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Effects of Elaboration on Recall of Texts
DISCOURSE PROCESSING A . Flammer and W . Kintsch (eds.) @ North-Holland Publishing Company, 1982
EFFECTS O F ELABORATION O N RECALL OF TEXTS
Heinz Mandl and S t e f f e n - P e t e r B a l l s t a e d t Deutsches I n s t i t u t fiir F e r n s t u d i e n an d e r l l n i v e r s i t a t Tubingen Tu bi nge n Federal Republic o f Germany E l a b o r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e an i m p o r t a n t component i n any t h e o r y o f comprehension. T h e i r q u a n t i t a t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and q u a l i t a t i v e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , however, p r e s e n t us w i t h a number o f methodological d i f f i c u l t i e s . In a p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t could be showi t h a t e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s can be i n f l u e n c e d by t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n . The d a t a a l s o i n d i c a t e an i n v e r t e d u-shaped r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s and r e c a l l performance: A s u b j e c t who e l a b o r a t e s very l i t t l e and one who e l a b o r a t e s a g r e a t d e a l both perform l e s s well t h a n a s u b j e c t w i t h an a v e r a g e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s .
Some time b e f o r e t h e development o f c o g n i t i v e psychology, i t was a l r e a d y known t h a t new i n f o r m a t i o n can o n l y be r e g i s t e r e d and comprehended through t h e mediation o f p r e v i o u s l y s t o r e d knowledge. H e r b a r t (1824/25) f o r example, d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o c e s s o f a p p e r c e p t i o n a s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f new i d e a s r e r u l t i n g from p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s i n t o the a p p e r c e p t i v e mass a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e . Hermeneutics, t o o , being t h e c l a s s i c r h e o r y o f t e x t comprehens i o n , s t r e s s e s t h e importance o f p r i o r knowledge f o r the way r e a d e r s a s s i m i l a t e t e x t s ( D i l t h e y , 1957; Gadamer, 1 9 6 0 ) . This a n c i e n t i d e a , fundamental t o a n y t h e o r y o f comprehension, o n l y e n t e r e d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n i s t i c t h e o r y o f verbal l e a r n i n g and c o g n i t i v e psychology through t h e back d o o r . On t h e assumption t h a t l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e a l l based on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f e l e mentary u n i t s , experiments w i t h l i s t s o f meaningless s y l l a b l e s , words, and word p a i r s were conducted t o d i s c o v e r t h e r u l e s governing t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n s . I t soon became a p p a r e n t t h a t i n l e a r n i n g t h e l i s t s , subj e c t s d i d not c o n f i n e themselves merely t o c r e a t i n g a s s o c i a t i v e 1 i n k s based on temporal c o n t i g u i t y a s p o s t u l a t e d , b u t t h a t a l o t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and i n t e g r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s went on (Bredenkamp and Wippich, 1 9 7 7 ) . Let us t a k e the experimental paradigm o f p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e l e a r n i n g as an example. During t h e l e a r n i n g phase t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t s t h e s u b j e c t s w i t h p a i r s of words, t h e f i r s t word o f each p a i r having t h e f u n c t i o n o f s t i m u l u s . and t h e second the f u n c t i o n o f r e s p o n s e . E f f i c i e n t l e a r n e r s n o t o n l y make connect i o n s between t h e p a i r e d words, but a l s o i n t e g r a t e them i n t o a s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h each o t h e r . Or, t h e y may g e n e r a t e non-verbal images i n which t h e c o n c e p t s p r e s e n t e d a r e i m a g i n a t i v e l y u n i t e d . These p r o c e s s e s o f m e d i a t i o n r e p r e s e n t a simple example of e l a b o r a t i v e encoding: i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t has been p r e s e n t e d , p r i o r knowledge has been a c t i v a t e d i n t o which the new i n f o r m a t i o n i s embedded. Treiber and Groeben ( 2 9 7 6 ) g i v e an e x t e n s i v e review o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n from a s s o c i a t i v e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y t o 482
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t h e e l a b o r a t i o n model o f l e a r n i n g . F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e l a b o r a t i o n model can be f o u n d w i t h i n t h e l e v e l s o f - p r o c e s s i n g a p p r o a c h ( C r a i k and L o c k h a r t , 1972; Cermak and C r a i k , 1 9 7 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e supposed t o be l o c a t e d on a c o n t i n u u m r e a c h i n g f r o m p e r c e p t u a l t o s e m a n t i c a n a l y s i s , whereby e a c h l e v e l i s supposed t o have i t s s p e c i f i c memory t r a c e s ( K i n t s c h , 1 9 7 7 ) . The c o n c e p t o f p r o c e s s i n g d e p t h r e f e r s t o t h e l e v e l t h a t has been r e a c h e d i n each c a s e . A t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f s e m a n t i c p r o c e s s i n g , however, t h e c o n c e p t o f p r o c e s s i n g b r e a d t h w o u l d be more adequate ( C r a i k and J a c o b y , 1 9 7 9 ) , s i n c e a number o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n f e r e n c e s o c c u r a t t h i s l e v e l d u r i n g r e a d i n g ( C r o t h e r s , 1979; F r e d e r i k s e n e t a1 ., 1 9 7 8 ) . A l l t h e s e i n f e r e n c e s a r e due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f schemata w h i c h have been a c t i v a t e d e i t h e r b y t h e t e x t o r by o t h e r schemata. B a s i c a l l y , t w o t y p e s o f i n f e r e n c e s can be d i s c e r n e d , e v e n t h o u g h i n some a c t u a l c a s e s i t may n o t a l w a y s be p o s s i b l e t o d r a w a c l e a r l i n e between them ( R e d e r , 1 9 8 0 ) : ( 1 ) S l o t - f i l l i n g i n f e r e n c e s a r e based on schemata t h a t have been a c t i v a t e d by t h e t e x t . T h i s t y p e o f i n f e r e n c e i s o b l i g a t o r y f o r any k i n d o f sentence o r t e x t c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Hence, a s e n t e n c e l i k e Peter drank too much again Last n i g h t c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d i f t h e DRINKING-schema becomes a c t i v a t e d c o n t a i n i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i n e v e r y d a y l a n g u a g e " t o o much" u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o a l c o h o l i c d r i n k s . I n o t h e r words t h e empty argument s l o t o f t h e DRINKING-schema i s f i l l e d i n by p r i o r knowledge. I n many t e x t s c o h e r e n c e may o n l y be e s t a b l i s h e d b y i n f e r r i n g a r g u m e n t s . The s h o r t passage The car Jen t around t h e corner. The t i r e s sauealed needs t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f a C4Rschema c o n t a i n i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t i r e s r e p r e s e n t a p a r t o f a c a r , i n o r d e r t o become c o h e r e n t and, hence, u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h i s k i n d o f i n f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t s m i n i m a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r c o m p r e h e n s i o n . I t i s a l s o c a l l e d an i n t e n d e d i n f e r e n c e s i n c e t h e a u t h o r o f t h e t e x t t h i n k s t h a t h e / s h e may r e l y on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l i n f e r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e h e l p o f h i s / h e r p r i o r knowledge ( C l a r k , 1 9 7 7 ) . (2) T h e r e a r e o t h e r i n f e r e n c e s , however, w h i c h go beyond s l o t - f i l l i n g , when a c t i v a t e d schemata have t h e e f f e c t o f e n l a r g i n g and s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e t e x t . F o r example, i f t h e t e x t c o n t a i n s t h e s e n t e n c e Many p l a n t s cont ain substances which are o f pharmaceutical use t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f t h e t w o schemata PLANTS and ILLNESS c o u l d evoke t h e i d e a Some peopZe drink herb t e a s when they f e e 2 s i c k . These o p t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e s a r e e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . Through e l a b o r a t i o n s r e l a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d t h a t go beyond t h o s e p r e s e n t i n t h e t e x t and t h a t r e l a t e t h e t e x t t o t h e v a r i o u s knowledge s t r u c t u r e s t h e r e a d e r possesses. E l a b o r a t i o n s h e l p t o make h i s / h e r knowl e d g e c o h e r e n t . T h i s happens as f o l l o w s : One c o n t e n t u n i t o f t h e t e x t a c t i v a t e s a schema o r a g r o u p o f schemata w i t h t h e h e l p o f w h i c h c o n c l u s i o n s g o i n g beyond t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e t e x t may be drawn. By means o f e l a b o r a t i o n s t h e knowledge s t r u c t u r e r e a l i z e d i n t h e t e x t may be e n l a r g e d i n a number o f ways. Thus, e l a b o r a t i v e i n f e r e n c e s c a n be r e g a r d e d as t h e c r e a t i v e a s p e c t o f r e a d i n g , f o r t h e y r e l a t e t h e n o v e l i n f o r m a t i o n t o knowledge ( s e m a n t i c memory) and t o e x p e r i e n c e ( e p i s o d i c memory) i n a number o f i d i o s y n c r a t i c ways. The number o f such i n f e r e n c e s can v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m one r e a d e r t o a n o t h e r , d e p e n d i n g on h i s / h e r p r i o r knowledge, i n t e r e s t s , r e a d i n g t i m e , e t c . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a d e r may u n d e r s t a n d a t e x t w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t i o n s , t h e s e can s t i l l be r e g a r d e d as a h e l p t o w a r d s d e e p e r u n d e r standing. H e r h a r t was a l s o aware o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s o f e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . L e a r n i n g can be f a c i l i t a t e d b y a c t i v a t i n g p r i o r knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e t h r o u q h v a r i o u s l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s . S t a r t i n g f r o m R o t h k o p f ' s 11970) t h e o r y of mathemagenic b e h a v i o r , Mayer ( 1 9 8 0 ) d e v e l o p e d
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a t h e o r y o f a s s i m i l a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o H e r b a r t ' s approach. According t o t h i s t h e o r y , l e a r n i n g o f meaningful m a t e r i a l i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g two c o n d i t i o n s : ( 1 ) t h e l e a r n e r must p o s s e s s a meaningful p a t t e r n o f p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t he/she can use a s an " a s s i m i l a t i v e c o n t e x t " ; ( 2 ) t h e l e a r n e r must make a c t i v e use o f such an a s s i m i l a t i v e c o n t e x t during reading. Mayer (1980) assumes t h a t t h i s second c o n d i t i o n can be s u p p o r t e d by e l a b o r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s . I f t h e novel i n f o r m a t i o n i s embedded in a broader p a t t e r n of p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s , t h i s should r e s u l t i n a more comprehensive and b e t t e r i n t e g r a t e d s t r u c t u r e . I n i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s own f i n d i n g s , he s t r e s s e s t h e importance o f l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s such a s t h e s e a r c h f o r r e l e v a n t p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s and t h e a c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s a v a i l a b l e knowledge t o keyc o n c e p t s a p p e a r i n g in t h e t e x t . I f t h e s e two c o n d i t i o n s a r e met, new i n formation can be a s s i m i l a t e d and i n t e g r a t e d . Some e l a b o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s such a s g e n e r a t i n g mental images, i n t e g r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s , o r q u e s t i o n i n g o n e s e l f , can be s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a i n e d ( B a l l s t a e d t , Mandl, Schnotz and Tergan, 1 9 8 1 ) . They p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in most memory t e c h n i q u e s . Weinstein ( 1 9 7 8 ) , W e i n s t e i n , Underwood, Wicker and Cubberly (1979) developed and conducted a complete e l a b o r a t i o n t r a i n i n g program f o r n i n t h g r a d e r s . Learning performance proved t o be b e t t e r in t h e experimental group, t r a i n e d i n e l a b o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , than in t h e c o n t r o l group. The f i n d i n g s so f a r s u g g e s t t h a t e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s can h e l p t o improve l e a r n i n g and memory performance. However t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether o r n o t t h e y a r e always h e l n f u l under any c i r c u m s t a n c e s i s s t i l l open. Anderson and Reder (1979) a s well a s Reder (1980) developed a s o - c a l l e d s c r i p t - e l a b o r a t i o n model based on t h e approach o f Schank and Abel son ( 1 9 7 7 ) . In t h i s model, e l a b o r a t i v e i n f e r e n c e s a r e made on t h e b a s i s o f a c t i v a t e d s c r i p t s i . e . , v e r y complex schemata c o n t a i n i n g knowledge about s t e r e o t y p e d sequences o f a c t i o n s and e v e n t s i n w e l l - d e f i n e d s i t u a t i o n s . The best-known example i s t h e famous RESTAURANT-script comprising a l l i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r a s u c c e s s f u l v i s i t t o a r e s t a