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Effects of land rolling on soil properties and plant growth in chickpea production
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
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Effects of land rolling on soil properties and plant growth in chickpea production
T
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Songül Gürsoya, , Zübeyir Türkb a b
Department of Agricultural Machinery and Technology Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, 21280, Sur, Diyarbakir, Turkey Diyarbakır Agriculture Vocational School, Dicle University, 21280, Sur, Diyarbakır, Turkey
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Land rolling Chickpea Penetration resistance Root growth Nodulation Yield
Land rolling after planting is a common practice in legume production systems in order to smooth the soil surface and improve plant growth by increasing root-soil contact. However, excessive soil compaction due to land rolling can increase soil strength and hamper root growth. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential effects of land rolling on some soil properties and plant growth parameters in chickpea production. For this purpose, the different ground pressures of land roller (0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 kPa) were tested at different times (pre-emergence and post-emergence) under field conditions. To examine the effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on soil properties and plant growth, moisture content, temperature, penetration resistance as soil properties and root dry weight, shoot dry weight, shoot-root ratio, nodule number and grain yield as plant growth parameters were measured. Results showed that the use of the land roller significantly influenced the soil properties (moisture content, temperature, and penetration resistance), plant growth parameters (root dry weight, shoot dry weight, shoot-root ratio, nodule number) and grain yield. The highest grain yield values at 20, 25 and 30 kPa ground pressure levels indicate that some compaction is needed to be able to increase crop yield and prevent the loss of soil moisture.
1. Introduction Chickpea is very important human food among pulse crops and are believed to be one of the first legumes cultivated by humans. Major chickpea producers include India, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran, and Mexico (Joshi and Parthasarathy Rao, 2016). In Turkey, the South East Anatolia is one of the most important regions for chickpea growing. In this region, chickpea is mostly grown in rainfed areas as winter or summer crop and it is a good pulse crop option in rotation with wheat or barley because it is able to fixate the atmospheric nitrogen into soil and to improve soil N. The chickpea described as summer crop is sown in March/April while sowing of winter chickpea is in October/November (Biçer et al., 2017). The land rolling after planting is a common field operation used in both winter and summer chickpea production in region in order to maintain seed/root-soil contact, preserve the soil moisture content and to smooth the soil surface for the harvesting of low-hanging pulse pods. However, land rolling can result in agronomic, economic, and environmental concerns if land roller does not have an adequate ground pressure and is not used in proper time according to soil conditions. These concerns include excessive soil compaction, reduced plant root
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growth and yield, erosion, potential plant injury and added expenses (Romaneckas et al., 2009; Carlson et al., 2016). Many researchers (e.g. Glinski and Lipiec, 1990; Johnston et al., 2003; Beutler et al., 2005; Berti et al., 2008) have emphasized the importance of seed/root-soil contact for different crops (e.g. wheat, canola, cuphea, soybean and field peas) because plant emergence and growth require the right combination of seed/root-soil contact and soil aeration for uptake of water and nutrient. Therefore, moderate soil packing in agriculture production is needed to get good seed/root-soil contact, suitable soil density, timely emergence of seed, root growth and the ability of the plant to absorb the moisture and nutrients from soil. Altikat and Celik (2011) reported that intra-row soil compaction increased the emergence rate of red lentils due to good soil–seed contact and the preservation of soil moisture when compared with no compaction and too low compaction level. Also, Håkansson et al. (2002) reported that using the land roller after planting improved final emergence of cereals by 4% and grain yield by 2%. Tong et al. (2015) reported that the increase in the roller weight increased the contact between seeds and soil, reduced water evaporation and helped seeds to absorb water from soil. The effects of soil packing on nutrient uptake by roots are very
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Gürsoy).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104425 Received 20 April 2019; Received in revised form 16 September 2019; Accepted 18 September 2019 Available online 23 September 2019 0167-1987/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
S. Gürsoy and Z. Türk
Table 1 Monthly rainfall, average temperature, relative humidity during experimental year and long term average. Months
January February March April May June
Rainfall (mm)
Average temperature (˚C)
Relative humidity (%)
Growing season (2018)
Long-term
Growing season (2018)
Long-term
Growing season (2018)
Long-term
86.6 86.4 11.6 48.8 157.8 14.4
71.2 67.0 68.0 68.5 43.8 8.2
5.2 7.6 12.3 15.9 19.4 26.5
1.7 3.7 8.3 13.8 19.2 26.2
77.3 74.5 63.2 53.0 67.5 37.9
76.0 71.6 65.0 63.0 55.0 35.0
ground pressure of the land roller may increase soil penetration resistance 3) the excessive soil compaction by the land roller may decrease root growth, nodulation and grain yield in chickpea production.
