 OWPI 0.1 OWPI 0.2 OWPI 0.3 OPS 5 OPS 10 OPS 15 OCAS 0.1 OCAS 0.2 OCAS 0.3 OCHIT 0.1 OCHIT 0.2 OCHIT 0.3
0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – 5 10 15 – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 10 15 – – – – – – – – – – – – 5 10 15 – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.1 0.2 0.3
69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
a b c d e f g h i
69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.9 69.8 69.7 69.7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Carboxymethylcellulose of sodium (% w/w dough basis). Whey protein isolate (% w/w dough basis). Pregelatinized starch (% w/w flour basis). Casein (% w/w dough basis). Chitosan (% w/w dough basis). Amaranth (% w/w dough basis). Quinoa (% w/w dough basis). Oat (% w/w dough basis). % w/w dough basis.
3. Results and discussion Dynamic-mechanical characterisation of fresh handmade tagliatelle doughs added with additives and the mechanical characterisation of the extruded tagliatelle were carried out by studying both the dynamic-mechanical properties by means of a rotational rheometer and the static-mechanical properties at small and large deformations by means of a DMA. In the following paragraphs, the above topics are discussed. 3.1. Dough rheological properties An example of the frequency sweep oscillatory curves for the SEMOLINA, OCTRL and OPS 5 are shown in Fig. 1. The curves were qualitatively similar for all dough samples. As can be seen in this figure, both G0 and G00 values of the dough samples were dependent
on frequency, indicating a viscoelastic behaviour of the food matrix. Moreover, the trends of G0 and G00 for the dough samples were similar. It can be inferred from Fig. 1 that the G0 values for the SEMOLINA, OCTRL and OPS 5 samples are larger than the G00 values. This is typical of a viscoelastic solid (Rao and Steffe, 1992) which presents a dominant contribution of the elastic component to the viscoelasticity (Subramanian and Gunasekaran, 1997). Moreover, the figure showed that all the dough formulations gave higher values of G0 and G00 at higher frequencies compared with low frequencies (Fig. 1). Dreese et al. (1988) and Agyare et al. (2004) reported a similar trend for flour dough with G0 and G00 increasing with frequency. In Table 2 the G0 , G00 and tan d values of the doughs at an oscillatory frequency of 3 Hz are reported. The G0 and G00 values of the amaranth doughs with PS and CMC were higher than those of the ACTRL dough, SEMOLINA sample and dough samples with other additives. The quinoa and oat doughs with the addition of PS and
166
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
Fig. 1. G0 (closed symbol) and G00 (open symbol) values as a function of oscillatory frequency for the dough samples: the SEMOLINA (- and ,), OCTRL (A and >) and OPS 5 (C and B).