u r a n t . Reder (1980) i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e funct i o n s t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s may have in t h e p r o c e s s o f comprehension: ( 1 ) s e c u r i n g coherence between t h e passages and w i t h i n t h e memory s t r u c ture; ( 2 ) g e n e r a t i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s concerning f u r t h e r developments in t h e t e x t ; ( 3 ) d i s c o v e r i n g and r e s o l v i n g a m b i g u i t i e s i n t h e t e x t . E s p e c i a l l y the f i r s t o f t h e s e t h r e e f u n c t i o n s a l l o f which f a c i l i t a t e unders t a n d i n g , i s o f g r e a t importance because i t h e l p s t o i n t e g r a t e new knowl e d g e i n t o t h e knowledge b a s e . According t o Anderson (1980) t h e r e a r e two t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n s why e l a b o r a t i o n s l e a d t o b e t t e r r e c a l l . His argument i s based on the assumption t h a t knowledge i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n memory i n t h e form o f s e m a n t i c networks: ( 1 ) Because o f t h e i r g r e a t e r number, a node a v a i l a b l e in an e l a b o r a t e d network i s more l i k e l y t o be r e t r i e v e d , s i n c e i t i s r e l a t e d t o a g r e a t number o f o t h e r nodes. These c o n n e c t i o n s may s e r v e a s a l t e r n a t e r e t r i e v a l routes. ( 2 ) I f one node i s m i s s i n g i n t h e memory s t r u c t u r e , an e l a b o r a t e d network s t i l l l e a v e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n f e r r i n g o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m i s s i n g node from t h e n e i g h b o r i n g nodes. As a r u l e , i n f o r m a t i o n seems t o be b e t t e r r e t a i n e d i n an e l a b o r a t e d network s t r u c t u r e because there a r e more c u e s t o r e f e r t o , i f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . Such a p o s i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e l a b o r a t i o n s bears a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a reconstructive theory of r e c a l l . A theory
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concerned e x c l u s i v e l y with r e t r i e v a l o f s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n could n o t e x p l a i n why an i n c r e a s e in s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n should l e a d t o b e t t e r r e c a l l . Followi n g t h i s a p p r o a c h , Anderson and Reder assume t h a t r e c a l l performance i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f e c t e d by t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s : t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f reconstruction appears t o increase a s a function of e l a b o r a t i v e connections. This q u a n t i t a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s seems p l a u s i b l e a t f i r s t s i g h t , but t h e r e i s reason f o r c a u t i o n . For one t h i n g , t h e r e c e r t a i n l y i s an upper l i m i t t o t h e number of e l a b o r a t i o n s t h a t may be c o n s i d e r e d u s e f u l . I f someone e l a b o r a t e s e n d l e s s l y , he/she w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d a v e r y d i s t r a c t i v e r a t h e r than an i n t e g r a t i v e l e a r n e r . H i s / h e r performance a t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n would probabl y be worse t h a n t h a t of a l e a r n e r w i t h l e s s e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g . Perhaps t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s and r e c a l l performance f o l l o w s an i n v e r t e d u-shaped c u r v e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h i s could be e x p l a i n e d a s f o l l o w s : I f someone makes few o r no e l a b o r a t i o n s , t h e new i n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y "woven i n t o " h i s knowledge s t r u c t u r e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y , be has few cues t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o f the t e x t . Recall p e r f o r mance w i l l a c c o r d i n g l y be poor. Someone who e l a b o r a t e s v e r y b r o a d l y , on the o t h e r hand, wi l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t i n formation because s h e / h e has t o choose among an enormous number o f a c t i v a t e d schemata. The second c r i t i c i s m concerns t h e p u r e l y q u a n t i t a t i v e approach. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s may be "good" o r "bad" f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g , depending on t h e i r q u a l i t y . Some e l a b o r a t i o n s may d i s t r a c t t o o much from the t e x t and, hence, c o n t r i b u t e v e r y l i t t l e t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a c o h e r e n t knowledge s t r u c t u r e . This i s t h e a s p e c t Bransford and h i s coworkers focussed upon. The r e s e a r c h team around Bransford performed a few e x p e r i m e n t s showing q u i t e c l e a r l y t h a t n o t a l l kinds o f e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e e q u a l l y e f f i c i e n t a s r e g a r d s l e a r n i n g f a c i l i t a t i o n ( c f . review by B r a n s f o r d , Franks, Morris and S t e i n , 1979; B r a n s f o r d , 1 9 7 9 ) . S t e i n , Morris and Franks (1978) used t h e method o f cued r e c a l l o f t a r g e t words w i t h t h r e e experimental groups. Group 1 l i s t e n e d t o a l i s t o f base s e n t e n c e s such a s The t a l l man bought t h e crackers. Each s e n t e n c e i n t h e l i s t was u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and s e m a n t i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t . During the t e s t i n g p h a s e , a s e n t e n c e frame was p r e s e n t e d i n which t h e a d j e c t i v e , a s t h e t a r g e t word, was o m i t t e d and had t o be r e c a l l e d : The man bought the crackers. Groups 2 and 3 a l s o l i s t e n e d t o t h e b a s e s e n t e n c e s , but i n a d d i t i o n t h e y were given some e l a b o r a t i v e p h r a s e s a s c o n t e x t . Group 2 l i s t e n e d t o t h e p h r a s e : The t a l l man bought t h e crackers t h a t were on s a l e . Group 3 r e c e i v e d a d i f f e r e n t e l a b o r a t i v e cont e x t : The t a l l man bought the crackers t h a t were on the t o p s h e l f . Both e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e x t s c o n s t i t u t e s e m a n t i c a l l y congruent c o n t i n u a t i o n s o f t h e base s e n t e n c e . The d i f f e r e n c e s l i e s in the f a c t t h a t the e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e x t for Group 3 d e s c r i b e s a s i t u a t i o n which has a s p e c i f i c and n o n - a r b i t r a r y meaning f o r t h e t a r g e t c o n c e p t . The f i n d i n g s showed e x c e l l e n t cued r e c a l l s c o r e s f o r Group 3 w h i l e t h e Scores of Group 2 were bad. In p a r t , t h e s c o r e s o f Group 2 were even lower than t h o s e o f Group 1, showing t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s may even reduce r e c a l l performance. I t f o l l o w s t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e o n l y e f f i c i e n t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y produce a r e l e v a n t c o n t e x t f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f new i n f o r m a t i o n . A s e r i e s o f experiments by Auble and Franks (1978) shows t h a t f o r d i f f i c u l t s e n t e n c e s , e l a b o r a t i o n s conducive t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g improve r e c a l l Performance, whereas postcomprehension e l a b o r a t i o n s reduce performance. However, we must n o t f o r g e t t h a t t h e s e f i n d i n g s r e f e r t o e l a b o r a t i v e cont e x t s provided by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r and n o t g e n e r a t e d by t h e s u b j e c t s . The Same p r i n c i p l e might a p p l y t o spontaneous e l a b o r a t i o n s n o n e t h e l e s s . These f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t t h e t h e o r y o f comprehension by Bransford and McCarrell ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; Bransford ( 1 9 7 9 ) . According t o t h i s t h e o r y , t e x t comprehension con-
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s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f a c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . The l i n g u i s t i c i n p u t s e r v e s as a b a s i s f o r " s e m a n t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s " i n t e g r a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e s ( 1 i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t ) , from t h e r e a d e r ' s p r i o r knowledge, and i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e s i t u a t i o n ( e x t r a l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t ) . Elaborative inferences are e f f e c t i v e t o the extent t h a t they c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s e i n f o r m a t i o n a l s o u r c e s . Thus, i n t h e end, t h e q u a l i t y o f e l a b o r a t i o n s may be s a i d t o be o f g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e i r quant it y . We began w i t h a s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s i n t e n d e d t o f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h e e f f e c t s o f e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e comprehension p r o c e s s , w i t h r e g a r d t o b o t h q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n t h e r e s u l t s o f the f i r s t experiment are reported. Based on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l approaches and r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d above, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f an i n s t r u c t i o n t o e l a b o r a t e a l o u d d u r i n g r e a d i n g and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a t a s k e x p e c t a t i o n , namely, t h a t a t e x t w i l l have t o be r e c a l l e d a f t e r r e a d i n g , a r e t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s w i l l be s t u d i e d : (1) I s t h e r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e o f a g r o u p w h i c h r e c e i v e s t h e e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n and t h e t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g f u t u r e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t e x t b e t t e r than t h a t o f a group which reads t h e t e x t w i t h o u t t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n o r task orientation? (2) Does an i n v e r t e d u-shaped r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t between t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s and r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e ? ( 3 ) Do s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n s a f f e c t r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e ?
METHOD' E x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n and p r o c e d u r e . Four e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s were formed. The f i r s t g r o u p r e c e i v e d n o t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n , i.e., no i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e y w o u l d have t o r e p r o d u c e a t e x t a f t e r r e a d i n g i t , and no i n s t r u c t i o n t o e l a b o r a t e a l o u d d u r i n g r e a d i n g . The second g r o u p a l s o r e c e i v e d no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n , b u t t h e y were i n s t r u c t e d t o e l a b o r a t e . The t h i r d g r o u p r e c e i v e d t h e t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n , b u t n o i n s t r u c t i o n t o e l a b o r a t e . The f o u r t h g r o u p r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g b o t h t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n and e l a b o r a t i o n . A l l f o u r g r o u p s were t o l d t o r e a d t h e t e x t c a r e f u l l y , s e n t e n c e b y s e n t e n c e o r i n s e l f - c h o s e n u n i t s . B e f o r e t h e s u b j e c t s commenced w i t h t h e i r i n t e n s i v e work on t h e t e x t , t h e y were asked t o s k i m o v e r i t f o r one o r two m i n u t e s and t o f o r m an i d e a o f i t s c o n t e n t ( p r e s t r u c t u r i n g p h a s e ) . The t w o e l a b o r a t i o n g r o u p s were p a r t i c u l a r l y r e q u e s t e d t o c o n n e c t t h e s e p a r t s o f t h e t e x t conc e r n i n g i t s s u b j e c t o r t o p i c w i t h a n y t h i n g t h e y a l r e a d y knew, had r e a d , o r had h e a r d a b o u t t h a t s u b j e c t o r t o p i c . A l l s u b j e c t s were a l s o asked t o s a y a l o u d what went t h r o u g h t h e i r heads d u r i n g p r o c e s s i n g . They were a l s o asked t o v e r b a l i z e a n y f e e l i n g s , moods, o r j u d g m e n t s w h i c h o c c u r r e d t o them i n t h e p r o c e s s . The p r o c e d u r e was c a r e f u l l y e x p l a i n e d u s i n g an example. I t must be p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s d e t e r m i n e d w h i c h p o r t i o n s of t e x t , s e n t e n c e s , o r o t h e r u n i t s t h e y wanted t o e l a b o r a t e upon a l o u d . As c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e s and as i n t e r v e n i n g t a s k s between t e x t p r o c e s s i n g and r e c a l l , t h r e e s u b t e s t s o f t h e I n t e l 1 i g e n c e S t r u c t u r e T e s t b y Amthauer ( 1 9 7 1 ) o n v e r b a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( w o r d s e l e c t i o n , f i n d i n g common a t t r i b u t e s , a n a l o g i e s ) and one memory s u b t e s t were p r e s e n t e d t o a l l f o u r g r o u p s . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found between t h e g r o u p s o n t h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t ( c f . T a b l e 2 ) . The w r i t t e n r e c a l l o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y p r o c e s s e d t e x t t o o k p l a c e a f t e r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 m i n u t e s l a t e r .