complex because restricted growth of roots generally is known to decrease the uptake of nutrients although it increases the movement of nutrient ions to roots (Shierlaw and Alston, 1984). Johnston et al. (2003) found that some level of packing force, not greater than 549 N per press wheel, generally provided the best emergence and yield for wheat, canola and field beans while Altikat and Celik (2011) obtained the maximum emergences rate of lentil at the 60 kPa intra-row compaction level. However, several researchers (e.g. Shierlaw and Alston, 1984; Clark et al., 2003; Fageria et al., 2006) reported that excessive soil compaction resulted in a reduction in number and length of roots, restriction of downward penetration of the main root axes, decrease in leaf thickness, increase in the dry mass shoot to root ratio and a decrease in crop grain yield. Tolon-Becerra et al. (2011) found that too high compaction level inhibited the growth of maize roots and thereby reduced maize yield. Also, Croissant et al. (1991) determined that dry bean yield was reduced by 26% in compacted soil when compared to non-compacted soil. The changes in the root growth by compaction cause the changes in the shoot growth, nodulation and crop yield in legume production. Botta et al. (2010) reported that soil compaction unfavorably affects grain and protein yield of soybean while Buttery et al. (1998) determined that soil compaction resulted in a decrease in nodule number of soybean. The study of Siczek and Lipiec (2011) showed that the total nodule number and weight was the highest in moderately compacted soil. Also, several researchers (e.g. Gediga, 1991; Falkoski Filho et al., 2013; Sarto et al., 2018) reported the increased shoot growth and crop yield in moderately compacted soil. This increase in shoot growth and crop yield was mostly attributed to a greater root–soil contact and to a higher unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and a greater water movement towards the roots. This shows that determining appropriate soil compaction level is important for improvement of sowing quality and increasing of crop yield. Similarly, Cook et al. (1996) stated that there is a lack of knowledge about how and under what circumstances mechanical impedance to root growth affects shoot growth. The degree that a land roller can compact the soil varies with the water content of soil, soil texture and the stress applied to the soil (Plaster, 1992). It is known that the rolling time and the ground pressure of land roller are the most critical factors that affect the soil compaction. Olson et al. (2004) stated that there is limited research on land rolling of pulse crops although land rolling has been a common practice on pulse production. They also reported that more studies were required on rolling times and packing pressure under different soil conditions. In summary, the degree of soil compaction due to land rolling is very important issue for seed emergency and plant root growth because little information on effects of compaction force and times of land rolling on soil properties and plant growth is available for land rollers. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of different rolling times and ground pressures of land roller on some soil properties (moisture content, temperature, penetration resistance) and plant growth parameters (root dry weight, shoot dry weight, shoot-root ratio, nodule number and grain yield). Outlined hypothesis were: 1) land rolling may preserve the soil moisture content 2) the increase in the
2. Material and methods 2.1. Experiment site description and experimental design A field experiment was conducted in February-June 2018 at Dicle University Field Crop Production Field in Diyarbakır, Turkey. The experimental area is located 37°55′36″N 40°13′49″E at 670 m above sea level. The climate of the region is characterized by a semi-arid climate (humid winters and dry summers); rainfall distribution is variable within and among years. Mean annual precipitation, based on the longterm average, is 485 mm, about 80% of which occurs from November to May. Monthly rainfalls, average temperature and relative humidity records during the experimental year (2018) and over the long term (1929–2018) are shown in Table 1. In the experimental year, rainfall was below the long-term average in March and April and above average in May. Monthly average temperature was higher in the experimental year than long-term average. The topsoil of the experimental field (0–20 cm) had a clay soil (490 g kg−1 clay, 225 g kg−1 silt and 285 g kg−1 sand, by weight) with 9.9 g kg−1 of organic matter, 7.96 of pH, 0.08% of total salt, 49.4 g kg−1 of CaCO3, 206 kg ha−1 of P2O5, 1360 kg ha−1 of K2O, saturation with water of 62.7% at 0–20 cm soil depth. Gravimetric soil moisture content and bulk density was determined before the land rolling operations by using oven-dry method. At the time of pre-emergence land rolling, the average soil moisture content and dry bulk density was 26. 