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Effects of Feeding Graded Levels of Vitamin D3 on Egg Shell Pimpling in Aged Hens1
METABOLISM AND NUTRITION Effects of Feeding Graded Levels of Vitamin D 3 on Egg Shell Pimpling in Aged Hens1 R. GOODSON-WILLIAMS,2 D. A. ROLAND, SR.,2'4 and J. A. McGUIRE3 Auburn University, Alabama 36849 (Received for publication August 29, 1985)
INTRODUCTION Egg shells having pimple-like textures were observed as early as 1907 (Romanoff and Romanoff, 1949), but the cause of this phenomenon has yet to be discovered. Ball et al. (1974) determined that pimpled egg shells were not the result of common infectious diseases of poultry; Ball et al. (1973) also suggested that pimpling was related to the presence of foreign material on the outer shell membrane before the initiation of shell calcification. Roland et al. (1975) further defined these pimples as calciferous deposits and classified two types: those attached only to the exterior surface of the shell and those attached between the shell membrane and exterior surface. The latter type of pimple is subject to break off and create leakers; therefore pimpled egg shells are one of the four major causes of economic losses due to downgrading. Pimple scoring by Arafa et al. (1982) indicated that egg shell pimpling was
1
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Journal No. 12-85878. 'Poultry Science Dept. 3 Research Data Analysis, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. 4 To whom correspondence should be addressed.
much greater in older than in younger hens. Roland et al. (1975) also showed that the severity of pimpling increased with age of the hens. Farmer and Roland (1982) tested the effects of dietary ingredients, photoperiod, and cage density on egg shell pimpling. They found that depriving the hen of any calcium brought about a temporary reduction in the degree of pimpling, and when calcium was restored, pimpling reoccurred. Along similar lines, Roland and Bushong (1979) determined that force molting reduced the severity of pimpling in hens. Roland (1979) suggested this reduction in pimpling by force molting occurs due to the regression and rejuvenation of the uterus, a process that cleans the reproductive system of calcified minerals. The role of vitamin D 3 (D 3 ) in egg shell calcification and calcium transport has been well documented (DeLuca, 1972; Bar et al., 1978). Excessive levels of D 3 have been shown to cause soft tissue calcification in rats and other animals (Hunt et al., 1972, Chineme et al., 1976). The description of this soft tissue calcification is similar in appearance to that observed in the uterus of hens laying pimpled egg shells (Roland et al, 1975). Brownish-white deposits collected from the uterus of hens laying pimpled egg shells were found to contain approximately 14% calcium.
1556
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
ABSTRACT Pimpled egg shells are one of the various types of egg shell problems in the industry today. In this study, graded levels of vitamin D3 (D3) (0, 138, 275, 550, 2200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU of D3/kg of feed) were fed in a corn-soy ration to Single Comb White Leghorn hens (78 weeks of age), randomly assigned to one of the eight treatments. Feed consumption, egg production, egg weight, egg specific gravity, and pimple score were determined at weekly or biweekly intervals for a 10-week period. At termination of the experiment, calcium, sodium, potassium, and ash content of the uterus and serum calcium levels were assayed. Results showed that a significant (P<.05) linear increase in pimple score, uterine ash, and serum calcium occurred as dietary levels of D 3 increased. Egg production and egg specific gravity were correlated to D3 level in a quadratic fashion. Uterine sodium levels declined with increased D3 in the diet, while potassium values showed no differences. Calcium levels of uterine tissue tended to increase with increased D 3 . The lowest (0 ICU/kg) and highest level of D3 (88,000 ICU/kg) significantly decreased feed consumption. It was concluded that egg shell pimpling is directly related to level of cholecalciferol (D3) in the diet. (Key words: vitamin D 3 , egg shell quality, pimpling, rough shells) 1986 Poultry Science 65:1556-1560