EFFECTS OF ELABORATION ON RECALL OF TEXTS
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S u b j e c t s and experimental t e x t . In o r d e r t o o b t a i n a group o f s u b j e c t s with r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous p r i o r knowledge r e g a r d i n g t h e t e x t , t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t with 24 law s t u d e n t s . The experimental text was taken from an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n t h r o p o l o g y by N a c h t i g a l l (1974) and c o n t a i n e d 453 words. Analysis o f verbal p r o t o c o l s . The t e x t , verbal p r o t o c o l s , and t h e w r i t t e n t e x t r e p r o d u c t i o n s were d i v i d e d i n t o s o - c a l l e d c o n t e n t u n i t s ( c f . S c h n o t z , B a l l s t a e d t and Mandl, 1 9 8 1 ) . One c o n t e n t u n i t a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s u p e r o r d i n a t e p r o p o s i t i o n i n K i n t s c h ' s model ( K i n t s c h , 1 9 7 8 ) . The e x p e r i mental t e x t , thus t r a n s f o r m e d , c o n s i s t e d o f 38 c o n t e n t u n i t s . Coding c a t e g o r i e s f o r e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e n t u n i t s . Q u a l i t a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f e l a b o r a t i o n s from verbal p r o t o c o l s proved t o be very d i f f i c u l t . The f i r s t a t t e m p t was t o s e l e c t f i v e c a t e g o r i e s supposed t o have an e f f e c t on l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f which was s t i l l u n s p e c i f i c i n some c a s e s . R e f e r r i n g t o p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s shows t h a t t h e r e a d e r e x p l i c i t l y r e s o r t s t o t h e c o n t e x t of h i s own personal e x p e r i e n c e s . Perhaps t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f personal e x p e r i e n c e s improves r e c a l l performance due t o ego-involvement. The problem s t i l l i s t h a t i t a l s o depends on the communicative c o n t e x t whether personal e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l be s t a t e d o r n o t . Not a l l s u b j e c t s w i l l a c t u a l l y v e r b a l i z e a l l t h e i r personal e l a b o r a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r d i s q u i s e them a s general knowledge a s t h e s u r f a c e l e v e l o f t h e t e x t . The f a c t t h a t g e n e r a t i o n o f images may a l s o enhance l e a r n i n g in t e x t proc e s s i n g seems t o be well e s t a b l i s h e d ( e . g . , Y u i l l e and P a i v i o , 1 9 6 9 ) . B u t t h e same argument a p p l i e s h e r e w i t h r e p o r t i n g personal c o n t e x t s . The u t t e r a n c e s may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e images t h a t u n d e r l i e i t . In a follow-up s t u d y - t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g imagery w i l l be r e p l a c e d by a measure f o r c o n c r e t e n e s s o r imagery. The c a t e g o r y c r i t i c a l comments r e f e r s t o the e x t e n t t o which the r e a d e r i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e t e x t in a c r i t i c a l and i n t e r e s t e d way. I t i s t o be expected t h a t t h i s kind o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i n deeper o r broader proc e s s i n g a n d , hence, w i l l have a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e on r e c a l l . Paraphrases f r e q u e n t l y occur i n verbal p r o t o c o l s . Whether t h e y r e f l e c t s u p e r f i c i a l o r thorough p r o c e s s i n g i s hard t o d e t e r m i n e . B u t t h e very f a c t o f r e p e a t i n g a meaning u n i t i n t h e s e n s e o f maintenance r e h e a r s a l w i l l probably have a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on r e c a l l . The l a s t c a t e g o r y r e f e r s t o s o - c a l l e d m e t a s t a t e m e n t s u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o r s t y l e ( o r g a n i z a t i o n ) o f the t e x t . S o - c a l l e d m e t a c o g n i t i o n s , w i t h which a s u b j e c t r e f e r s t o his/her own c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n a form o f s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n , were n o t counted a s e l a b o r a t i o n s . The j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s procedure i s d e r i v e d from t h e f a c t t h a t m e t a c o g n i t i o n s o f t h i s kind make no d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o the c o n t e n t o f t h e t e x t . In Table 1 t h e l a b e l s f o r each c a t e g o r y a r e p r e s e n t e d and i l l u s t r a t e d with some examples drawn from o u r m a t e r i a l . I t should be emphasized once a g a i n t h a t we a r e d e a l i n g here w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y system o f c a t e g o r i e s s t i l l in need o f r e v i s i o n .
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Table 1. C a t e g o r i e s f o r e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e n t u n i t s
C o n t e x t o f personal e x p e r i e n c e s : e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o some c o n t e x t , autobiographical data L a s t week I went t o an e x h i b i t i o n about t h e Chinese i n Z u r i c h . When I hear J u l i u s Cesar o r T a c i t u s , I am reminded o f my L a t i n course. Imagery: e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o mental imagery: c o l o r d e s c r i p t i o n s , s h a p e e s c r i p t i o n s , reference t o s p a t i a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s Now I ' m v i s u a l i z i n g some people l i v i n g i n a small r u r a l community. I ' m seeing a map o f t h e w o r l d i n what k i n d o f people t h e y a r e .
my mind and
I'm
t r y i n g t o imagine
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C r i t i c a l comments: e x p l i c i t v a l u e judgments, i m p l i c i t v a l u e j u d g ments t h r o u g h t h e use o f e v a l u a t i v e words, statements o f agreement o r d i s a p p r o v a l , c r i t i c i s m , q u e s t i o n s on t h e c o n t e n t
I t h i n k t h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s n ' t very precise. T h i s view i s t o o l i m i t e d i n my o p i n i o n . Paraphrases: r e p r o d u c t i o n o f c o n t e n t s i n own words T e x t : T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t s from t h e h i s t o r y o f s c i e n c e - f o r a f t e r t h e p h i l o l o g i s t s had s t a r t e d r e s e a r c h on t h e w r i t t e n sources o f non-European c u l t u r e s , what was l e f t f o r e t h n o l o g y were i n t h e main non-1 i t e r a t e peopl es
.
Paraphrases: E t h n o l o g y i s concerned w i t h non-1 i t e r a t e peoples.
So Ethnology i s m e r e l y concerned w i t h non-1 i t e r a t e
peoples.
Metastatements: Statements c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the t e x t
I c o n s i d e r t h i s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g as t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n . The sentence reads as i f t h i s was t h e p o i n t t o come.
RESULTS AND D I S C U S S I O N Q u e s t i o n 1. I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n an answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n of whether i n s t r u c t i o n s about e l a b o r a t i o n and t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n improve r e c a l l performance, a t w o - f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was c a r r i e d o u t . I t showed no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s - as suggested by a s i m p l e i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e means: e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n : F (1.20) = 1.2 ns; t a s k - o r i e n t a t i o n : F (1.20) = 1.85 ns; i n t e r a c t i o n : F (1.20) = 1.35 ns. The r e s u l t s show ( c f . Table 2 ) t h a t r e c a l l performance i n Group 4 ( e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) was no b e t t e r t h a n t h a t i n Group 1 (no e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) and i n Group 3 (no e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) .
Table 2. Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f e l a b o r a t i o n u n i t s , m e t a c o g n i t i o n s , r e c a l l u n i t s and i n t e l l i gence (IQ: X = 100; s = 10) Group 1 no e l a b o r a t i o n i n struction/no taskorientation X
S
~
-
X
96.0
elaboration u n i t s ~
Group 2 elaboration instruction/notask-orientation S
Group 3 no e l a b o r a t i o n i n struction/taskorientation X
S
73.0
Group 4 elaboration instruction/taskorientation X
155.2
S
106.6
~
elaboration categories:
m
personal e x p e r i e n c e imagery critical
comments
paraphrasing metastatements met acogn it i on s ~____
~
r e c a l l e d content units r e c a l l e d content units/minute o f processing time verbal i n t e l l i g e n c e (IST/IQ) memory
(IST/IQ)
0 ‘ 1
1.5 1.3 25.5
1.9 2.4 31.5
17.5 21.3
10.3 15.0
4.0
3.5
4.7 5.0 44.2 18.5
5.2 8.9 40.1 20.4
27.5
37.3
7.7
10.4
I-
D
W 0
P rl 0 z
0
z
~
0
18.5
6.8
12.8
6.7
19.0
5.6
19.2
5.3
n -4
X m
-I v)
2.9
1.4
0.9
0.4
3.1
1.5
1.0
0.6
111.0 113.3
8.8 7.9
109.6 110
3.6 9.4
107.9 107.7
4.4 10.2
110.4 110.5
4.4 4.9
490
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Group 2 ( e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) produced even lower s c o r e s than Group 1 ( n o e l a b o r a t i o n , no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) and Group 3 ( n o e l a b o r a t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) . However, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . These r e s u l t s do not s u p p o r t t h e assumption by Reder and Anderson (1979) t h a t e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g a1 ways improves r e c a l l performance. However, t h e r e a r e two p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f o u r f i n d i n g s which would l e a v e t h i s assumption untouched. F i r s t o f a l l , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e groups w i t h o u t an e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s a c t u a l l y d i d e l a b o r a t e . Furthermore, t h e q u a l i t y o f e l a b o r a t i o n s i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n groups was n o t c o n s i d e r e d . Following t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n by B r a n s f o r d , i t can be assumed t h a t t h e r e a r e e f f e c t i v e and i n e f f e c t i v e e l a borations w i t h respect t o the task. A1 so the v a r i a b l e " r e c a l l e d c o n t e n t u n i t s / m i n u t e s o f p r o c e s s i n g t i m e " showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s . This v a r i a b l e w i l l n o t be used f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s . Q u e s t i o n 2 . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h c number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s in Group 4 ( e l a b o r a t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) and r e c a l l performance showed an i n v e r t e d u-shaped d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . F i g u r e 1 ) . Curve f i t t i n g y i e l d e d the f o l l o w i n g t h e o r e t i c a l e q u a t i o n : ( B o r t z , 1978, p . 238, 6 . 5 1 ) : y = 1 . 6 2 + 0 . 5 5 ~- 2 . 1 2 ~ + 0 . 3 ~ 3 . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t h e o r e t i c a l and t h e e m p i r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n was R2 = .91.
zr f
RECALL UNITS (z-SCORE)
1,5--
1 -9,5--0
--
-0,5--
-1
--
-1,5--
t
, , -1.5
,
,
-1
,
, , -0,s
, 0
,
,
0.5
1 ' 1,5
*
I
2
ELABORATION UNITS
(z-SCORE) F i g u r e 1. R e l a t i o n between e l a b o r a t i o n u n i t s and r e c a l l u n i t s
X
EFFECTS OF ELABORATION ON RECALL OF TEXTS
491
These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n : I f j u s t a f e w e l a b o r a t i o n s take place, the novel information i s o n l y minimally i n t e g r a t e d i n t o e x i s t i n g knowledge s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e , r e c a l l i s based on v e r y few c l u e s . A p e r s o n who e l a b o r a t e s e x t e n s i v e l y c r e a t e s an i n t r i c a t e i n t e r w e a v i n g o f new and o l d knowledge, b u t t h e n has d i f f i c u l t y d i s c e r n i n g t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g r e c a l l . I n Group 2 ( e l a b o r a t i o n , n o t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l a b o r a t i o n and r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e has a bimodal d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h u s a p p e a r s t o u s t o be u n i n t e r p r e t a b l e . E l a b o r a t i n g w i t h o u t t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n seems t o l e a d n o t o n l y t o i n f e r i o r r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t a l s o t o a l e s s c l e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l a b o r a t i o n and r e p r o d u c t i o n . Q u e s t i o n 3 . The v e r b a l i z a t i o n d a t a were e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r i b e d above: c o n t e x t o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , i m a g e r y , c r i t i c a l comments, p a r a p h r a s e s , m e t a s t a t e m e n t s . I n s p e c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a t e g o r i e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n f o r Group 4 ( e l a b o r a t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) r e v e a l s t h a t t h e y o c c u r i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t amounts. The m o s t f r e q u e n t c a t e g o r i e s a r e c r i t i c a l comments, m e t a s t a t e m e n t s , and p a r a p h r a s e s ; l e a s t f r e q u e n t a r e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s and i m a g e r y . I t i s a l s o s t r i k i n g t h a t , q u a n t i t a t i v e l y speaking, t h e r e a r e v e r y l a r g e i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n each e l a b o r a t i o n c a t e g o r y . The c a t e g o r y c r i t i c a l comments r a n g e s f r o m 8 t o 109 e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e n t u n i t s , m e t a s t a t e m e n t s f r o m 5 t o 102, p a r a p h r a s e s f r o m 3 t o 5 5 , i m a g e r y f r o m 0 t o 23, p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s f r o m 0 t o 1 4 . I f we l o o k a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n and r e c a l l p e r f o r mance f o r Group 4, we f i n d f o r t h e c a t e g o r y p a r a p h r a s e s an i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n v e r t e d u-shaped r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s f i n d i n g a p p e a r s p l a u s i b l e , as p a r a p h r a s i n g i s t h e r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t e d t e x t i n o n e ' s own words, meaning t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e formed w h i c h s t a n d i n c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e g i v e n t e x t . A l l o t h e r t y p e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n showed n o s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h r e c a l l d a t a . The p r e s e n t c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f e l a b o r a t i o n s appears t o us t o be s t i l l u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s and i t s e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s . D I SClJSS I ON There i s no d o u b t t h a t a c o m p l e t e model o f t e x t comprehension m u s t i n c l u d e e l a b o r a t i o n s as a d e c i s i v e component i n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . There a r e , however, a number o f t h e o r e t i c a l and even more m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h t u r n e l a b o r a t i o n s i n t o a d i f f i c u l t o b j e c t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . We w o u l d l i k e t o b r i e f l y present a few o f these problems here.