2% (dry basis) and 1.17 g cm-3 at the depth of 0–20 cm, respectively. At the time of the post-emergence land rolling, the average soil moisture content was 20.6% (dry basis) and the average dry bulk density of the 0–20 cm soil depth were 1.21 g cm−3. The previous crop in the experiment field was lentil harvested by a combine with a chaff collector. The tillage system for seedbed preparation included cultivator tillage at 15–20 cm depth in October and at 5–10 cm 3 days before seeding. The chickpea (variety: Cagatay) was sown on the 16th of February by a universal grain drill. The seeding rate was 25 seed m−2 and seeding depth was approximately 6 cm. The space between the rows was 30 cm. The 125 kg ha-1 of diammonium phosphate (18% N and 46% P2O5) was applied during planting. The empty weight of the land roller used in the experiment was 550 kg with roller diameter of 50 cm and roller length of 250 cm. The empty weight of the land roller included the frame design, the transport wheels, the hydraulics, etc. The weight of the land roller was increased by filling the 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the roller volume with water to 673, 795, 918 and 1040 kg. The ground pressures of the roller was calculated by dividing the roller weights to the soil contact area of the roller as 0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 kPa. The roller was pulled by the MF 7240 tractor at 6.4 km h−1. The speed of 6.4 km h−1 was chosen to be the most suitable speed in matching the tractor to the land roller. The experiment was conducted in a split plot design with three replications. The main plot comprised two land rolling times [pre-emergence and post-emergence] and the sub-plots included five ground 2
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
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moisture content by 1.8%, 4.3%, respectively. An increase of 50% in the ground pressure of the land roller increased the soil moisture content by 6.5%. The ANOVA results showed that the soil temperature at 15 cm depth was significantly influenced by the ground pressure of the land roller. However, the difference between the land rolling times and the interaction effects of main factors was not statistically significant. The soil temperature was the highest in the untreated control treatment and the lowest in the GP40 treatment, and there was no significant difference among the GP20, the GP25, the GP30, the GP35 treatments (Fig. 2). The changes in soil porosity and moisture content affect soil temperature (Hillel, 1998; Jury et al., 1991). In this study, the land rolling could reduce the air pockets in which evaporation occurs, and ultimately decreases soil drying and heating. Similarly, several researchers (e.g. Radke, 1982; Morrison and Gerik, 1983) reported that higher soil water content caused lower soil temperatures. The effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the soil penetration resistance at different depths are presented at Fig. 3. The rolling time did not statistically influence the soil penetration resistance at all depths. While the ground pressure of the land roller significantly influenced the penetration resistance at the soil surface (∼0 to 15 cm depth), there was no significant difference among the ground pressure treatments at the subsurface layers (20 ∼ 30 cm soil depths). Nevertheless, the interaction effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller did not show significant variation on the penetration resistance at all soil layers. The increased ground pressure of the land roller significantly raised the penetration resistance at the soil layers of 0∼15 cm depth. At all layers of this depth, untreated control treatment had the lowest penetration resistance and the highest at the GP40 treatment. The increase of the ground pressure from 20 to 40 kPa increased the penetration resistance at 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths by 71%, 33% and 32%, respectively. This shows that the effect of the ground pressures on the penetration resistance was higher at 5 cm soil depth than 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths. Similarly, several researchers (e.g. Mosaddeghi et al., 2000; Altikat and Celik, 2011; Jia et al., 2016) found that higher soil compaction after sowing lead to higher soil penetration resistance. The greater Penetration resistance than 2000 kPa has been reported to significantly reduce root growth and crop yield (Oussible et al., 1992; Ishaq et al., 2001). In this study, the less penetration resistance than 2000 kPa was obtained for all ground pressures of the land roller at 0–30 cm soil depths. The root dry weight was not significantly affected by the rolling times. The ground pressure of the land roller had a pronounced effect on the root dry weight. The interaction of the rolling time and the ground pressure of the land