VITAMIN D 3 AND SHELL PIMPLING
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Four hundred and fifty Single Comb White Leghorn hens, 78 weeks of age, were randomly housed in individual cages. One hundred hens were fed the control diet (2200 ICU D 3 /kg), while the remaining hens were divided into seven equal groups. They were fed a basal diet supplemented with 0, 138, 275, 550, 2200, 22,000, 44,000, or 88,000 ICU of D 3 /kg of feed. The composition and analysis of basal diet are shown in Table 1. A quantity of a D 3 concentrate was mixed with corn to create a diluted premix of D 3 . This premix was added at a calculated quantity in each diet by removal of that quantity of corn. A "low" premix containing 74,536 ICU/kg or a "high" premix containing 1,839,895 ICU/kg was used to obtain the desired D 3 level. Egg production, egg weight, egg specific gravity, egg pimple score, and feed consumption were determined on a biweekly basis for a 10-week period. A 3-day sampling of eggs biweekly was used for egg parameter measurements. Pimple scores were determined as described by Farmer and Roland (1982) where: 0 = no pimples, 1 = pimples on one side, 2 = pimples on two sides, 3 = pimples on three sides, 4 = more than 10 pimples total, 5 = large pimple or pimple hole. At the end of the 10-week period, blood was obtained via anterior heart puncture at oviposition from 20 hens/treatment. These hens were then sacrificed and the uterus removed. Serum calcium, as well as uterine calcium, sodium, and potassium were determined
by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Perkin-Elmer) using lanthanum oxide as a sequestering agent. Linear and quadratic regression analyses were performed using SAS (Helwig and Council, 1979) between the D 3 levels and the measured variables. Significance level was set at P<.05. A semi-log plotting of the data was necessary due to the large range of values on the x axis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The overall average egg pimple score for the 10-week period was positively correlated to dietary D 3 (Fig. 1). This linear relationship indicates that severity of pimpling increases with increased D 3 . The first appearance of a significant linear difference in pimpling occurred by Week 4. Average egg specific gravity (Fig. 2) was correlated to dietary D 3 level in a quadratic fashion. Decreased shell quality at the highest level of D 3 supplementation may have been associated with reduced feed intake. The most dramatic increase in egg specific gravity was from the 0 level to the first level of D 3 addition (138 ICU/kg). This increase was almost a 10-unit change in specific gravity from 1.0675 to 1.0773.
TABLE 1. Basal diet composition and calculated analysis Ingredient Corn Soybean meal, 48.5% protein Alfalfa meal, 17% protein Dicalcium phosphate, 18.5% P, 22.0% Ca Limestone Salt Vitamin mineral premix, devoid of D 3 l Calculated analysis % Protein ME kcal/kg % Calcium % Phosphorus % Methionine + cysteine
% 66.72 20.89 1.00 2.04 8.50 .35 .50 16.00 2809 3.75 .70 .55
'Vitamin premix provided per kilogram of diet: vitamin A, 8,000 USPU; vitamin E, 8.0 IU; vitamin B l 2 , .02 mg; riboflavin, 5.5 mg; pantothenic acid, 13.0 mg; niacin, 36.0 mg; choline, 500 mg; folic acid, .50 mg; thiamine, 1.0 mg; pyridoxine, 2.2 mg; biotin, .05 mg; menadione, 2.0 mg; manganese, 65.0 mg; iodine, 1.0 mg; iron, 55.0 mg; copper, 6.0 mg; zinc, 55.0 mg, and cobalt, .20 mg.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
Vitamin D 3 (a fat soluble vitamin stored in the liver) is commonly supplied in commercial layer diets four to eight times the 500 ICU/kg level recommended by the National Research Council, 1984. This could be a factor that predisposes older hens to pimpling problems. In light of the four factors mentioned earlier: 1) older hens have a higher incidence of pimpling, 2) excessive levels of D 3 cause calcium deposition in tissue, 3) most hens are fed four to eight times the NRC recommended level of D 3 , and 4) D 3 is a fat soluble vitamin stored in the body, it was proposed that a relationship between D 3 and egg shell pimpling could exist. Therefore, this study was designed to determine the effect of adequate, inadequate, and excessive levels of D 3 on egg shell pimpling in older hens.