(1) E l a b o r a t i o n s a r e o n l y a c c e s s i b l e v i a t h e v e r b a l i z a t i o n s o f s u b j e c t s . T h i s method, however, o n l y r e v e a l s t h e t i p o f t h e i c e b e r g because, o u t o f t h e immense number o f e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s a c t u a l l y t a k i n g p l a c e , s u b j e c t s s e l e c t o n l y t h o s e e l a b o r a t i o n s t h a t meet c e r t a i n s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a . F o r example, t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a a r e p l a u s i b l e : V e r b a l i z a b i l i t y : Can t h e s u b j e c t f i n d a s u i t a b l e word t o e x p r e s s a n e l a b o ration? Task o r i e n t a t i o n : How does t h e s u b j e c t v i e w t h e t a s k w h i c h i s demanded o f him/her i n t h e exoerimental s i t u a t i o n ? E v a l u a t i o n : Which' e l a b o r a t i o n s does t h e s u b j e c t c o n s i d e r w o r t h communicat i n g ? How i s v e r b a l i z a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d b y c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o n v e n t i o n s ? Thus, a v e r b a l p r o t o c o l o n l y o f f e r s a s e l e c t i v e l o o k a t t h e e l a b o r a t i v e processes o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g reading. ( 2 ) A n o t h e r p r o b l e m a r i s e s i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f v e r b a l p r o t o c o l s . How does one d e t e r m i n e t h e s i z e o f t h e u n i t o f a n a l y s i s ? We chose r e l a t i v e l y comprehensive c o n t e n t u n i t s which, r o u g h l y speaking, correspond t o a h i g h l e v e l p r o p o s i t i o n , encompassing s u b o r d i n a t e p r o p o s i t i o n s ( S c h n o t z , B a l l s t a e d t and
492
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Mandl, 1 9 8 1 ) . A d i f f e r e n t s u g g e s t i o n with s m a l l e r u n i t s was p u t forward by Chafe ( 1 9 8 0 ) . l l s i n g p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and s y n t a c t i c c r i t e r i a , he d i v i d e d t h e t e x t s u r f a c e i n t o i d e a u n i t s roughly c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p h r a s e s . I n a f o r t h coming i n v e s t i g a t i o n we w i l l compare o u r approach t o forming c o n t e n t u n i t s t o t h a t o f Chafe ( B a l l s t a e d t and Mandl, 1 9 8 2 ) . ( 3 ) Previous a t t e m p t s a t c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f i n f e r e n c e s by C r o t h e r s (1979) and F r e d e r i k s e n e t a l . (1978) a r e c e r t a i n l y u s e f u l f o r some t y p e s o f q u e s t i o n s . They a r e h a r d l y p r a c t i c a l f o r work with l o n g e r t e x t s however, a s t h e y r e q u i r e an a n a l y s i s o f t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t , o f v e r b a l i z a t i o n , and o f r e c a l l on a p r o p o s i t i o n a l l e v e l . On t h e o t h e r hand, o u r c a t e g o r y system a p p e a r s t o us t o be t o o c o a r s e a s y e t , and i t s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n t o o sketchy . ( 4 ) I f r e c a l l performance i s r e l a t e d t o p r o c e s s i n g time, t h e n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n has l i t t l e economizing e f f e c t on immediate r e c a l l : e l a b o r a t i o n r e q u i r e s time ( T a b l e 2 ) . However i t remains t o be t e s t e d whether t h e e f f o r t i s n o t worthwhile a f t e r a l l , a s e l a b o r a t i o n may improve long-term r e t e n t i o n a n d / o r cause broader p r o c e s s i n g t o t a k e p l a c e , a s s p e c i f i c comprehension t e s t s could show. They seem t o be more s u i t a b l e t o t e s t e f f e c t s o f e l a b o r a t i o n s than simple r e c a l l t a s k s . I t i s f u r t h e r m o r e c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s produce s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s on t a s k s o t h e r than t h e r e c a l l o f a t e x t . For i n s t a n c e , e l a b o r a t i o n may f a c i l i t a t e a c c e s s t o more c r e a t i v e s o l u t i o n s i n problem-solving t a s k s . This q u e s t i o n , t o o , w i l l be f u r t h e r investigated.
1 ) The d a t a were c o l l e c t e d by c a n d . r e r . s o z . Gerhard Walsken under i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r s . The verbal p r o t o c o l s and t h e r e c a l l d a t a were c a t e g o r i z e d with a s s i s t e n c e o f c a n d . r e r . 8 0 ~ . Manfred Maikler and c a n d . r e r . s o z . R a i n e r Kluza. REFERENCES Amthauer, R. Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 70. G o t t i n g e n : Hogrefe, 1971. Anderson, J . R . C o g n i t i v e psychology and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s . San F r a n c i s c o : W . M . Freeman and Co., 1980. Anderson, J.R. and Reder, L.M. An e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f d e p t h o f p r o c e s s i n g . In L.S. Cermak and F.I.M. C r a i k ( E d s . ) . Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1979. Auble, P.M. and Franks, J . J . The e f f e c t s o f e f f o r t toward comprehension on r e c a l l . Memory and C o g n i t i o n , 1978, 6 , 20-25. B a l l s t a e d t , S . - P . and Mandl, H . Problems i n q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h on e l a b o r a t i o n s in t e x t p r o c e s s i n q . In H . Mandl, N . S t e i n and T . Trabasso ( E d s . ) . Learning and t e x t comprehension. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1982, i n p r e s s . B a l l s t a e d t , S . - P . , Mandl, H . , S c h n o t z , W . and Tergan, S.O. Texte v e r s t e h e n , Texte g e s t a l t e n . Munchen : Urban und Schwarzenberg, 1981. B o r t z , J . Lehrbuch d e r S t a t i s t i k . B e r l i n : S p r i n g e r , 1979. B r a n s f o r d , J.D. Human c o g n i t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and remembering. Belmont, C a l i f o r n i a : !dadsworth, 1979.
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B r a n s f o r d , J . D . and M c C a r r e l l , N.S. A s k e t c h o f a c o g n i t i v e approach t o comprehension: some t h o u g h t s about u n d e r s t a n d i n g what i t means t o comprehend. In W . B . Weimer and D . S . Palermo ( E d s . ) . C o g n i t i o n a n d t h e symbolic p r o c e s s e s . H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979. B r a n s f o r d , J . D . , Franks, J . J . , M o r r i s , C . D . and S t e i n , B.S. Some general c o n s t r a i n t s on l e a r n i n g and memory r e s e a r c h . In L.S. Cermak and F.I.M. Craik ( E d s . ) . Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g in human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N . J . : Erl baum, 1979. Bredenkamp, J . and Wippich, W . Lern- und G e d a c h t n i s p s y c h o l o g i e . Bd. 2 . S t u t t g a r t : Kohl hammer, 1977. Cermak, L.S. and C r a i k , F.I.M. ( E d s . ) , Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g in human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1979. Chafe, W . L . The flow o f t h o u g h t and t h e flow o f l a n g u a g e . In T . Givon ( E d . ) . Discourse and s y n t a x . New York: Academic P r e s s , 1979. C l a r k , H . H . I n f e r e n c e s i n comprehension. In D . LaBerge and S . J . Samuel8 ( E d s . ) . P e r c e p t i o n and comprehension. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1977, 243-263. C r a i k , F.I.M. and Jacobv, L . L . E l a b o r a t i o n and d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s i n e p i s o d i c memory. In L . S . Cermak and F.I.M. Craik ( E d s . ) . Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1979. C r a i k , F.I.M. and L o c k h a r t , R.S. Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g : A framework f o r memory r e s e a r c h . Journal o f Verbal Learning and Verbal B e h a v i o r , 1972, 11, 671-684. C r o t h e r s , E.J. Paragraph, s t r u c t u r e , i n f e r e n c e . Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1979. D i l t h e y , W . Die Entstehung d e r Hermeneutik. In Gesammelte S c h r i f t e n . Bd. 5 . G o t t i n g e n : Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1957. F r e d e r i k s e n , C . H . , F r e d e r i k s e n , J.D., Humphrey, F.M. and O t t e n s e n , J . D i s c o u r s e i n f e r e n c e : Adapting t o t h e i n f e r e n t i a l demands o f school t e x t s . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e meeting o f t h e American Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n . Toronto, 1978. Gadamer, H . - G . Wahrheit und Methode. Grundzuge e i n e r p h i l o s o h p i s c h e n Hermeneutik. Tubingen: Mohr, 1960. H e r b a r t , J . F . Psychologie a l s W i s s e n s c h a f t . E r s t e r und z w e i t e r T e i l . Konigsberg, 1824/25. K i n t s c h , W . Memory and c o g n i t i o n . New York: Wiley, 1977. K i n t s c h , W . Comprehension and memory of t e x t . In W . K . E s t e s ( E d . ) . Handbook o f l e a r n i n g and c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s . Vol. 6 . L i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s i n c o g n i t i v e t h e o r y . H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1 9 7 8 . Mayer, R . E . E l a b o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s t h a t i n c r e a s e the meaningfulness o f t e c h n i c a l t e x t : An experimental t e s t o f t h e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y h y p o t h e s i s . J o u r n a l o f Educational Psychology, 1980, 72,770-784. N a c h t i g a l l , H . Vo1 kerkunde. Eine EinfUhrung. Frankfurt/M. : Suhrkamp, 1974. Reder, L.M. The r o l e o f e l a b o r a t i o n i n t h e comprehension and r e t e n t i o n o f p r o s e : a c r i t i c a l review. Review o f Educational Research, 1980,50,5-53. Rothkopf, E . Z . T h e concept o f mathemagenic a c t i v i t i e s . Review o f Educat i o n a l Research, 1970, 40,325-336.
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Schank, R . C . and A b e l s o n , R . P . S c r i p t s , l a n s , g o a l s and u n d e r s t a n d i n . An i n q u i r y t o human knowledge s t r u c t u r e s ! H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: E r l b a u m , 1 i 7 7 7 S c h n o t z , W . , B a l l s t a e d t , S . - P . and Mandl, H . K o g n i t i v e Prozesse b e i m Zusammenfassen von L e h r t e x t e n . I n H . Mandl ( E d . ) . Z u r P s y c h o l o g i e d e r T e x t v e r a r b e i t u n g . A n s a t z e , Befunde, Probleme. Munchen: Urban und Schwarzenb e r g , 1981. S t e i n , B . S . , M o r r i s , C . D . and B r a n s f o r d , J.D. C o n s t r a i n t s on e f f e c t i v e e l a b o r a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f V e r b a l L e a r n i n g and V e r b a l B e h a v i o r . 1 9 7 8 ,
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T r e i b e r , B. and Groeben, N . Vom Paar-Assoziations-Lernen zum E l a b o r a t i o n s 3-46. m o d e l l . Z e i t s c h r i f t f i r S o z i a l p s y c h o l o g i e , 1976,
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W e i n s t e i n , C . E . E l a b o r a t i o n s k i l l s as a l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y . I n H.F. O ' N e i l , j r . ( E d . ) . L e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . New Y o r k : Academic P r e s s , 1978. W e i n s t e i n , C.E., llnderwood, V.L., W i c k e r , F.W. and C u b b e r l y , W.E. C o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s : V e r b a l and i m a g i n a l e l a b o r a t i o n . I n H.F. O'Neil and C . S p i e l b e r g e r ( E d s . ) . C o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . New York: Academic P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 . Y u i l l e , J.C. and P a i v i o , A . A b s t r a c t n e s s and t h e r e c a l l o f c o n n e c t e d d i s c o u r s e . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1969, 82, 467-472.