roller was not significant. The highest root dry weight was observed at the GP20 treatment and the lowest at the GP40 treatment (Fig. 4). Using the ground pressure of the land roller at 20 kPa increased the root dry weight by 4.8% when compared to the untreated control treatment (GP0). However, the higher ground pressure than 20 kPa significantly decreased the root dry weight. This reduction of the root dry weight at the higher ground pressures of the land roller than 20 kPa can be attributed to limiting root growth due to the high mechanical resistance which the compacted soil presents to plant roots. The results of this study is supported by other studies (e.g. Bengough and Mullins, 1990; Tsegaye and Mullins, 1994; Cook et al., 1996), who reported that root dry weight decreased as mechanical impedance increased. The higher root dry weight at the 20 kPa ground pressure of the land roller than the untreated plots can be attributed to the increased root growth due to higher root-soil contact. The lower root dry weight in the untreated plots shows that root growth can decrease at very loose soil conditions (Atkinson et al., 2009). Fig. 5 indicates the effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot dry weight of chickpea plant. While the rolling time did not affect the shoot dry weight, there were significant differences among the ground pressures of the land roller.
pressures of land roller and untreated control treatments [0 kPa (control), 20 kPa, 25 kPa, 30 kPa, 35 kPa, 40 kPa]. A total of 36 plots were used in the experiment. A sub-plot was 2.5 m wide and 30 m long. The pre-emergence land rolling was done immediately after seeding and the post-emergence rolling was done after the second node (V2) growth stage. 2.2. Measurements Aquaterr - Model T300 - Moisture Measurement Instrument was used to determine the soil moisture content and temperature at 15 cm depth 45 days after planting. The Aquaterr-moisture measurement instrument measures the moisture by capacitance and the temperature by solid-state temperature sensor. The Aquaterr moisture content readings was converted to volumetric moisture content by using the equation developed by Proulx (2001) and the data in the user manual published by the Aquaterr Instruments. The soil moisture and temperature measurements were taken in the afternoon (at 3 p.m). Soil penetration resistance were measured using a digital cone penetrometer FieldScout SC 900 (Spectrum Technologies, Aurora, IL) recording the pressure applied in Pascals every 2.5 cm, to a depth of 45 cm. Penetration resistance was also recorded at three locations of each plot 45 days after planting. To evaluate the effects of the treatments on root growth, shoot growth and nodulation in chickpea production, ten plants were randomly taken by digging out the plant roots to a depth of 30 cm at each plot at the flowering time. The plant roots was cut on collar from shoot and thoroughly washed with water for devoid of soil particles. The root and shoot samples were weighed to determine the root and shoot dry weight of each plant after they were dried in an oven at 65 °C for 72 h. The shoot-root ratio was calculated by dividing the shoot dry weight to the root dry weight. Evaluation of nodulation included counting the number of the nodule at each plant root. Grain yield was calculated as Mg ha−1 from grain weight, which was cut by hand and machine threshed in a 10.0 m2 harvest area for each plot. 2.3. Statistical analyses The JMP statistical software (SAS Institute Inc., 2002) was used to analysis the data by using the Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) method, and the mean comparison was made using Fisher's unprotected LSD at P ≤ 0.05. All data were tested for normality to determine if transformation was necessary. The main eff ;ects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller were presented when the interaction eff ;ects were not significant; otherwise, the simple eff ;ects of ground pressures for both rolling times were examined and presented. 3. Results and discussion Fig. 1 indicates the effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the volumetric soil moisture content at 15 cm depth 45 days after seeding. There was significant difference among both the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller when considering to their effects on the volumetric soil moisture content. The interaction eff ;ects of these factors were not significant. Using the land roller after seeding (pre-emergence) resulted in higher soil moisture content than the post-emergence rolling. This might be due to the fact that rolling after sowing can help minimize evaporation losses because it reduced the macro pores in soil. The volumetric soil moisture content increased with the increased ground pressure of the land roller. 45 days after seeding, the highest moisture content at 15 cm soil depth was measured at the ground pressure of 40 kPa while no packing (control) treatment had the lowest moisture content. The relative increase ratio of the soil moisture content was 4.3% when the land roller was used at the 20 kPa ground pressure. The increase of the ground pressure from 20 to 30 kPa and from 20 to 35 kPa increased the soil 3