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FIG. 1. The effect of increasing levels of vitamin D 3 (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88 ,000 ICU/kg) on egg shell pimpling.
Egg p r o d u c t i o n was positively correlated t o D 3 level in a quadratic m a n n e r (Fig. 3). This p a t t e r n was present from Week 4 t h r o u g h 10. P r o d u c t i o n had declined significantly in t h o s e h e n s fed t h e 0 level b y Week 4 , d r o p p i n g below 19% b y Week 10. Serum calcium d e m o n s t r a t e d a linear relationship when regressed on D3 level of t h e diet (Fig. 4 ) . T h e lowest calcium level in t h e
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FIG. 3. Average egg production of hens fed increasing levels of vitamin D 3 (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg).
blood was p r e s e n t in birds receiving n o vitamin D 3 . Serum calcium ranged from 23.1 to 3 0 . 4 m g / 1 0 0 ml. Uterine ash also increased with increased levels of D 3 (Fig. 5). This increase in u t e r i n e ash m a y indicate increased mineral c o n t e n t , h e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e t h e o r y of tissue calcification. However, uterine calcium (Fig. 6) did n o t s h o w a significant linear relationship. T h e elevated u t e r i n e calcium in hens having n o
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FIG. 4. The effects of dietary vitamin D 3 (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on serum calcium values.
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D 3 supplementation could have resulted from the dramatic reduction in egg production in these hens. Upon further investigation, the elimination of the basal treatment from the analysis showed a significant linear relationship between D 3 and uterine calcium in the remaining treatments (P<.05). Uterine ash also tended to be high for those hens having no D 3 supplementation (Fig. 5). Uterine sodium levels (Fig. 7) significantly declined with increased D 3 in the diet. There were no significant relationships among D 3 levels and uterine potassium and egg weights. The mean value for uterine K + was .57% of dry weight, and the mean egg weight was 66.0 g.
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FIG. 6. Uterine calcium content with increased vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg).
FIG. 7. The effect of vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on uterus sodium.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
FIG. 5. The effect of dietary vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on uterine ash.
Significant depression of feed consumption occurred in hens fed 0 or 88,000 ICU/kg of vitamin D 3 (Fig. 8). A significant depression in egg production and egg specific gravity was observed by Week 4 in hens receiving a D 3 deficient diet, and this agrees with results reported by Shen et al. (1981, 1982). These authors observed paralysis in hens receiving low levels of D 3 , particularly in those hens consuming 125 ICU/kg. Paralysis was observed in the two lowest treatment levels of this experiment with the 138 ICU/kg treatment having the most hens affected. An improvement in shell quality with additional D 3 was observed in this study, which is contrary to results obtained by Hamilton (1980) and Yannakopoulus and Morris (1979). The discrepancy may be due to the more limited range of D 3 fed by these authors. Older hens are much more prone to egg shell pimpling as reported by Roland et al. (1975) and Arafa et al. (1982). In work by Chineme et al. (1976), soft tissue calcinosis was found in several tissues of young pigs receiving a diet containing vitamin D 3 at 625 times the recommended level for an 8-week period. Hunt et al. (1972) similarly reported extensive soft tissue calcification in Rhesus monkeys given daily oral doses of 200,000 ICU of cholecalciferol (D 3 ). The exact mechanisms by which D 3 causes soft tissue calcification is not known. Chineme et al.
1560
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( 1 9 7 6 ) n o t e d t h a t hypercalcemia of similar magnitude was observed in t w o of t h e highest levels of D 3 fed; however, only t h e highest level caused soft tissue calcification. If t h e calcium c o n t e n t of certain tissues can b e elevated with high doses of cholecalciferol, t h e n excess calcium at t h e site of egg shell calcification could bring a b o u t secretion of calcium c a r b o n a t e crystals producing t h e brownish-white particles observed in t h e u t e r u s and isthmus of hens laying pimpled egg shells, previously described b y Roland et ah, 1 9 7 5 . These crystals could t h e n a t t a c h t o t h e egg m e m b r a n e , causing pimpling. A l t h o u g h n o t linear, t h e r e were elevated levels of u t e r i n e calcium in those hens fed higher levels of D3 in this s t u d y . T h e reason t h a t D3 might e n h a n c e egg shell pimpling is only supposition; however, it is clear t h a t excess D 3 can cause soft tissue calcification. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this research lies in t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t egg shell pimpling is affected b y calcium m e t a b o l i s m , indirectly b y D 3 . T h e level of D 3 in t h e diet might be reduced t o alleviate or retard t h e deposition of calcium deposits on t h e egg shell in p r o b l e m flocks having excessive pimpling p r o b l e m s .