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Heinz Mandl and S t e f f e n - P e t e r B a l l s t a e d t Deutsches I n s t i t u t fiir F e r n s t u d i e n an d e r l l n i v e r s i t a t Tubingen Tu bi nge n Federal Republic o f Germany E l a b o r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e an i m p o r t a n t component i n any t h e o r y o f comprehension. T h e i r q u a n t i t a t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and q u a l i t a t i v e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , however, p r e s e n t us w i t h a number o f methodological d i f f i c u l t i e s . In a p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t could be showi t h a t e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s can be i n f l u e n c e d by t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n . The d a t a a l s o i n d i c a t e an i n v e r t e d u-shaped r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s and r e c a l l performance: A s u b j e c t who e l a b o r a t e s very l i t t l e and one who e l a b o r a t e s a g r e a t d e a l both perform l e s s well t h a n a s u b j e c t w i t h an a v e r a g e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s .
Some time b e f o r e t h e development o f c o g n i t i v e psychology, i t was a l r e a d y known t h a t new i n f o r m a t i o n can o n l y be r e g i s t e r e d and comprehended through t h e mediation o f p r e v i o u s l y s t o r e d knowledge. H e r b a r t (1824/25) f o r example, d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o c e s s o f a p p e r c e p t i o n a s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f new i d e a s r e r u l t i n g from p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s i n t o the a p p e r c e p t i v e mass a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e . Hermeneutics, t o o , being t h e c l a s s i c r h e o r y o f t e x t comprehens i o n , s t r e s s e s t h e importance o f p r i o r knowledge f o r the way r e a d e r s a s s i m i l a t e t e x t s ( D i l t h e y , 1957; Gadamer, 1 9 6 0 ) . This a n c i e n t i d e a , fundamental t o a n y t h e o r y o f comprehension, o n l y e n t e r e d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n i s t i c t h e o r y o f verbal l e a r n i n g and c o g n i t i v e psychology through t h e back d o o r . On t h e assumption t h a t l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e a l l based on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f e l e mentary u n i t s , experiments w i t h l i s t s o f meaningless s y l l a b l e s , words, and word p a i r s were conducted t o d i s c o v e r t h e r u l e s governing t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n s . I t soon became a p p a r e n t t h a t i n l e a r n i n g t h e l i s t s , subj e c t s d i d not c o n f i n e themselves merely t o c r e a t i n g a s s o c i a t i v e 1 i n k s based on temporal c o n t i g u i t y a s p o s t u l a t e d , b u t t h a t a l o t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and i n t e g r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s went on (Bredenkamp and Wippich, 1 9 7 7 ) . Let us t a k e the experimental paradigm o f p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e l e a r n i n g as an example. During t h e l e a r n i n g phase t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t s t h e s u b j e c t s w i t h p a i r s of words, t h e f i r s t word o f each p a i r having t h e f u n c t i o n o f s t i m u l u s . and t h e second the f u n c t i o n o f r e s p o n s e . E f f i c i e n t l e a r n e r s n o t o n l y make connect i o n s between t h e p a i r e d words, but a l s o i n t e g r a t e them i n t o a s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h each o t h e r . Or, t h e y may g e n e r a t e non-verbal images i n which t h e c o n c e p t s p r e s e n t e d a r e i m a g i n a t i v e l y u n i t e d . These p r o c e s s e s o f m e d i a t i o n r e p r e s e n t a simple example of e l a b o r a t i v e encoding: i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t has been p r e s e n t e d , p r i o r knowledge has been a c t i v a t e d i n t o which the new i n f o r m a t i o n i s embedded. Treiber and Groeben ( 2 9 7 6 ) g i v e an e x t e n s i v e review o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n from a s s o c i a t i v e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y t o 482
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t h e e l a b o r a t i o n model o f l e a r n i n g . F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e l a b o r a t i o n model can be f o u n d w i t h i n t h e l e v e l s o f - p r o c e s s i n g a p p r o a c h ( C r a i k and L o c k h a r t , 1972; Cermak and C r a i k , 1 9 7 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t h e o r y , i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e supposed t o be l o c a t e d on a c o n t i n u u m r e a c h i n g f r o m p e r c e p t u a l t o s e m a n t i c a n a l y s i s , whereby e a c h l e v e l i s supposed t o have i t s s p e c i f i c memory t r a c e s ( K i n t s c h , 1 9 7 7 ) . The c o n c e p t o f p r o c e s s i n g d e p t h r e f e r s t o t h e l e v e l t h a t has been r e a c h e d i n each c a s e . A t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f s e m a n t i c p r o c e s s i n g , however, t h e c o n c e p t o f p r o c e s s i n g b r e a d t h w o u l d be more adequate ( C r a i k and J a c o b y , 1 9 7 9 ) , s i n c e a number o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n f e r e n c e s o c c u r a t t h i s l e v e l d u r i n g r e a d i n g ( C r o t h e r s , 1979; F r e d e r i k s e n e t a1 ., 1 9 7 8 ) . A l l t h e s e i n f e r e n c e s a r e due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f schemata w h i c h have been a c t i v a t e d e i t h e r b y t h e t e x t o r by o t h e r schemata. B a s i c a l l y , t w o t y p e s o f i n f e r e n c e s can be d i s c e r n e d , e v e n t h o u g h i n some a c t u a l c a s e s i t may n o t a l w a y s be p o s s i b l e t o d r a w a c l e a r l i n e between them ( R e d e r , 1 9 8 0 ) : ( 1 ) S l o t - f i l l i n g i n f e r e n c e s a r e based on schemata t h a t have been a c t i v a t e d by t h e t e x t . T h i s t y p e o f i n f e r e n c e i s o b l i g a t o r y f o r any k i n d o f sentence o r t e x t c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Hence, a s e n t e n c e l i k e Peter drank too much again Last n i g h t c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d i f t h e DRINKING-schema becomes a c t i v a t e d c o n t a i n i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i n e v e r y d a y l a n g u a g e " t o o much" u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o a l c o h o l i c d r i n k s . I n o t h e r words t h e empty argument s l o t o f t h e DRINKING-schema i s f i l l e d i n by p r i o r knowledge. I n many t e x t s c o h e r e n c e may o n l y be e s t a b l i s h e d b y i n f e r r i n g a r g u m e n t s . The s h o r t passage The car Jen t around t h e corner. The t i r e s sauealed needs t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f a C4Rschema c o n t a i n i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t i r e s r e p r e s e n t a p a r t o f a c a r , i n o r d e r t o become c o h e r e n t and, hence, u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h i s k i n d o f i n f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t s m i n i m a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r c o m p r e h e n s i o n . I t i s a l s o c a l l e d an i n t e n d e d i n f e r e n c e s i n c e t h e a u t h o r o f t h e t e x t t h i n k s t h a t h e / s h e may r e l y on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l i n f e r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e h e l p o f h i s / h e r p r i o r knowledge ( C l a r k , 1 9 7 7 ) . (2) T h e r e a r e o t h e r i n f e r e n c e s , however, w h i c h go beyond s l o t - f i l l i n g , when a c t i v a t e d schemata have t h e e f f e c t o f e n l a r g i n g and s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e t e x t . F o r example, i f t h e t e x t c o n t a i n s t h e s e n t e n c e Many p l a n t s cont ain substances which are o f pharmaceutical use t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f t h e t w o schemata PLANTS and ILLNESS c o u l d evoke t h e i d e a Some peopZe drink herb t e a s when they f e e 2 s i c k . These o p t i o n a l i n f e r e n c e s a r e e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . Through e l a b o r a t i o n s r e l a t i o n s a r e c r e a t e d t h a t go beyond t h o s e p r e s e n t i n t h e t e x t and t h a t r e l a t e t h e t e x t t o t h e v a r i o u s knowledge s t r u c t u r e s t h e r e a d e r possesses. E l a b o r a t i o n s h e l p t o make h i s / h e r knowl e d g e c o h e r e n t . T h i s happens as f o l l o w s : One c o n t e n t u n i t o f t h e t e x t a c t i v a t e s a schema o r a g r o u p o f schemata w i t h t h e h e l p o f w h i c h c o n c l u s i o n s g o i n g beyond t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e t e x t may be drawn. By means o f e l a b o r a t i o n s t h e knowledge s t r u c t u r e r e a l i z e d i n t h e t e x t may be e n l a r g e d i n a number o f ways. Thus, e l a b o r a t i v e i n f e r e n c e s c a n be r e g a r d e d as t h e c r e a t i v e a s p e c t o f r e a d i n g , f o r t h e y r e l a t e t h e n o v e l i n f o r m a t i o n t o knowledge ( s e m a n t i c memory) and t o e x p e r i e n c e ( e p i s o d i c memory) i n a number o f i d i o s y n c r a t i c ways. The number o f such i n f e r e n c e s can v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m one r e a d e r t o a n o t h e r , d e p e n d i n g on h i s / h e r p r i o r knowledge, i n t e r e s t s , r e a d i n g t i m e , e t c . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a d e r may u n d e r s t a n d a t e x t w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t i o n s , t h e s e can s t i l l be r e g a r d e d as a h e l p t o w a r d s d e e p e r u n d e r standing. H e r h a r t was a l s o aware o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s o f e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s . L e a r n i n g can be f a c i l i t a t e d b y a c t i v a t i n g p r i o r knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e t h r o u q h v a r i o u s l e a r n i n g and t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s . S t a r t i n g f r o m R o t h k o p f ' s 11970) t h e o r y of mathemagenic b e h a v i o r , Mayer ( 1 9 8 0 ) d e v e l o p e d
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a t h e o r y o f a s s i m i l a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o H e r b a r t ' s approach. According t o t h i s t h e o r y , l e a r n i n g o f meaningful m a t e r i a l i s a f f e c t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g two c o n d i t i o n s : ( 1 ) t h e l e a r n e r must p o s s e s s a meaningful p a t t e r n o f p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t he/she can use a s an " a s s i m i l a t i v e c o n t e x t " ; ( 2 ) t h e l e a r n e r must make a c t i v e use o f such an a s s i m i l a t i v e c o n t e x t during reading. Mayer (1980) assumes t h a t t h i s second c o n d i t i o n can be s u p p o r t e d by e l a b o r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s . I f t h e novel i n f o r m a t i o n i s embedded in a broader p a t t e r n of p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s , t h i s should r e s u l t i n a more comprehensive and b e t t e r i n t e g r a t e d s t r u c t u r e . I n i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s own f i n d i n g s , he s t r e s s e s t h e importance o f l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s such a s t h e s e a r c h f o r r e l e v a n t p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s and t h e a c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s a v a i l a b l e knowledge t o keyc o n c e p t s a p p e a r i n g in t h e t e x t . I f t h e s e two c o n d i t i o n s a r e met, new i n formation can be a s s i m i l a t e d and i n t e g r a t e d . Some e l a b o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s such a s g e n e r a t i n g mental images, i n t e g r a t i v e s e n t e n c e s , o r q u e s t i o n i n g o n e s e l f , can be s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a i n e d ( B a l l s t a e d t , Mandl, Schnotz and Tergan, 1 9 8 1 ) . They p l a y an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in most memory t e c h n i q u e s . Weinstein ( 1 9 7 8 ) , W e i n s t e i n , Underwood, Wicker and Cubberly (1979) developed and conducted a complete e l a b o r a t i o n t r a i n i n g program f o r n i n t h g r a d e r s . Learning performance proved t o be b e t t e r in t h e experimental group, t r a i n e d i n e l a b o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , than in t h e c o n t r o l group. The f i n d i n g s so f a r s u g g e s t t h a t e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s can h e l p t o improve l e a r n i n g and memory performance. However t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether o r n o t t h e y a r e always h e l n f u l under any c i r c u m s t a n c e s i s s t i l l open. Anderson and Reder (1979) a s well a s Reder (1980) developed a s o - c a l l e d s c r i p t - e l a b o r a t i o n model based on t h e approach o f Schank and Abel son ( 1 9 7 7 ) . In t h i s model, e l a b o r a t i v e i n f e r e n c e s a r e made on t h e b a s i s o f a c t i v a t e d s c r i p t s i . e . , v e r y complex schemata c o n t a i n i n g knowledge about s t e r e o t y p e d sequences o f a c t i o n s and e v e n t s i n w e l l - d e f i n e d s i t u a t i o n s . The best-known example i s t h e famous RESTAURANT-script comprising a l l i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r a s u c c e s s f u l v i s i t t o a r e s t a u r a n t . Reder (1980) i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e funct i o n s t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s may have in t h e p r o c e s s o f comprehension: ( 1 ) s e c u r i n g coherence between t h e passages and w i t h i n t h e memory s t r u c ture; ( 2 ) g e n e r a t i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s concerning f u r t h e r developments in t h e t e x t ; ( 3 ) d i s c o v e r i n g and r e s o l v i n g a m b i g u i t i e s i n t h e t e x t . E s p e c i a l l y the f i r s t o f t h e s e t h r e e f u n c t i o n s a l l o f which f a c i l i t a t e unders t a n d i n g , i s o f g r e a t importance because i t h e l p s t o i n t e g r a t e new knowl e d g e i n t o t h e knowledge b a s e . According t o Anderson (1980) t h e r e a r e two t h e o r e t i c a l r e a s o n s why e l a b o r a t i o n s l e a d t o b e t t e r r e c a l l . His argument i s based on the assumption t h a t knowledge i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n memory i n t h e form o f s e m a n t i c networks: ( 1 ) Because o f t h e i r g r e a t e r number, a node a v a i l a b l e in an e l a b o r a t e d network i s more l i k e l y t o be r e t r i e v e d , s i n c e i t i s r e l a t e d t o a g r e a t number o f o t h e r nodes. These c o n n e c t i o n s may s e r v e a s a l t e r n a t e r e t r i e v a l routes. ( 2 ) I f one node i s m i s s i n g i n t h e memory s t r u c t u r e , an e l a b o r a t e d network s t i l l l e a v e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n f e r r i n g o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m i s s i n g node from t h e n e i g h b o r i n g nodes. As a r u l e , i n f o r m a t i o n seems t o be b e t t e r r e t a i n e d i n an e l a b o r a t e d network s t r u c t u r e because there a r e more c u e s t o r e f e r t o , i f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . Such a p o s i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e l a b o r a t i o n s bears a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a reconstructive theory of r e c a l l . A theory