CMC had higher G0 and G00 values than those of the respective controls and doughs with other additives. Moreover, the G0 values of QPS 5, QPS 10, OPS 5 and OPS 15 were statistically equal to those of the SEMOLINA dough sample. The G00 values of the QCMC, QPS 10, QPS 15 and all OPS dough samples were significantly equal with respect to the SEMOLINA dough. On the whole, the quinoa and oat doughs with PS had equal G0 and G00 values with respect to those of the semolina dough. As reported in Table 2, the tan d values for the dough samples varied from 0.18 to 0.63. ACTRL and OCTRL showed tan d equal (p < 0.05) to that of the SEMOLINA dough. QCTRL had a tan d value inferior to that of the SEMOLINA sample. In addition, chitosan, CMC and casein did not influence tan d for the oat dough. CMC did not affect tan d of the amaranth dough, along with 0.2% WPI and 0.2% chitosan. For the quinoa dough, only QWPI 0.2 had tan d equal to that of the SEMOLINA dough. The rheological test, carried out in the linear region, has been used to follow the structure and properties of doughs and to study the dough ingredients (Janssen et al., 1996; Miller and Hoseney, 1999). Song and Zheng (2007) stated that G0 , G00 and tan d can be
Table 2 G0 , G00 and tan d values of the dough samples at a frequency of 3 Hz. Tagliatelle samples SEMOLINA ACTRL ACMC 0.1 ACMC 0.2 ACMC 0.3 AWPI 0.1 AWPI 0.2 AWPI 0.3 APS 5 APS 10 APS 15 ACAS 0.1 ACAS 0.2 ACAS 0.3 ACHIT 0.1 ACHIT 0.2 ACHIT 0.3 QCTRL QCMC 0.1 QCMC 0.2 QCMC 0.3 QWPI 0.1 QWPI 0.2 QWPI 0.3 QPS 5 QPS 10 QPS 15 QCAS 0.1 QCAS 0.2 QCAS 0.3 QCHIT 0.1 QCHIT 0.2 QCHIT 0.3 OCTRL OCMC 0.1 OCMC 0.2 OCMC 0.3 OWPI 0.1 OWPI 0.2 OWPI 0.3 OPS 5 OPS 10 OPS 15 OCAS 0.1 OCAS 0.2 OCAS 0.3 OCHIT 0.1 OCHIT 0.2 OCHIT 0.3
G0 (Pa) a,c,d
170275.30 16025.95 9259.51b 104.91 l 785898.37 13821.64 906398.72m 44285.31 845067.22m 63844.19 6350.16b 146.12 10504.58b 355.97 9763.50b 1015.53 1191128.05o 4670.70 1027717.96n 3618.80 543963.54h 5459.52 4696.85b 229.19 12451.27b 312.37 20248.51b 9311.73 4571.58b 136.86 9100.38b 82.61 2422.13b 245.79 6317.63b 178.02 407773.54g 60466.18 308818.42f 34984.48 220355.97d,e 10440.04 2855.41b 303.15 10953.32b 1362.13 3981.33b 197.03 101768.20a 86685.55 222947.80d,e 59058.15 282880.36e,f 45125.83 5259.97b 39.01 5272.64b 110.61 10049.79b 251.36 4159.31b 582.29 8164.74b 158.34 4442.39b 119.85 7476.87b 183.30 676868.31i 7523.70 581631.52h 57450.86 517413.73h 20579.66 2996.50b 16.23 2379.22b 102.89 3140.65b 94.08 134565.36a,c 6358.29 328293.86f 18828.06 304453.81c,d 16906.17 5884.60b 296.26 5760.49b 149.31 3167.52b 99.76 5127.51b 317.40 6799.96b 17.18 6720.65b 266.26
Mean in the same column followed by different superscript letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
G00 (Pa)
tan d
63121.64a,e,f 5965.38 3024.69d 56.17 300264.76i,l 13821.64 331175.44l 44285.31 320132.97l 63844.19 1860.96d 146.12 3832.25d 355.97 4270.33d 1015.53 710435.47n 17928.30 643070.63m 25830.17 263469.34h,i 116458.02 1453.92d 229.19 5822.20d 312.37 13538.27c,d 9311.73 1974.02d 136.86 3008.22d 82.61 686.99d 245.79 1514.46d 70.89 92278.49e,f 22065.95 70094.23a,e,f 10705.65 42986.31a,b,c,d 4640.94 543.49d 69.87 3649.81d 616.50 778.90d 39.66 18021.00b,c,d 12232.01 59416.55a,b,e,f 17638.32 53820.94a,b,c,e 10733.16 1219.28d 79.84 1226.34d 19.97 3048.15d 199.05 841.66d 181.16 2192.68d 74.65 1026.81d 20.75 2638.59d 86.89 244972.67h 5886.46 205158.40g 21898.69 196711.20g 16292.30 838.86d 43.68 675.16d 54.92 901.40d 50.33 35641.06a,b,c,d 4670.70 99478.68f 3618.80 89430.61a,b,e,f 5459.52 1928.46d 127.03 1938.11d 28.29 942.81d 21.01 1895.99d 110.50 2536.86d 13.33 2532.28d 117.69