REFERENCES Arafa, A. S., F. M. Hassanien, and R. H. Harms, 1982. Relationship between age of hens, egg specific gravity and time of day to pimpling of egg shells. Poultry Sci. 61:385-387.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
FIG. 8. The influence of vitamin D 3 level (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on feed consumption. The lowest and highest levels of D s were significantly different from the other treatments (P<.05). HD = Hen day.
Ball, R. F., J. F. Hill, R. J. Mackin, and V. Logan, 1974. Evidence that the common rough or pimply egg shell condition is not disease related. Poultry Sci. 53:840-842. Ball, R. F., R. J. Mackin, R. J. Hill, and A. J. Wyatt, 1973. The nature and probable cause of rough egg shell laid by two lines of White Leghorns. Poultry Sci. 52:500-506. Bar, A., A. Cohen, U. Eisner, G. Risenfield, and S. Hurwitz, 1978. Differential response of calcium transport systems in laying hens to exogenous and endogenous changes in vitamin D status. J. Nutr. 108:1322-1327. Chineme, C. N., L. Krook, and W. G. Pond, 1976. Bone pathology in hypervitaminosis D: An experimental study in young pigs. Cornell Vet. 66:387-412. DeLuca, H. F., 1972. Metabolites of vitamin D: new tools of medicine and nutrition. Pages 20-24 in Proc. Cornell Nutr. Conf. Farmer, M., and D. A. Roland, Sr., 1982. The influence of dietary ingredients, photoperiod and cage density in egg shell pimpling. Poultry Sci. 61:495-502. Hamilton, R.M.G., 1980. The effects of dietary phosphorus, vitamin D 3 and 25-hydroxy vitamin D 3 levels of feed intake, production performance and egg and shell quality in two strains of forcemolted white leghorns. Poultry Sci. 59:598-604. Helwig, J. T., and K. A. Council, 1979. SAS User's Guide, 1979 ed. SAS Inst., Cary, NC. Hunt, R. D., F. C. Garcia, and R. J. Walsh, 1972. A comparison of the toxicity of ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol in Rhesus monkeys. J. Nutr. 102:975-986. National Research Council, 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 8th ed. Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, DC. Roland, D. A., Sr., 1979. The role of calcium in egg shell formation and strength. Pages 23^50 in Proc. New Orleans Symp. on Egg shell Quality. Roland, D. A., Sr., and R. D. Bushong, 1979. Bodychecked, misshapen and pimpled eggs as influenced by force molting. Poultry Sci. 58: 955-959. Roland, D. A., Sr., J. B. Thompson, R. A. Voitle, and R. H. Harms, 1975. Studies on the cause, prevention and artificial creation of pimpled egg shells. Poultry Sci. 54:1485-1491. Romanoff, A. L., and A. J. Romanoff, 1949. Pages 268-273 in The Avian Egg. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY. Shen, H„ J. D. Summers, and S. Leeson, 1981. Egg production and shell quality of layers fed various levels of vitamin D 3 . Poultry Sci. 60:1485-1490. Shen, H., J. D. Summers, and S. Leeson, 1982. Influence of a vitamin D deficiency on egg shell, membrane and egg shell weight. Poultry Sci. 61:746-749. Yannakopoulos, A. L., and T. R. Morris, 1979. Effect of light, vitamin D and dietary phosphorus on egg shell quality late in the pullet laying year. Br. Poult. Sci. 20:337-342.