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concerned e x c l u s i v e l y with r e t r i e v a l o f s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n could n o t e x p l a i n why an i n c r e a s e in s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n should l e a d t o b e t t e r r e c a l l . Followi n g t h i s a p p r o a c h , Anderson and Reder assume t h a t r e c a l l performance i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f e c t e d by t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s : t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f reconstruction appears t o increase a s a function of e l a b o r a t i v e connections. This q u a n t i t a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s seems p l a u s i b l e a t f i r s t s i g h t , but t h e r e i s reason f o r c a u t i o n . For one t h i n g , t h e r e c e r t a i n l y i s an upper l i m i t t o t h e number of e l a b o r a t i o n s t h a t may be c o n s i d e r e d u s e f u l . I f someone e l a b o r a t e s e n d l e s s l y , he/she w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d a v e r y d i s t r a c t i v e r a t h e r than an i n t e g r a t i v e l e a r n e r . H i s / h e r performance a t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n would probabl y be worse t h a n t h a t of a l e a r n e r w i t h l e s s e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g . Perhaps t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s and r e c a l l performance f o l l o w s an i n v e r t e d u-shaped c u r v e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h i s could be e x p l a i n e d a s f o l l o w s : I f someone makes few o r no e l a b o r a t i o n s , t h e new i n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y "woven i n t o " h i s knowledge s t r u c t u r e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y , be has few cues t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o f the t e x t . Recall p e r f o r mance w i l l a c c o r d i n g l y be poor. Someone who e l a b o r a t e s v e r y b r o a d l y , on the o t h e r hand, wi l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t i n formation because s h e / h e has t o choose among an enormous number o f a c t i v a t e d schemata. The second c r i t i c i s m concerns t h e p u r e l y q u a n t i t a t i v e approach. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s may be "good" o r "bad" f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g , depending on t h e i r q u a l i t y . Some e l a b o r a t i o n s may d i s t r a c t t o o much from the t e x t and, hence, c o n t r i b u t e v e r y l i t t l e t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a c o h e r e n t knowledge s t r u c t u r e . This i s t h e a s p e c t Bransford and h i s coworkers focussed upon. The r e s e a r c h team around Bransford performed a few e x p e r i m e n t s showing q u i t e c l e a r l y t h a t n o t a l l kinds o f e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e e q u a l l y e f f i c i e n t a s r e g a r d s l e a r n i n g f a c i l i t a t i o n ( c f . review by B r a n s f o r d , Franks, Morris and S t e i n , 1979; B r a n s f o r d , 1 9 7 9 ) . S t e i n , Morris and Franks (1978) used t h e method o f cued r e c a l l o f t a r g e t words w i t h t h r e e experimental groups. Group 1 l i s t e n e d t o a l i s t o f base s e n t e n c e s such a s The t a l l man bought t h e crackers. Each s e n t e n c e i n t h e l i s t was u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and s e m a n t i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t . During the t e s t i n g p h a s e , a s e n t e n c e frame was p r e s e n t e d i n which t h e a d j e c t i v e , a s t h e t a r g e t word, was o m i t t e d and had t o be r e c a l l e d : The man bought the crackers. Groups 2 and 3 a l s o l i s t e n e d t o t h e b a s e s e n t e n c e s , but i n a d d i t i o n t h e y were given some e l a b o r a t i v e p h r a s e s a s c o n t e x t . Group 2 l i s t e n e d t o t h e p h r a s e : The t a l l man bought t h e crackers t h a t were on s a l e . Group 3 r e c e i v e d a d i f f e r e n t e l a b o r a t i v e cont e x t : The t a l l man bought the crackers t h a t were on the t o p s h e l f . Both e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e x t s c o n s t i t u t e s e m a n t i c a l l y congruent c o n t i n u a t i o n s o f t h e base s e n t e n c e . The d i f f e r e n c e s l i e s in the f a c t t h a t the e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e x t for Group 3 d e s c r i b e s a s i t u a t i o n which has a s p e c i f i c and n o n - a r b i t r a r y meaning f o r t h e t a r g e t c o n c e p t . The f i n d i n g s showed e x c e l l e n t cued r e c a l l s c o r e s f o r Group 3 w h i l e t h e Scores of Group 2 were bad. In p a r t , t h e s c o r e s o f Group 2 were even lower than t h o s e o f Group 1, showing t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s may even reduce r e c a l l performance. I t f o l l o w s t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e o n l y e f f i c i e n t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y produce a r e l e v a n t c o n t e x t f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f new i n f o r m a t i o n . A s e r i e s o f experiments by Auble and Franks (1978) shows t h a t f o r d i f f i c u l t s e n t e n c e s , e l a b o r a t i o n s conducive t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g improve r e c a l l Performance, whereas postcomprehension e l a b o r a t i o n s reduce performance. However, we must n o t f o r g e t t h a t t h e s e f i n d i n g s r e f e r t o e l a b o r a t i v e cont e x t s provided by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r and n o t g e n e r a t e d by t h e s u b j e c t s . The Same p r i n c i p l e might a p p l y t o spontaneous e l a b o r a t i o n s n o n e t h e l e s s . These f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t t h e t h e o r y o f comprehension by Bransford and McCarrell ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; Bransford ( 1 9 7 9 ) . According t o t h i s t h e o r y , t e x t comprehension con-
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s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f a c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . The l i n g u i s t i c i n p u t s e r v e s as a b a s i s f o r " s e m a n t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s " i n t e g r a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e s ( 1 i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t ) , from t h e r e a d e r ' s p r i o r knowledge, and i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e s i t u a t i o n ( e x t r a l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t ) . Elaborative inferences are e f f e c t i v e t o the extent t h a t they c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s e i n f o r m a t i o n a l s o u r c e s . Thus, i n t h e end, t h e q u a l i t y o f e l a b o r a t i o n s may be s a i d t o be o f g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e i r quant it y . We began w i t h a s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s i n t e n d e d t o f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h e e f f e c t s o f e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e comprehension p r o c e s s , w i t h r e g a r d t o b o t h q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n t h e r e s u l t s o f the f i r s t experiment are reported. Based on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l approaches and r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d above, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f an i n s t r u c t i o n t o e l a b o r a t e a l o u d d u r i n g r e a d i n g and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a t a s k e x p e c t a t i o n , namely, t h a t a t e x t w i l l have t o be r e c a l l e d a f t e r r e a d i n g , a r e t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s w i l l be s t u d i e d : (1) I s t h e r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e o f a g r o u p w h i c h r e c e i v e s t h e e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n and t h e t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g f u t u r e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t e x t b e t t e r than t h a t o f a group which reads t h e t e x t w i t h o u t t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n o r task orientation? (2) Does an i n v e r t e d u-shaped r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t between t h e number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s and r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e ? ( 3 ) Do s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n s a f f e c t r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e ?
METHOD' E x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n and p r o c e d u r e . Four e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s were formed. The f i r s t g r o u p r e c e i v e d n o t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n , i.e., no i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e y w o u l d have t o r e p r o d u c e a t e x t a f t e r r e a d i n g i t , and no i n s t r u c t i o n t o e l a b o r a t e a l o u d d u r i n g r e a d i n g . The second g r o u p a l s o r e c e i v e d no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n , b u t t h e y were i n s t r u c t e d t o e l a b o r a t e . The t h i r d g r o u p r e c e i v e d t h e t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n , b u t n o i n s t r u c t i o n t o e l a b o r a t e . The f o u r t h g r o u p r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g b o t h t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n and e l a b o r a t i o n . A l l f o u r g r o u p s were t o l d t o r e a d t h e t e x t c a r e f u l l y , s e n t e n c e b y s e n t e n c e o r i n s e l f - c h o s e n u n i t s . B e f o r e t h e s u b j e c t s commenced w i t h t h e i r i n t e n s i v e work on t h e t e x t , t h e y were asked t o s k i m o v e r i t f o r one o r two m i n u t e s and t o f o r m an i d e a o f i t s c o n t e n t ( p r e s t r u c t u r i n g p h a s e ) . The t w o e l a b o r a t i o n g r o u p s were p a r t i c u l a r l y r e q u e s t e d t o c o n n e c t t h e s e p a r t s o f t h e t e x t conc e r n i n g i t s s u b j e c t o r t o p i c w i t h a n y t h i n g t h e y a l r e a d y knew, had r e a d , o r had h e a r d a b o u t t h a t s u b j e c t o r t o p i c . A l l s u b j e c t s were a l s o asked t o s a y a l o u d what went t h r o u g h t h e i r heads d u r i n g p r o c e s s i n g . They were a l s o asked t o v e r b a l i z e a n y f e e l i n g s , moods, o r j u d g m e n t s w h i c h o c c u r r e d t o them i n t h e p r o c e s s . The p r o c e d u r e was c a r e f u l l y e x p l a i n e d u s i n g an example. I t must be p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s d e t e r m i n e d w h i c h p o r t i o n s of t e x t , s e n t e n c e s , o r o t h e r u n i t s t h e y wanted t o e l a b o r a t e upon a l o u d . As c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e s and as i n t e r v e n i n g t a s k s between t e x t p r o c e s s i n g and r e c a l l , t h r e e s u b t e s t s o f t h e I n t e l 1 i g e n c e S t r u c t u r e T e s t b y Amthauer ( 1 9 7 1 ) o n v e r b a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( w o r d s e l e c t i o n , f i n d i n g common a t t r i b u t e s , a n a l o g i e s ) and one memory s u b t e s t were p r e s e n t e d t o a l l f o u r g r o u p s . No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found between t h e g r o u p s o n t h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t ( c f . T a b l e 2 ) . The w r i t t e n r e c a l l o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y p r o c e s s e d t e x t t o o k p l a c e a f t e r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 m i n u t e s l a t e r .