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
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Fig. 1. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the volumetric soil moisture content (θV) at 15 cm depth. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, the ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
Fig. 2. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on soil temperature at 15 cm depth in the afternoon (at 3 p.m). Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, the ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
Fig. 3. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the soil penetrometer resistance at different depths. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
movement towards the roots under higher ground pressure may increase the shoot weight. The results of this study showed that the increased ground pressure significantly increased the moisture content at 15 cm soil depth (Fig. 1). This increase in the soil moisture content may result in increased shoot growth. Similarly, Sarto et al. (2018) reported that the contact between soil and root is deficient at very loose soil, so a small increase in pressure results in better conditions for absorbing
The interaction of the rolling time and the ground pressure of the land roller was not significant. The shoot dry weight at the GP40 was the highest while the GP0 and the GP20 treatments had the lowest shoot dry weight among treatments. The shoot dry weight increased with the higher ground pressure of the land roller can attributed to the increased water and nutrient uptake from soil due to the better root-soil contact. Also, a higher unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and a greater water 4
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
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Fig. 4. The effect of the rolling times and ground pressures of the land roller on the root dry weight of the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
ratio in peas was smaller in compacted soils than in loosened soils. However, Goodman and Enos (1999) found that the shoot:root ratios of plants grown in compacted soil were higher than those grown in noncompacted soil. An increase in shoot growth without a similar increase in root growth is commonly thought to be placed a plant in jeopardy (Harris, 1992). The variance analysis showed that the ground pressures of the land roller significantly affected the nodule number per plant although the rolling time and the interaction effects of variables were not significant. It is seen in Fig. 7 that the increased ground pressure of the land roller caused a significant decrease in the nodule number at plant. The highest nodule number per plant was observed at the GP0 and the GP20, and the lowest at the GP35 and the GP40 treatments. Increasing the ground pressure from 20 kPa to 30 kPa decreased the nodule number per plant by about 20% although this decrease was not statistically significant. This decrease in nodule number might be due to the fact that the increased ground pressure of the land roller reduced aeration, temperature and mechanical impedance. These results are consistent with previous researches reported by Lindemann et al. (1982); Buttery et al. (1998); Siczek and Lipiec (2011), which show that nodule number were decreased with increased soil compaction. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on chickpea grain yield is presented in Fig. 8. The grain yield was influenced by the ground pressures of the land roller but the effect of the rolling time was not significant. The interaction effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller was not significant for grain yield. Using the land roller at the ground pressures of 20 kPa and 25 kPa increased the grain yield of chickpea by about 32% when compared with the untreated (control) plots. However, increasing the
water and nutrients without hindering growth. The results of this study are consistent with the findings of Falkoski Filho et al. (2013); Gediga (1991); Sarto et al. (2018) who reported that increasing soil penetration resistance to a certain level increased the dry matter production of plant shoots associated with the effects promoting water and nutrient uptake for different crops. The effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot-root ratio of chickpea plant are presented at Fig. 6. The ground pressures of the land roller significantly affected the shootroot ratio while the rolling time did not cause any change in the shootroot ratio. Also, the interaction effects of the rolling time and the ground pressure of the land roller were not