INTRODUCTION Egg shells having pimple-like textures were observed as early as 1907 (Romanoff and Romanoff, 1949), but the cause of this phenomenon has yet to be discovered. Ball et al. (1974) determined that pimpled egg shells were not the result of common infectious diseases of poultry; Ball et al. (1973) also suggested that pimpling was related to the presence of foreign material on the outer shell membrane before the initiation of shell calcification. Roland et al. (1975) further defined these pimples as calciferous deposits and classified two types: those attached only to the exterior surface of the shell and those attached between the shell membrane and exterior surface. The latter type of pimple is subject to break off and create leakers; therefore pimpled egg shells are one of the four major causes of economic losses due to downgrading. Pimple scoring by Arafa et al. (1982) indicated that egg shell pimpling was
1
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Journal No. 12-85878. 'Poultry Science Dept. 3 Research Data Analysis, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. 4 To whom correspondence should be addressed.
much greater in older than in younger hens. Roland et al. (1975) also showed that the severity of pimpling increased with age of the hens. Farmer and Roland (1982) tested the effects of dietary ingredients, photoperiod, and cage density on egg shell pimpling. They found that depriving the hen of any calcium brought about a temporary reduction in the degree of pimpling, and when calcium was restored, pimpling reoccurred. Along similar lines, Roland and Bushong (1979) determined that force molting reduced the severity of pimpling in hens. Roland (1979) suggested this reduction in pimpling by force molting occurs due to the regression and rejuvenation of the uterus, a process that cleans the reproductive system of calcified minerals. The role of vitamin D 3 (D 3 ) in egg shell calcification and calcium transport has been well documented (DeLuca, 1972; Bar et al., 1978). Excessive levels of D 3 have been shown to cause soft tissue calcification in rats and other animals (Hunt et al., 1972, Chineme et al., 1976). The description of this soft tissue calcification is similar in appearance to that observed in the uterus of hens laying pimpled egg shells (Roland et al, 1975). Brownish-white deposits collected from the uterus of hens laying pimpled egg shells were found to contain approximately 14% calcium.
1556
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
ABSTRACT Pimpled egg shells are one of the various types of egg shell problems in the industry today. In this study, graded levels of vitamin D3 (D3) (0, 138, 275, 550, 2200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU of D3/kg of feed) were fed in a corn-soy ration to Single Comb White Leghorn hens (78 weeks of age), randomly assigned to one of the eight treatments. Feed consumption, egg production, egg weight, egg specific gravity, and pimple score were determined at weekly or biweekly intervals for a 10-week period. At termination of the experiment, calcium, sodium, potassium, and ash content of the uterus and serum calcium levels were assayed. Results showed that a significant (P<.05) linear increase in pimple score, uterine ash, and serum calcium occurred as dietary levels of D 3 increased. Egg production and egg specific gravity were correlated to D3 level in a quadratic fashion. Uterine sodium levels declined with increased D3 in the diet, while potassium values showed no differences. Calcium levels of uterine tissue tended to increase with increased D 3 . The lowest (0 ICU/kg) and highest level of D3 (88,000 ICU/kg) significantly decreased feed consumption. It was concluded that egg shell pimpling is directly related to level of cholecalciferol (D3) in the diet. (Key words: vitamin D 3 , egg shell quality, pimpling, rough shells) 1986 Poultry Science 65:1556-1560
VITAMIN D 3 AND SHELL PIMPLING