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S u b j e c t s and experimental t e x t . In o r d e r t o o b t a i n a group o f s u b j e c t s with r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous p r i o r knowledge r e g a r d i n g t h e t e x t , t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t with 24 law s t u d e n t s . The experimental text was taken from an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n t h r o p o l o g y by N a c h t i g a l l (1974) and c o n t a i n e d 453 words. Analysis o f verbal p r o t o c o l s . The t e x t , verbal p r o t o c o l s , and t h e w r i t t e n t e x t r e p r o d u c t i o n s were d i v i d e d i n t o s o - c a l l e d c o n t e n t u n i t s ( c f . S c h n o t z , B a l l s t a e d t and Mandl, 1 9 8 1 ) . One c o n t e n t u n i t a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s u p e r o r d i n a t e p r o p o s i t i o n i n K i n t s c h ' s model ( K i n t s c h , 1 9 7 8 ) . The e x p e r i mental t e x t , thus t r a n s f o r m e d , c o n s i s t e d o f 38 c o n t e n t u n i t s . Coding c a t e g o r i e s f o r e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e n t u n i t s . Q u a l i t a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f e l a b o r a t i o n s from verbal p r o t o c o l s proved t o be very d i f f i c u l t . The f i r s t a t t e m p t was t o s e l e c t f i v e c a t e g o r i e s supposed t o have an e f f e c t on l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f which was s t i l l u n s p e c i f i c i n some c a s e s . R e f e r r i n g t o p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s shows t h a t t h e r e a d e r e x p l i c i t l y r e s o r t s t o t h e c o n t e x t of h i s own personal e x p e r i e n c e s . Perhaps t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f personal e x p e r i e n c e s improves r e c a l l performance due t o ego-involvement. The problem s t i l l i s t h a t i t a l s o depends on the communicative c o n t e x t whether personal e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l be s t a t e d o r n o t . Not a l l s u b j e c t s w i l l a c t u a l l y v e r b a l i z e a l l t h e i r personal e l a b o r a t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r d i s q u i s e them a s general knowledge a s t h e s u r f a c e l e v e l o f t h e t e x t . The f a c t t h a t g e n e r a t i o n o f images may a l s o enhance l e a r n i n g in t e x t proc e s s i n g seems t o be well e s t a b l i s h e d ( e . g . , Y u i l l e and P a i v i o , 1 9 6 9 ) . B u t t h e same argument a p p l i e s h e r e w i t h r e p o r t i n g personal c o n t e x t s . The u t t e r a n c e s may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e images t h a t u n d e r l i e i t . In a follow-up s t u d y - t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g imagery w i l l be r e p l a c e d by a measure f o r c o n c r e t e n e s s o r imagery. The c a t e g o r y c r i t i c a l comments r e f e r s t o the e x t e n t t o which the r e a d e r i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e t e x t in a c r i t i c a l and i n t e r e s t e d way. I t i s t o be expected t h a t t h i s kind o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i l l r e s u l t i n deeper o r broader proc e s s i n g a n d , hence, w i l l have a p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e on r e c a l l . Paraphrases f r e q u e n t l y occur i n verbal p r o t o c o l s . Whether t h e y r e f l e c t s u p e r f i c i a l o r thorough p r o c e s s i n g i s hard t o d e t e r m i n e . B u t t h e very f a c t o f r e p e a t i n g a meaning u n i t i n t h e s e n s e o f maintenance r e h e a r s a l w i l l probably have a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on r e c a l l . The l a s t c a t e g o r y r e f e r s t o s o - c a l l e d m e t a s t a t e m e n t s u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o r s t y l e ( o r g a n i z a t i o n ) o f the t e x t . S o - c a l l e d m e t a c o g n i t i o n s , w i t h which a s u b j e c t r e f e r s t o his/her own c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n a form o f s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n , were n o t counted a s e l a b o r a t i o n s . The j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s procedure i s d e r i v e d from t h e f a c t t h a t m e t a c o g n i t i o n s o f t h i s kind make no d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o the c o n t e n t o f t h e t e x t . In Table 1 t h e l a b e l s f o r each c a t e g o r y a r e p r e s e n t e d and i l l u s t r a t e d with some examples drawn from o u r m a t e r i a l . I t should be emphasized once a g a i n t h a t we a r e d e a l i n g here w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y system o f c a t e g o r i e s s t i l l in need o f r e v i s i o n .
488
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Table 1. C a t e g o r i e s f o r e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e n t u n i t s
C o n t e x t o f personal e x p e r i e n c e s : e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o some c o n t e x t , autobiographical data L a s t week I went t o an e x h i b i t i o n about t h e Chinese i n Z u r i c h . When I hear J u l i u s Cesar o r T a c i t u s , I am reminded o f my L a t i n course. Imagery: e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o mental imagery: c o l o r d e s c r i p t i o n s , s h a p e e s c r i p t i o n s , reference t o s p a t i a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s Now I ' m v i s u a l i z i n g some people l i v i n g i n a small r u r a l community. I ' m seeing a map o f t h e w o r l d i n what k i n d o f people t h e y a r e .
my mind and
I'm
t r y i n g t o imagine
~~
~~~~
~
~
C r i t i c a l comments: e x p l i c i t v a l u e judgments, i m p l i c i t v a l u e j u d g ments t h r o u g h t h e use o f e v a l u a t i v e words, statements o f agreement o r d i s a p p r o v a l , c r i t i c i s m , q u e s t i o n s on t h e c o n t e n t
I t h i n k t h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s n ' t very precise. T h i s view i s t o o l i m i t e d i n my o p i n i o n . Paraphrases: r e p r o d u c t i o n o f c o n t e n t s i n own words T e x t : T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t s from t h e h i s t o r y o f s c i e n c e - f o r a f t e r t h e p h i l o l o g i s t s had s t a r t e d r e s e a r c h on t h e w r i t t e n sources o f non-European c u l t u r e s , what was l e f t f o r e t h n o l o g y were i n t h e main non-1 i t e r a t e peopl es
.
Paraphrases: E t h n o l o g y i s concerned w i t h non-1 i t e r a t e peoples.
So Ethnology i s m e r e l y concerned w i t h non-1 i t e r a t e
peoples.
Metastatements: Statements c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the t e x t
I c o n s i d e r t h i s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g as t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n . The sentence reads as i f t h i s was t h e p o i n t t o come.
RESULTS AND D I S C U S S I O N Q u e s t i o n 1. I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n an answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n of whether i n s t r u c t i o n s about e l a b o r a t i o n and t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n improve r e c a l l performance, a t w o - f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was c a r r i e d o u t . I t showed no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s - as suggested by a s i m p l e i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e means: e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n : F (1.20) = 1.2 ns; t a s k - o r i e n t a t i o n : F (1.20) = 1.85 ns; i n t e r a c t i o n : F (1.20) = 1.35 ns. The r e s u l t s show ( c f . Table 2 ) t h a t r e c a l l performance i n Group 4 ( e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) was no b e t t e r t h a n t h a t i n Group 1 (no e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) and i n Group 3 (no e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) .
Table 2. Means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f e l a b o r a t i o n u n i t s , m e t a c o g n i t i o n s , r e c a l l u n i t s and i n t e l l i gence (IQ: X = 100; s = 10) Group 1 no e l a b o r a t i o n i n struction/no taskorientation X
S
~
-
X
96.0
elaboration u n i t s ~
Group 2 elaboration instruction/notask-orientation S
Group 3 no e l a b o r a t i o n i n struction/taskorientation X
S
73.0
Group 4 elaboration instruction/taskorientation X
155.2
S
106.6
~
elaboration categories:
m
personal e x p e r i e n c e imagery critical
comments
paraphrasing metastatements met acogn it i on s ~____
~
r e c a l l e d content units r e c a l l e d content units/minute o f processing time verbal i n t e l l i g e n c e (IST/IQ) memory
(IST/IQ)
0 ‘ 1
1.5 1.3 25.5
1.9 2.4 31.5
17.5 21.3
10.3 15.0
4.0
3.5
4.7 5.0 44.2 18.5
5.2 8.9 40.1 20.4
27.5
37.3
7.7
10.4
I-
D
W 0
P rl 0 z
0
z
~
0
18.5
6.8
12.8
6.7
19.0
5.6
19.2
5.3
n -4
X m
-I v)
2.9
1.4
0.9
0.4
3.1
1.5
1.0
0.6
111.0 113.3
8.8 7.9
109.6 110
3.6 9.4
107.9 107.7
4.4 10.2
110.4 110.5
4.4 4.9
490
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Group 2 ( e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n , no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) produced even lower s c o r e s than Group 1 ( n o e l a b o r a t i o n , no t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) and Group 3 ( n o e l a b o r a t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) . However, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . These r e s u l t s do not s u p p o r t t h e assumption by Reder and Anderson (1979) t h a t e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g a1 ways improves r e c a l l performance. However, t h e r e a r e two p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f o u r f i n d i n g s which would l e a v e t h i s assumption untouched. F i r s t o f a l l , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e groups w i t h o u t an e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s a c t u a l l y d i d e l a b o r a t e . Furthermore, t h e q u a l i t y o f e l a b o r a t i o n s i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n groups was n o t c o n s i d e r e d . Following t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n by B r a n s f o r d , i t can be assumed t h a t t h e r e a r e e f f e c t i v e and i n e f f e c t i v e e l a borations w i t h respect t o the task. A1 so the v a r i a b l e " r e c a l l e d c o n t e n t u n i t s / m i n u t e s o f p r o c e s s i n g t i m e " showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s . This v a r i a b l e w i l l n o t be used f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s . Q u e s t i o n 2 . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h c number o f e l a b o r a t i o n s in Group 4 ( e l a b o r a t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) and r e c a l l performance showed an i n v e r t e d u-shaped d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . F i g u r e 1 ) . Curve f i t t i n g y i e l d e d the f o l l o w i n g t h e o r e t i c a l e q u a t i o n : ( B o r t z , 1978, p . 238, 6 . 5 1 ) : y = 1 . 6 2 + 0 . 5 5 ~- 2 . 1 2 ~ + 0 . 3 ~ 3 . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t h e o r e t i c a l and t h e e m p i r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n was R2 = .91.
zr f
RECALL UNITS (z-SCORE)
1,5--
1 -9,5--0
--
-0,5--
-1
--
-1,5--
t
, , -1.5
,
,
-1
,
, , -0,s
, 0
,
,
0.5
1 ' 1,5
*
I
2
ELABORATION UNITS
(z-SCORE) F i g u r e 1. R e l a t i o n between e l a b o r a t i o n u n i t s and r e c a l l u n i t s
X
EFFECTS OF ELABORATION ON RECALL OF TEXTS
491
These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n : I f j u s t a f e w e l a b o r a t i o n s take place, the novel information i s o n l y minimally i n t e g r a t e d i n t o e x i s t i n g knowledge s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e , r e c a l l i s based on v e r y few c l u e s . A p e r s o n who e l a b o r a t e s e x t e n s i v e l y c r e a t e s an i n t r i c a t e i n t e r w e a v i n g o f new and o l d knowledge, b u t t h e n has d i f f i c u l t y d i s c e r n i n g t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g r e c a l l . I n Group 2 ( e l a b o r a t i o n , n o t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l a b o r a t i o n and r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e has a bimodal d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h u s a p p e a r s t o u s t o be u n i n t e r p r e t a b l e . E l a b o r a t i n g w i t h o u t t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n seems t o l e a d n o t o n l y t o i n f e r i o r r e c a l l p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t a l s o t o a l e s s c l e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l a b o r a t i o n and r e p r o d u c t i o n . Q u e s t i o n 3 . The v e r b a l i z a t i o n d a t a were e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r i b e d above: c o n t e x t o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , i m a g e r y , c r i t i c a l comments, p a r a p h r a s e s , m e t a s t a t e m e n t s . I n s p e c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a t e g o r i e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n f o r Group 4 ( e l a b o r a t i o n , t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n ) r e v e a l s t h a t t h e y o c c u r i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t amounts. The m o s t f r e q u e n t c a t e g o r i e s a r e c r i t i c a l comments, m e t a s t a t e m e n t s , and p a r a p h r a s e s ; l e a s t f r e q u e n t a r e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s and i m a g e r y . I t i s a l s o s t r i k i n g t h a t , q u a n t i t a t i v e l y speaking, t h e r e a r e v e r y l a r g e i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n each e l a b o r a t i o n c a t e g o r y . The c a t e g o r y c r i t i c a l comments r a n g e s f r o m 8 t o 109 e l a b o r a t i v e c o n t e n t u n i t s , m e t a s t a t e m e n t s f r o m 5 t o 102, p a r a p h r a s e s f r o m 3 t o 5 5 , i m a g e r y f r o m 0 t o 23, p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s f r o m 0 t o 1 4 . I f we l o o k a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n and r e c a l l p e r f o r mance f o r Group 4, we f i n d f o r t h e c a t e g o r y p a r a p h r a s e s an i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n v e r t e d u-shaped r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s f i n d i n g a p p e a r s p l a u s i b l e , as p a r a p h r a s i n g i s t h e r e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t e d t e x t i n o n e ' s own words, meaning t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s a r e formed w h i c h s t a n d i n c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e g i v e n t e x t . A l l o t h e r t y p e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n showed n o s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h r e c a l l d a t a . The p r e s e n t c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f e l a b o r a t i o n s appears t o us t o be s t i l l u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s and i t s e m p i r i c a l r e s u l t s . D I SClJSS I ON There i s no d o u b t t h a t a c o m p l e t e model o f t e x t comprehension m u s t i n c l u d e e l a b o r a t i o n s as a d e c i s i v e component i n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . There a r e , however, a number o f t h e o r e t i c a l and even more m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h t u r n e l a b o r a t i o n s i n t o a d i f f i c u l t o b j e c t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n . We w o u l d l i k e t o b r i e f l y present a few o f these problems here.