0.37a,p,q,r,s 0.007 0.33a,l,m,n 0.002 0.38s 0.005 0.37a,p,q,r,s 0.007 0.38q,r,s 0.020 0.29h,i,l,m 0.010 0.36a,p,q,r,s 0.005 0.44t 0.004 0.60v 0.002 0.63v 0.018 0.48u 0.090 0.31i,l,m,n 0.002 0.47t,u 0.009 0.67z 0.02 0.43b,t 0.011 0.33a,m,n,p 0.001 0.28h,i 0.028 0.24e,f,g 0.004 0.23b,c,d,e,f 0.020 0.23b,c,d,e,f 0.009 0.20b,c,o 0.011 0.19b,o 0.004 0.33a,m,n,p,q 0.014 0.20b,c,d,o 0.000 0.18o 0.036 0.27f,g,h 0.010 0.19b,o 0.007 0.23c,d,e,f,g 0.013 0.23d,e,f,g 0.001 0.30h,i,l,m,n 0.012 0.20c,d,e,o 0.015 0.27g,h,i 0.003 0.23c,d,e,f,g 0.001 0.35a,p,q,r,s 0.002 0.36a,p,q,r,s 0.004 0.35a,p,q,r,s 0.006 0.38s 0.016 0.28h,i 0.013 0.28h,i 0.010 0.29h,i,l 0.007 0.18f,g,h 0.022 0.27h,i,l,m,n 0.006 0.19b,o 0.001 0.33a,l,m,n 0.067 0.34a,n,p,q,r 0.003 0.30h,i,l,m,n 0.002 0.37p,q,r,s 0.001 0.37q,r,s 0.001 0.38r,s 0.002
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
167
where EC [MPa] is the slope of the initial curve and tenacity is the area under the curve. As can be observed in the graph, the semolina sample presented a stress–strain curve with the greatest area under the curve and the lowest slope of the initial curve. For the amaranth tagliatelle samples, the addition of CMC 0.3% did not cause a considerable change in the stress–strain curve. In fact, the stress– strain curve of ACMC 0.3 was similar to that of ACTRL, whereas, the addition of 0.3% WPI to the amaranth tagliatelle slightly improved the curve trend. Other investigated additives did not have a behaviour substantially different with respect to that of WPI 0.3 and CMC 0.3.
Fig. 2. Curves of stress–strain of the SEMOLINA (-), ACTRL (A), ACMC 0.3 (C) and AWPI 0.3 (;) tagliatelle samples.
related to bread-making performance. In particular, doughs made from good quality flour have lower tan d values than doughs made from poor quality flour. While, G0 and G00 show a reverse tendency. 3.2. Static-mechanical properties Fig. 2 reports an example of stress–strain curves for the SEMOLINA, ACTRL and ACMC 0.3 and AWPI 0.3 tagliatelle samples,
3.2.1. Small deformations Fig. 3a–c illustrates the values of EC for amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle with additives, respectively. For the sake of comparison, in the same figure, the EC values of the ACTRL, QCTRL, OCTRL and SEMOLINA tagliatelle sample are also reported. As can be seen in Fig. 3a, the elastic modulus of amaranth tagliatelle does not change to a great extent with the three CMC concentrations used. It was also found that the elastic modulus of amaranth tagliatelle with added CMC do not differ significantly from the ACTRL. The same behaviour was also found for the PS amaranth tagliatelle. However, WPI brought about a statistically significant decrease in the tagliatelle elastic modulus as compared to the ACTRL. On the other hand, a statistically significant increase in the amaranth tagliatelle elastic modulus with chitosan concentration was measured. Moreover, the EC of amaranth tagliatelle added with chitosan at the chitosan concentrations of 0.2% and 0.3% was found to be
Fig. 3. (a) EC values of amaranth tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the ACTRL. (b) EC values of quinoa tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the QCTRL. (c) EC values of oat tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the OCTRL. Error bars present on graphs are the standard deviations of ten repetitions. The different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among the tagliatelle samples.