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Four hundred and fifty Single Comb White Leghorn hens, 78 weeks of age, were randomly housed in individual cages. One hundred hens were fed the control diet (2200 ICU D 3 /kg), while the remaining hens were divided into seven equal groups. They were fed a basal diet supplemented with 0, 138, 275, 550, 2200, 22,000, 44,000, or 88,000 ICU of D 3 /kg of feed. The composition and analysis of basal diet are shown in Table 1. A quantity of a D 3 concentrate was mixed with corn to create a diluted premix of D 3 . This premix was added at a calculated quantity in each diet by removal of that quantity of corn. A "low" premix containing 74,536 ICU/kg or a "high" premix containing 1,839,895 ICU/kg was used to obtain the desired D 3 level. Egg production, egg weight, egg specific gravity, egg pimple score, and feed consumption were determined on a biweekly basis for a 10-week period. A 3-day sampling of eggs biweekly was used for egg parameter measurements. Pimple scores were determined as described by Farmer and Roland (1982) where: 0 = no pimples, 1 = pimples on one side, 2 = pimples on two sides, 3 = pimples on three sides, 4 = more than 10 pimples total, 5 = large pimple or pimple hole. At the end of the 10-week period, blood was obtained via anterior heart puncture at oviposition from 20 hens/treatment. These hens were then sacrificed and the uterus removed. Serum calcium, as well as uterine calcium, sodium, and potassium were determined
by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Perkin-Elmer) using lanthanum oxide as a sequestering agent. Linear and quadratic regression analyses were performed using SAS (Helwig and Council, 1979) between the D 3 levels and the measured variables. Significance level was set at P<.05. A semi-log plotting of the data was necessary due to the large range of values on the x axis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The overall average egg pimple score for the 10-week period was positively correlated to dietary D 3 (Fig. 1). This linear relationship indicates that severity of pimpling increases with increased D 3 . The first appearance of a significant linear difference in pimpling occurred by Week 4. Average egg specific gravity (Fig. 2) was correlated to dietary D 3 level in a quadratic fashion. Decreased shell quality at the highest level of D 3 supplementation may have been associated with reduced feed intake. The most dramatic increase in egg specific gravity was from the 0 level to the first level of D 3 addition (138 ICU/kg). This increase was almost a 10-unit change in specific gravity from 1.0675 to 1.0773.
TABLE 1. Basal diet composition and calculated analysis Ingredient Corn Soybean meal, 48.5% protein Alfalfa meal, 17% protein Dicalcium phosphate, 18.5% P, 22.0% Ca Limestone Salt Vitamin mineral premix, devoid of D 3 l Calculated analysis % Protein ME kcal/kg % Calcium % Phosphorus % Methionine + cysteine
% 66.72 20.89 1.00 2.04 8.50 .35 .50 16.00 2809 3.75 .70 .55
'Vitamin premix provided per kilogram of diet: vitamin A, 8,000 USPU; vitamin E, 8.0 IU; vitamin B l 2 , .02 mg; riboflavin, 5.5 mg; pantothenic acid, 13.0 mg; niacin, 36.0 mg; choline, 500 mg; folic acid, .50 mg; thiamine, 1.0 mg; pyridoxine, 2.2 mg; biotin, .05 mg; menadione, 2.0 mg; manganese, 65.0 mg; iodine, 1.0 mg; iron, 55.0 mg; copper, 6.0 mg; zinc, 55.0 mg, and cobalt, .20 mg.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
Vitamin D 3 (a fat soluble vitamin stored in the liver) is commonly supplied in commercial layer diets four to eight times the 500 ICU/kg level recommended by the National Research Council, 1984. This could be a factor that predisposes older hens to pimpling problems. In light of the four factors mentioned earlier: 1) older hens have a higher incidence of pimpling, 2) excessive levels of D 3 cause calcium deposition in tissue, 3) most hens are fed four to eight times the NRC recommended level of D 3 , and 4) D 3 is a fat soluble vitamin stored in the body, it was proposed that a relationship between D 3 and egg shell pimpling could exist. Therefore, this study was designed to determine the effect of adequate, inadequate, and excessive levels of D 3 on egg shell pimpling in older hens.
1557
1558
GOODSON-WILUAMS ET AL.
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-
/
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FIG. 1. The effect of increasing levels of vitamin D 3 (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88 ,000 ICU/kg) on egg shell pimpling.