(1) E l a b o r a t i o n s a r e o n l y a c c e s s i b l e v i a t h e v e r b a l i z a t i o n s o f s u b j e c t s . T h i s method, however, o n l y r e v e a l s t h e t i p o f t h e i c e b e r g because, o u t o f t h e immense number o f e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s a c t u a l l y t a k i n g p l a c e , s u b j e c t s s e l e c t o n l y t h o s e e l a b o r a t i o n s t h a t meet c e r t a i n s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a . F o r example, t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a a r e p l a u s i b l e : V e r b a l i z a b i l i t y : Can t h e s u b j e c t f i n d a s u i t a b l e word t o e x p r e s s a n e l a b o ration? Task o r i e n t a t i o n : How does t h e s u b j e c t v i e w t h e t a s k w h i c h i s demanded o f him/her i n t h e exoerimental s i t u a t i o n ? E v a l u a t i o n : Which' e l a b o r a t i o n s does t h e s u b j e c t c o n s i d e r w o r t h communicat i n g ? How i s v e r b a l i z a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d b y c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o n v e n t i o n s ? Thus, a v e r b a l p r o t o c o l o n l y o f f e r s a s e l e c t i v e l o o k a t t h e e l a b o r a t i v e processes o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g reading. ( 2 ) A n o t h e r p r o b l e m a r i s e s i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f v e r b a l p r o t o c o l s . How does one d e t e r m i n e t h e s i z e o f t h e u n i t o f a n a l y s i s ? We chose r e l a t i v e l y comprehensive c o n t e n t u n i t s which, r o u g h l y speaking, correspond t o a h i g h l e v e l p r o p o s i t i o n , encompassing s u b o r d i n a t e p r o p o s i t i o n s ( S c h n o t z , B a l l s t a e d t and
492
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Mandl, 1 9 8 1 ) . A d i f f e r e n t s u g g e s t i o n with s m a l l e r u n i t s was p u t forward by Chafe ( 1 9 8 0 ) . l l s i n g p a r a l i n g u i s t i c and s y n t a c t i c c r i t e r i a , he d i v i d e d t h e t e x t s u r f a c e i n t o i d e a u n i t s roughly c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p h r a s e s . I n a f o r t h coming i n v e s t i g a t i o n we w i l l compare o u r approach t o forming c o n t e n t u n i t s t o t h a t o f Chafe ( B a l l s t a e d t and Mandl, 1 9 8 2 ) . ( 3 ) Previous a t t e m p t s a t c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f i n f e r e n c e s by C r o t h e r s (1979) and F r e d e r i k s e n e t a l . (1978) a r e c e r t a i n l y u s e f u l f o r some t y p e s o f q u e s t i o n s . They a r e h a r d l y p r a c t i c a l f o r work with l o n g e r t e x t s however, a s t h e y r e q u i r e an a n a l y s i s o f t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t , o f v e r b a l i z a t i o n , and o f r e c a l l on a p r o p o s i t i o n a l l e v e l . On t h e o t h e r hand, o u r c a t e g o r y system a p p e a r s t o us t o be t o o c o a r s e a s y e t , and i t s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n t o o sketchy . ( 4 ) I f r e c a l l performance i s r e l a t e d t o p r o c e s s i n g time, t h e n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n has l i t t l e economizing e f f e c t on immediate r e c a l l : e l a b o r a t i o n r e q u i r e s time ( T a b l e 2 ) . However i t remains t o be t e s t e d whether t h e e f f o r t i s n o t worthwhile a f t e r a l l , a s e l a b o r a t i o n may improve long-term r e t e n t i o n a n d / o r cause broader p r o c e s s i n g t o t a k e p l a c e , a s s p e c i f i c comprehension t e s t s could show. They seem t o be more s u i t a b l e t o t e s t e f f e c t s o f e l a b o r a t i o n s than simple r e c a l l t a s k s . I t i s f u r t h e r m o r e c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n s produce s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s on t a s k s o t h e r than t h e r e c a l l o f a t e x t . For i n s t a n c e , e l a b o r a t i o n may f a c i l i t a t e a c c e s s t o more c r e a t i v e s o l u t i o n s i n problem-solving t a s k s . This q u e s t i o n , t o o , w i l l be f u r t h e r investigated.
1 ) The d a t a were c o l l e c t e d by c a n d . r e r . s o z . Gerhard Walsken under i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r s . The verbal p r o t o c o l s and t h e r e c a l l d a t a were c a t e g o r i z e d with a s s i s t e n c e o f c a n d . r e r . 8 0 ~ . Manfred Maikler and c a n d . r e r . s o z . R a i n e r Kluza. REFERENCES Amthauer, R. Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 70. G o t t i n g e n : Hogrefe, 1971. Anderson, J . R . C o g n i t i v e psychology and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s . San F r a n c i s c o : W . M . Freeman and Co., 1980. Anderson, J.R. and Reder, L.M. An e l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f d e p t h o f p r o c e s s i n g . In L.S. Cermak and F.I.M. C r a i k ( E d s . ) . Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1979. Auble, P.M. and Franks, J . J . The e f f e c t s o f e f f o r t toward comprehension on r e c a l l . Memory and C o g n i t i o n , 1978, 6 , 20-25. B a l l s t a e d t , S . - P . and Mandl, H . Problems i n q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h on e l a b o r a t i o n s in t e x t p r o c e s s i n q . In H . Mandl, N . S t e i n and T . Trabasso ( E d s . ) . Learning and t e x t comprehension. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1982, i n p r e s s . B a l l s t a e d t , S . - P . , Mandl, H . , S c h n o t z , W . and Tergan, S.O. Texte v e r s t e h e n , Texte g e s t a l t e n . Munchen : Urban und Schwarzenberg, 1981. B o r t z , J . Lehrbuch d e r S t a t i s t i k . B e r l i n : S p r i n g e r , 1979. B r a n s f o r d , J.D. Human c o g n i t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g and remembering. Belmont, C a l i f o r n i a : !dadsworth, 1979.
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B r a n s f o r d , J . D . and M c C a r r e l l , N.S. A s k e t c h o f a c o g n i t i v e approach t o comprehension: some t h o u g h t s about u n d e r s t a n d i n g what i t means t o comprehend. In W . B . Weimer and D . S . Palermo ( E d s . ) . C o g n i t i o n a n d t h e symbolic p r o c e s s e s . H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979. B r a n s f o r d , J . D . , Franks, J . J . , M o r r i s , C . D . and S t e i n , B.S. Some general c o n s t r a i n t s on l e a r n i n g and memory r e s e a r c h . In L.S. Cermak and F.I.M. Craik ( E d s . ) . Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g in human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N . J . : Erl baum, 1979. Bredenkamp, J . and Wippich, W . Lern- und G e d a c h t n i s p s y c h o l o g i e . Bd. 2 . S t u t t g a r t : Kohl hammer, 1977. Cermak, L.S. and C r a i k , F.I.M. ( E d s . ) , Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g in human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1979. Chafe, W . L . The flow o f t h o u g h t and t h e flow o f l a n g u a g e . In T . Givon ( E d . ) . Discourse and s y n t a x . New York: Academic P r e s s , 1979. C l a r k , H . H . I n f e r e n c e s i n comprehension. In D . LaBerge and S . J . Samuel8 ( E d s . ) . P e r c e p t i o n and comprehension. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1977, 243-263. C r a i k , F.I.M. and Jacobv, L . L . E l a b o r a t i o n and d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s i n e p i s o d i c memory. In L . S . Cermak and F.I.M. Craik ( E d s . ) . Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g i n human memory. H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1979. C r a i k , F.I.M. and L o c k h a r t , R.S. Levels o f p r o c e s s i n g : A framework f o r memory r e s e a r c h . Journal o f Verbal Learning and Verbal B e h a v i o r , 1972, 11, 671-684. C r o t h e r s , E.J. Paragraph, s t r u c t u r e , i n f e r e n c e . Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1979. D i l t h e y , W . Die Entstehung d e r Hermeneutik. In Gesammelte S c h r i f t e n . Bd. 5 . G o t t i n g e n : Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1957. F r e d e r i k s e n , C . H . , F r e d e r i k s e n , J.D., Humphrey, F.M. and O t t e n s e n , J . D i s c o u r s e i n f e r e n c e : Adapting t o t h e i n f e r e n t i a l demands o f school t e x t s . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e meeting o f t h e American Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n . Toronto, 1978. Gadamer, H . - G . Wahrheit und Methode. Grundzuge e i n e r p h i l o s o h p i s c h e n Hermeneutik. Tubingen: Mohr, 1960. H e r b a r t , J . F . Psychologie a l s W i s s e n s c h a f t . E r s t e r und z w e i t e r T e i l . Konigsberg, 1824/25. K i n t s c h , W . Memory and c o g n i t i o n . New York: Wiley, 1977. K i n t s c h , W . Comprehension and memory of t e x t . In W . K . E s t e s ( E d . ) . Handbook o f l e a r n i n g and c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s . Vol. 6 . L i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s i n c o g n i t i v e t h e o r y . H i l l s d a l e , N.J.: Erlbaum, 1 9 7 8 . Mayer, R . E . E l a b o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s t h a t i n c r e a s e the meaningfulness o f t e c h n i c a l t e x t : An experimental t e s t o f t h e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y h y p o t h e s i s . J o u r n a l o f Educational Psychology, 1980, 72,770-784. N a c h t i g a l l , H . Vo1 kerkunde. Eine EinfUhrung. Frankfurt/M. : Suhrkamp, 1974. Reder, L.M. The r o l e o f e l a b o r a t i o n i n t h e comprehension and r e t e n t i o n o f p r o s e : a c r i t i c a l review. Review o f Educational Research, 1980,50,5-53. Rothkopf, E . Z . T h e concept o f mathemagenic a c t i v i t i e s . Review o f Educat i o n a l Research, 1970, 40,325-336.
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W e i n s t e i n , C . E . E l a b o r a t i o n s k i l l s as a l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y . I n H.F. O ' N e i l , j r . ( E d . ) . L e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . New Y o r k : Academic P r e s s , 1978. W e i n s t e i n , C.E., llnderwood, V.L., W i c k e r , F.W. and C u b b e r l y , W.E. C o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s : V e r b a l and i m a g i n a l e l a b o r a t i o n . I n H.F. O'Neil and C . S p i e l b e r g e r ( E d s . ) . C o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s . New York: Academic P r e s s , 1 9 7 9 . Y u i l l e , J.C. and P a i v i o , A . A b s t r a c t n e s s and t h e r e c a l l o f c o n n e c t e d d i s c o u r s e . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1969, 82, 467-472.