significant for this parameter. While application of the highest ground pressure of the land roller (40 kPa) resulted in the highest shoot-root ratio among treatments, the GP0 and the GP20 treatments had the lowest and the difference between those two treatments was not significant. Increasing the ground pressure from 25 kPa to 35 kPa caused an increase in the shoot-root ratio by about 20% although it was statistically not significant. Also, application of the highest ground pressure of the land roller (40 kPa) increased the shoot-root ratio by about 49% as compared to untreated plots (the control treatment). The shoot:root ratio was commonly used to evaluate how environmental stresses affect the overall health of plants. The previous researchers (e.g. Grzesiak, 2009; Ocloo, 2011; Dawkins et al., 1983; Goodman and Enos, 1999) found the conflicting results on the impact of soil compaction on shoot:root ratio of various plant. While Grzesiak (2009) found that the shoot-root ratio of maize increased as soil compaction increased, Ocloo (2011) observed that shoot-root ratio of soybean and maize decreased with increased soil compaction. Dawkins et al. (1983) determined that the shoot:root
Fig. 5. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot dry weight of the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa. 5
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
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Fig. 6. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot-root ratio of the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
the hampered root growth due to decreasing the soil aeration and increasing the soil mechanical resistance in the compacted soil (Clark et al., 2003; Fageria et al., 2006).
ground pressure from 25 kPa to 30 kPa and 35 kPa decreased the grain yield by 9% and 40%, respectively. The results of this study clearly showed that the grain yield of chickpea was improved by using of the land roller having the ground pressures of 20–25 kPa when compared with no land rolling, which is in agreement with the findings of various researchers (Hultgreen et al., 1990; Lipiec et al., 2003) who reported that crop yield increased in moderately compacted soil and decreased with further compaction. Boone and Veen (1994) reported that crop yield decreased with the reduced uptake of water, oxygen or nutrients due to a limited growth or activity of the root system under soil compaction. Fig. 9 shows the grain yield of chickpea influenced by the penetration resistance at 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths. As shown in Fig. 9, the grain yield of chickpea increased as a quadratic relationship with increasing in the penetration resistance at all soil layers. However, the grain yield was significantly affected by only the penetration resistance at 10 cm soil depth, and there was no significant relationship between the grain yield and the penetration resistances at 5 cm and 15 cm depths. The maximum yield of 3.253 Mg ha−1 was observed at penetration resistance of 730 kPa and started decreasing at penetration resistance of 920 kPa. This result appears to be in consistent with the findings of Sivarajan et al. (2018) who reported that yield increased with an increasing soil resistance trend and declined thereafter. Also, Beutler et al. (2005) reported that yield of soybean started decreasing at Penetration Resistance of 850 kPa at 0–20 cm soil depth. In our study, the decreased yield at lower penetration resistance than 730 kPa might be resulted from the decreased uptake of nutrients by roots due to the fact that the contact between soil and root is deficient (Roath, 1998; Berti et al., 2008). The decrease observed in grain yield at the higher penetration resistance than 920 kPa might be resulted from
4. Conclusion The results of this research have demonstrated that the limited soil compaction by a land roller after seeding in chickpea production will improve plant growth and prevent the loss of soil moisture under the soil and climate conditions like the experimental field. This affirmation is supported by: 1 The moisture content at 0–15 cm soil depths increased with the ground pressure of the land roller 2 The root dry weight was the highest at the 20 kPa ground pressure of the land roller. However, the higher ground pressures of the land roller than 20 kPa significantly reduced the root dry weight. 3 The shoot dry weight and shoot:root ratio increased with the ground pressure of the land roller. 4 The increased ground pressure of the land roller caused a significant decrease in the nodule number at plant. Increasing the ground pressure from 20 kPa to 30 kPa decreased the nodule number per plant by about 20%. 5 Using the land roller at the ground pressures of 20 kPa and 25 kPa increased the grain yield of chickpea when compared with the untreated (control) plots. However, the higher ground pressure than 30 kPa significantly decreased the grain yield.