Egg p r o d u c t i o n was positively correlated t o D 3 level in a quadratic m a n n e r (Fig. 3). This p a t t e r n was present from Week 4 t h r o u g h 10. P r o d u c t i o n had declined significantly in t h o s e h e n s fed t h e 0 level b y Week 4 , d r o p p i n g below 19% b y Week 10. Serum calcium d e m o n s t r a t e d a linear relationship when regressed on D3 level of t h e diet (Fig. 4 ) . T h e lowest calcium level in t h e
275
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I l l
2200
Vitamin D 3
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FIG. 3. Average egg production of hens fed increasing levels of vitamin D 3 (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg).
blood was p r e s e n t in birds receiving n o vitamin D 3 . Serum calcium ranged from 23.1 to 3 0 . 4 m g / 1 0 0 ml. Uterine ash also increased with increased levels of D 3 (Fig. 5). This increase in u t e r i n e ash m a y indicate increased mineral c o n t e n t , h e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e t h e o r y of tissue calcification. However, uterine calcium (Fig. 6) did n o t s h o w a significant linear relationship. T h e elevated u t e r i n e calcium in hens having n o
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Vitamin D3 (ICU/kg) FIG. 2. The effect of dietary vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on egg specific gravity.
FIG. 4. The effects of dietary vitamin D 3 (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on serum calcium values.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Kainan University on May 4, 2015
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1559
VITAMIN D 3 AND SHELL PIMPLING
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D 3 supplementation could have resulted from the dramatic reduction in egg production in these hens. Upon further investigation, the elimination of the basal treatment from the analysis showed a significant linear relationship between D 3 and uterine calcium in the remaining treatments (P<.05). Uterine ash also tended to be high for those hens having no D 3 supplementation (Fig. 5). Uterine sodium levels (Fig. 7) significantly declined with increased D 3 in the diet. There were no significant relationships among D 3 levels and uterine potassium and egg weights. The mean value for uterine K + was .57% of dry weight, and the mean egg weight was 66.0 g.
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FIG. 6. Uterine calcium content with increased vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg).
FIG. 7. The effect of vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on uterus sodium.
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FIG. 5. The effect of dietary vitamin D 3 levels (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on uterine ash.
Significant depression of feed consumption occurred in hens fed 0 or 88,000 ICU/kg of vitamin D 3 (Fig. 8). A significant depression in egg production and egg specific gravity was observed by Week 4 in hens receiving a D 3 deficient diet, and this agrees with results reported by Shen et al. (1981, 1982). These authors observed paralysis in hens receiving low levels of D 3 , particularly in those hens consuming 125 ICU/kg. Paralysis was observed in the two lowest treatment levels of this experiment with the 138 ICU/kg treatment having the most hens affected. An improvement in shell quality with additional D 3 was observed in this study, which is contrary to results obtained by Hamilton (1980) and Yannakopoulus and Morris (1979). The discrepancy may be due to the more limited range of D 3 fed by these authors. Older hens are much more prone to egg shell pimpling as reported by Roland et al. (1975) and Arafa et al. (1982). In work by Chineme et al. (1976), soft tissue calcinosis was found in several tissues of young pigs receiving a diet containing vitamin D 3 at 625 times the recommended level for an 8-week period. Hunt et al. (1972) similarly reported extensive soft tissue calcification in Rhesus monkeys given daily oral doses of 200,000 ICU of cholecalciferol (D 3 ). The exact mechanisms by which D 3 causes soft tissue calcification is not known. Chineme et al.
1560
GOODSON-WILLIAMS ET AL.
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( 1 9 7 6 ) n o t e d t h a t hypercalcemia of similar magnitude was observed in t w o of t h e highest levels of D 3 fed; however, only t h e highest level caused soft tissue calcification. If t h e calcium c o n t e n t of certain tissues can b e elevated with high doses of cholecalciferol, t h e n excess calcium at t h e site of egg shell calcification could bring a b o u t secretion of calcium c a r b o n a t e crystals producing t h e brownish-white particles observed in t h e u t e r u s and isthmus of hens laying pimpled egg shells, previously described b y Roland et ah, 1 9 7 5 . These crystals could t h e n a t t a c h t o t h e egg m e m b r a n e , causing pimpling. A l t h o u g h n o t linear, t h e r e were elevated levels of u t e r i n e calcium in those hens fed higher levels of D3 in this s t u d y . T h e reason t h a t D3 might e n h a n c e egg shell pimpling is only supposition; however, it is clear t h a t excess D 3 can cause soft tissue calcification. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this research lies in t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t egg shell pimpling is affected b y calcium m e t a b o l i s m , indirectly b y D 3 . T h e level of D 3 in t h e diet might be reduced t o alleviate or retard t h e deposition of calcium deposits on t h e egg shell in p r o b l e m flocks having excessive pimpling p r o b l e m s .