168
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
statistically equal to that of ACTRL. On the other hand, the tagliatelle sample with 0.1% of chitosan concentration had lower EC values of ACTRL. The elastic modulus of amaranth tagliatelle with added casein did not show any particular trend and it was found to be significantly inferior to that of the ACTRL at all casein concentrations investigated in this work. As can be highlighted in Fig. 3a, the tagliatelle containing additives showed EC values inferior or at most equal to those of ACTRL. In addition, all the tagliatelle samples with additives showed higher EC values with respect to those of the SEMOLINA tagliatelle, with the exception of ACHIT 0.1. The latter sample had an EC value statistically equal to that of the SEMOLINA sample. For the quinoa tagliatelle (Fig. 3b), a significant reduction in the EC values with increasing CMC concentration was measured. However, the elastic modulus of quinoa added with CMC was found to be statistically equal to that of QCTRL. The quinoa tagliatelle with added PS and casein presented EC values that rose with the additive concentrations. The increase of the WPI concentration did not lead to an increment of the EC values. It is worth noting that the tagliatelle samples with PS, casein and WPI had the EC values equal or inferior to those of QCTRL. For the chitosan, no particular trend was found. The other tagliatelle samples with different concentrations of chitosan showed EC values statistically equal to those of QCTRL. On the whole, the tagliatelle samples with additives showed EC values inferior or equal to those of QCTRL. Moreover, the tagliatelle samples with additives had superior EC values with respect to the SEMOLINA tagliatelle, with the exception of all QWP, QPS 5 and QCAS 0.1. These samples showed an EC value statistically equal to that of the SEMOLINA sample. For the oat tagliatelle (Fig. 3c), WPI, casein, 0.1%
and 0.2% of chitosan caused a decrease of the elastic modulus if compared to the OCTRL sample. In fact, the tagliatelle samples added with the above-mentioned additives showed EC values statistically inferior to those of OCTRL. The 0.3 OCHIT sample had an EC value equal to OCTRL. For the oat tagliatelle with PS and CMC, at the three concentrations studied in this work, the EC data did not show any particular trend. However, the elastic modulus of the oat tagliatelle with 0.1% and 0.3% of CMC was found to be equal to that of OCTRL. However, the 0.2% CMC concentration showed a significantly lower EC value if compared to OCTRL. As can be inferred from the data, all tagliatelle with additives showed EC values inferior to those of OCTRL, with the exception of 0.1 OCMC, 0.3 OCMC and 0.3 OCHIT, which had an EC value equal to that of OCTRL. Furthermore, the EC values of the oat tagliatelle samples containing additives were significantly superior to those of the SEMOLINA sample. 3.2.2. Large deformations The tenacities of the amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle with additives are shown in Fig. 4a–c, respectively. For the sake of comparison, in the figure the tenacity of the ACTRL, QCTRL, OCTRL and SEMOLINA tagliatelle samples is also shown. As can be seen in the data presented in Fig. 4a, the amaranth tagliatelle with addition of CMC, PS, WPI and casein showed no particular trend with increasing concentration. For chitosan, there was an increase of tenacity with increasing chitosan concentration. It is worth noting that the tenacity of amaranth tagliatelle with WPI was higher than that of the control and the difference was statistically significant. The tenacity of the tagliatelle samples with CMC, PS, CAS and CHIT,
Fig. 4. (a) Tenacity values of amaranth tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the ACTRL. (b) Tenacity values of quinoa tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the QCTRL. (c) Tenacity values of oat tagliatelle loaded with additives compared to the OCTRL. Error bars present on graphs are the standard deviations of ten repetitions. The different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among the tagliatelle samples.
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
however, was statistically equal to that of ACTRL. In addition, the amaranth tagliatelle samples with additives showed lower tenacity values with respect to those of the SEMOLINA tagliatelle. The quinoa tagliatelle samples had tenacity values inferior to those of the SEMOLINA sample (Fig. 4b). Moreover, all quinoa tagliatelle had equal tenacity with respect to QCTRL. The tenacity of oat tagliatelle with added CMC, WPI, PS, CAS and CHIT (Fig. 4c) is not affected by the additive concentration. The oat tagliatelle samples with additives showed equal tenacity values with respect to those of OCTRL, whereas, the OPS 15 sample had a considerably lower tenacity value of OCTRL. From the data it is possible to state that the amaranth tagliatelle with added WPI showed the highest tenacity. The static-mechanical results suggest that the addition of additives to the fresh handmade pasta does not have the same effect in the dry pasta (Chillo et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2001; Sukhcharn et al., 2004). The above-mentioned authors found that gluten-free pasta containing additives (CMC, PS, Arabic gum and modified starch) showed good quality characteristics. This could be due to a number of factors such as shear stress, shear rate and temperature drying used to manufacture the dry pasta. Furthermore, shear stress and shear rate used in manufacturing the handmade tagliatelle do not allow the additives to develop a structure that generally improves the mechanical properties of pasta. In fact, it seems that with the shear rate and shear stress experienced in handmade tagliatelle manufacturing, most of the additives do not have a strong effect on mechanical properties. Besides, it is likely that the manufacturing conditions do not allow bond formation between the additives and the flour substances (protein and starch). Among the additives, WPI slightly improved the mechanical properties of the amaranth tagliatelle samples. WPI, most probably bonded to the amaranth components and shear rate and shear stress were sufficient to promote the bond formation for these additives. However, the shear rate and shear stress need to be increased in the next experiment in order to obtain the nonconventional tagliatelle samples with mechanical properties similar to the semolina tagliatelle. 4. Conclusions The investigated additives influenced the rheological and mechanical properties of amaranth, quinoa and oat tagliatelle. A decrease of elastic modulus was observed in some tagliatelle samples containing additives. In particular, whey protein isolate reduced elastic modulus tending towards that of the semolina tagliatelle. Moreover, they caused a rise in tenacity of the amaranth tagliatelle, whereas, they did not have any effect on the quinoa and oat tagliatelle. On the other hand, it seems that the quinoa and oat doughs with pregelatinized starch showed similar rheological properties to those of the semolina dough. To sum up, this paper gives information to pasta manufacturers on the rheological and mechanical properties of non-conventional fresh handmade tagliatelle with additives. In future work, a study of pasta quality, such as mechanical and sensorial characteristics during cooking and overcooking, will be carried out. Acknowledgments This research work, which falls into the Strategic Project ‘Innovazione di processo nella produzione di paste funzionali’, was financially supported by the Apulia Region. References Agyare, K.K., Xiong, Y.L., Addo, K., Akoh, C.C., 2004. Dynamic rheological and thermal properties of soft wheat flour dough containing structured lipid. Journal of Food Science 69, 297–299.