REFERENCES Arafa, A. S., F. M. Hassanien, and R. H. Harms, 1982. Relationship between age of hens, egg specific gravity and time of day to pimpling of egg shells. Poultry Sci. 61:385-387.
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FIG. 8. The influence of vitamin D 3 level (0, 138, 275, 550, 2,200, 22,000, 44,000, and 88,000 ICU/kg) on feed consumption. The lowest and highest levels of D s were significantly different from the other treatments (P<.05). HD = Hen day.
Ball, R. F., J. F. Hill, R. J. Mackin, and V. Logan, 1974. Evidence that the common rough or pimply egg shell condition is not disease related. Poultry Sci. 53:840-842. Ball, R. F., R. J. Mackin, R. J. Hill, and A. J. Wyatt, 1973. The nature and probable cause of rough egg shell laid by two lines of White Leghorns. Poultry Sci. 52:500-506. Bar, A., A. Cohen, U. Eisner, G. Risenfield, and S. Hurwitz, 1978. Differential response of calcium transport systems in laying hens to exogenous and endogenous changes in vitamin D status. J. Nutr. 108:1322-1327. Chineme, C. N., L. Krook, and W. G. Pond, 1976. Bone pathology in hypervitaminosis D: An experimental study in young pigs. Cornell Vet. 66:387-412. DeLuca, H. F., 1972. Metabolites of vitamin D: new tools of medicine and nutrition. Pages 20-24 in Proc. Cornell Nutr. Conf. Farmer, M., and D. A. Roland, Sr., 1982. The influence of dietary ingredients, photoperiod and cage density in egg shell pimpling. Poultry Sci. 61:495-502. Hamilton, R.M.G., 1980. The effects of dietary phosphorus, vitamin D 3 and 25-hydroxy vitamin D 3 levels of feed intake, production performance and egg and shell quality in two strains of forcemolted white leghorns. Poultry Sci. 59:598-604. Helwig, J. T., and K. A. Council, 1979. SAS User's Guide, 1979 ed. SAS Inst., Cary, NC. Hunt, R. D., F. C. Garcia, and R. J. Walsh, 1972. A comparison of the toxicity of ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol in Rhesus monkeys. J. Nutr. 102:975-986. National Research Council, 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 8th ed. Natl. Acad. Sci., Washington, DC. Roland, D. A., Sr., 1979. The role of calcium in egg shell formation and strength. Pages 23^50 in Proc. New Orleans Symp. on Egg shell Quality. Roland, D. A., Sr., and R. D. Bushong, 1979. Bodychecked, misshapen and pimpled eggs as influenced by force molting. Poultry Sci. 58: 955-959. Roland, D. A., Sr., J. B. Thompson, R. A. Voitle, and R. H. Harms, 1975. Studies on the cause, prevention and artificial creation of pimpled egg shells. Poultry Sci. 54:1485-1491. Romanoff, A. L., and A. J. Romanoff, 1949. Pages 268-273 in The Avian Egg. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY. Shen, H„ J. D. Summers, and S. Leeson, 1981. Egg production and shell quality of layers fed various levels of vitamin D 3 . Poultry Sci. 60:1485-1490. Shen, H., J. D. Summers, and S. Leeson, 1982. Influence of a vitamin D deficiency on egg shell, membrane and egg shell weight. Poultry Sci. 61:746-749. Yannakopoulos, A. L., and T. R. Morris, 1979. Effect of light, vitamin D and dietary phosphorus on egg shell quality late in the pullet laying year. Br. Poult. Sci. 20:337-342.