169
Anon, M.C., 2002. Hydrocolloids improve shelf-life and moisture retention of shelfstable bagels. Food Technology 56, 50. Arbuckle, W.S., 1977. Ice Cream, third ed. The AVI Publishing Inc., Westport, CT, pp. 97–105. BeMiller, J., Whistler, R., 1996. Carbohydrates. In: Fennema (Ed.), Food Chemistry, third ed. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 157–223. Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P.M., Del Nobile, M.A., 2007. Effect of carboxymethylcellulose and pregelatinized corn starch on the quality of amaranthus spaghetti. Journal of Food Engineering 87, 492–500. Del Nobile, M.A., Chillo, S., Falcone, P.M., Laverse, J., Pati, S., Baiano, A., 2007. Textural changes of Canestrello Pugliese cheese measured during storage. Journal of Food Engineering 83, 621–628. Dreese, P.C., Faubion, J.M., Hoseney, R.C., 1988. Dynamic rheological properties of flour, gluten, and gluten-starch doughs. I. Temperature-dependent changes during heating. Cereal Chemistry 65, 348–353. Escudero, N.L., Albarracin, G., Ferna´ndez, S., De Arellano, L.M., Mucciarelli, S., 1999. Nutrient and anti-nutrient composition of Amaranthus muricatus. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 54, 327–336. Ferry, J.D., 1980. Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, third ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Gray, D.A., Auerbach, R.H., Hill, S., Wang, R., Campbell, G.M., Webb, C., 2000. Enrichment of oat antioxidant activity by dry milling and sieving. Journal of Cereal Science 32, 89–98. Gross, R., Koch, F., Malaga, I., De Miranda, A.F., Schoenberger, H., Trugo, L.C., 1989. Chemical composition and protein quality of some local Andean food sources. Food Chemistry 34, 25–34. Holt, C., 1997. The milk salts and their interaction with casein. In: Fox, P.F. (Ed.), Advanced Dairy Chemistry. Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 233–256. Huang, J., Knight, S., Goad, C., 2001. Model prediction for sensory attributes of nongluten pasta. Journal of Food Quality 24, 495–511. Janssen, A.M., van Vliet, T., Vereijken, J.M., 1996. Fundamental and empirical rheological behaviour of wheat flour doughs and comparison with bread making performance. Journal of Cereal Science 23, 43–54. Kasarda, D.D., 2001. Grain in relation to celiac disease. Cereal Foods World 46, 209–210. Kenny, S., Wehrle, K., Auty, M., Arendt, E.K., 2001. Influence of sodium caseinate and whey protein on baking properties and rheology of frozen dough. Cereal Chemistry 78, 458–463. Kent, N.L., Evers, A.D., 1994. Technology of Cereals, fourth ed. Elsevier Science, Oxford. Koziol, M.J., 1990a. Afrosimetric estimation of threshold saponin concentration for bitterness in quinoa. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 54, 211–219. Koziol, M.J., 1990b. Composicion quimica. In: Wahli, C. (Ed.), Quinua, hacia su cultivo commercial. Latinreco S.A., Casilla 17-110-6053, Quito, Equador, pp. 137–159. Koziol, M.J., 1992. Chemical composition and nutritional evaluation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Journal of Food and Computational Analysis 5, 35–68. Mancini, M., Moresi, M., Rancini, R., 1999. Mechanical properties of alginate gels: empirical characterization. Journal of Food Engineering 39, 369–378. Mannie, E., Asp, E.H., 1989. Dairy ingredients in baking. Cereal Foods World 44, 143–146. Marconi, E., Carcea, M., 2001. Pasta from nontraditional materials. Cereal Foods World 46, 522–530. Miller, K.A., Hoseney, R.C., 1999. Dynamic rheological properties of wheat starch– gluten doughs. Cereal Chemistry 76, 105–109. Moore, C., Tuschhoff, J., Hastings, C., Schanefelt, R., 1984. Applications of starches in foods. In: Whistler, R., BeMiller, J., Paschall, E. (Eds.), Starch: Chemistry and Technology, third ed. Academic Press, New York, pp. 575–592. Peterson, D.M., Emmons, C.L., Hibbs, A.H., 2001. Phenolic antioxidants and antioxidant activity in pearling fractions of oat groats. Journal of Cereal Science 33 (1), 97–103. Risi, J., Galwey, N.W., 1984. The Chenopodium grains of the Andes: Inca crops for modern agriculture. Advances in Applied Biology 10, 145–216. Rao, M.A., Steffe, J.F., 1992. Viscoelastic Properties of Foods. Elsevier Applied Science, New York, NY, USA. Sekiguchi, S., Miura, Y., Kaneko, H., Nishimura, S.I., Nishi, N., Iwase, M., Tokura, S., 1994. Molecular weight dependency of antimicrobial activity by chitosan oligomers. In: Nishinari, K., Doi, E. (Eds.), Food Hydrocolloids: Structures, Properties, and Functions. Plenum, New York, pp. 71–76. Shiau, S.-Y., Yeh, A.-I., 2001. Effects of alkali and acid on dough rheological properties and characteristics of extruded noodles. Journal of Cereal Science 33, 27–37. Sinha, R., Radha, C., Prakash, J., Kaul, P., 2007. Whey protein hydrolysate: functional properties, nutritional quality and utilization in beverage formulation. Food Chemistry 101, 1484–1491. Song, Y., Zheng, Q., 2007. Dynamic rheological properties of wheat flour dough and proteins. Trends in Food Science and Technology 18, 132–138. Subramanian, R., Gunasekaran, S., 1997. Small amplitude oscillatory shear studies on Mozzarella cheese. Part I. Region of linear viscoelasticity. Journal of Texture Studies 28, 633–642. Sudarshan, N.R., Hoover, D.G., Knorr, D., 1992. Antibacterial action of chitosan. Food Biotechnology 6, 257–272. Sugano, M., Yoshida, K., Hashimoto, M., Enomoto, K., Hirano, S., 1992. Hypocholesterolemic activity of partially hydrolyzed chitosan in rats. In: Brine, C.J., Sandford, P.A., Zikakis, J.P. (Eds.), Advances in Chitin and Chitosan. Elsevier, London, pp. 472–478. Sukhcharn, S., Charanjit, S.R., Amrinder, S.B., Dharmesh, C.S., 2004. Sweet potatobased pasta product: optimization of ingredient levels using response surface
170
S. Chillo et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 49 (2009) 163–170
methodology. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 39, 191–200. Tokoro, A., Tatewaki, N., Suzuki, K., Mikami, T., Suzuki, S., Suzuki, M., 1988. Growthinhibitory effect of hexa-N-acetylchitohexaose and chitohexaose against MethA solid tumor. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 36, 784–790. Tosi, E.A., Re´, E.D., Masciarelli, R., Sanchez, H., Osella, C., de la Torre, M.A., 2002. Whole and defatted hyperproteic amaranth flours tested as wheat flour supplementation in mold breads. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie 35, 472–475.
Wood, S.G., Lawson, L.D., Fairbanks, D.J., Robison, L.R., Andersen, W.R., 1993. Seed lipid content and fatty acid composition of three quinoa cultivars. Journal of Food and Computational Analysis 6, 41–44. Ylimaki, G., Hawrysh, Z.J., Hardin, R.T., Thomson, A.B.R., 1991. Response surface methodology to the development of rice flour yeast breads: sensory measurements. Journal of Food Science 56, 751–759. Zecher, D., Van Collie, R., 1992. Cellulose derivatives. In: Imeson, A. (Ed.), Thickening and Gelling Agents for Food. Chapman & Hall, Glasgow, pp. 40–66.