Fig. 7. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the nodule number at the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa. 6
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Fig. 8. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the chickpea grain yield. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
Fig. 9. Grain yield of chickpea as influenced by the peneration resistance at 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths. *, significant at 0.05 level (P < 0.05).
Declaration of Competing Interest
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None. Acknowledgement This study was supported by Dicle University Scientific Project Coordination Unit, Project Number: TARIM-MYO.17.002, 2017. References Altikat, S., Celik, A., 2011. The effects of tillage and intra-row compaction on seedbed properties and red lentil emergence under dry land conditions. Soil Tillage Res. 114, 1–8. Atkinson, B.S., Sparks, D.L., Mooney, S.J., 2009. Effect of seedbed cultivation and soil macrostructure on the establishment of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). Soil Tillage Res. 103, 291–301. Bengough, A.G., Mullins, C.E., 1990. Mechanical impedance to root growth: a review of experimental techniques and root growth responses. J. Soil Sci. 41, 341–358. Berti, M.T., Johnson, B.L., Henson, R.A., 2008. Seeding depth and soil packing affect pure live seed emergence of cuphea. Ind. Crops Prod. 27 (3), 272–278. Beutler, A.N., Centurion, J.F., da Silva, A.P., 2005. Soil resistance to penetration and least limiting water range for soybean yield in a haplustox from Brazil. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 48 (6), 863–871. Biçer, B.T., Akıncı, C., Eker, S., 2017. Determination of cold stress, anthracnose disease and seed cooking traits of chickpea winter genotypes. El-Cezerî J. Sci. Eng. 4 (3), 355–364. Boone, F.R., Veen, D.E., 1994. Mechanisms of crop responses to soil compaction. In: Soane, B.D., Van Ouwerkerk, C. (Eds.), Soil Compaction in Crop Production. Elsevier Academic Press, New York, pp. 237–264.
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Agriculture Industry. Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development. http:// www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex8817/$file/142_21-1. pdf?OpenElement. Oussible, M., Crookston, P.K., Larson, W.E., 1992. Subsurface compaction reduces root and shoot growth and grain yield of wheat. Agron. J. 84, 34–38. Plaster, E.J., 1992. Soil Science and Management. Delmar Publishers Inc., New York, USA. Proulx, S., 2001. Evaluation of the Performance of Soil Moisture Sensors in Laboratory Scale Lysimeters. M.Sc. thesis. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB. Radke, J.K., 1982. Managing early season soil temperatures in the Northern Corn Belt using configured soil surfaces and mulches. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 46, 1067–1071. Roath, W.W., 1998. Managing seedling emergence of Cuphea in Iowa. J. Iowa Acad. Sci. 105, 23–26. Romaneckas, K., Romaneckienė, R., Pilipavičius, V., Šarauskis, E., 2009. Impact of sowing depth and seedbed rolling on sugar beet. Zemdirbyste 96 (1), 39–51. Sarto, M.V.M., Bassegio, D., Rosolem, C.A., Sarto, J.R.W., 2018. Safflower root and shoot growth affected by soil compaction. Bragantia. Campinas 77 (2), 348–355. Shierlaw, J., Alston, A.M., 1984. Effect of soil compaction on root growth and uptake of phosphorus. Plant Soil 77, 15–28. Siczek, A., Lipiec, J., 2011. Soybean nodulation and nitrogen fixation in response to soil compaction and surface straw mulching. Soil Tillage Res. 114, 50–56. Sivarajan, S., Maharlooei, M., Bajwa, S.G., Nowatzki, J., 2018. Impact of soil compaction due to wheel traffic on corn and soybean growth, development and yield. Soil Tillage Res. 175, 234–243. Tolon-Becerra, A., Tourn, M., Botta, G.F., Lastra-Bravo, X., 2011. Effects of different tillage regimes on soil compaction, maize (Zea mays L.) seedling emergence and yields in the eastern Argentinean pampas region. Soil Tillage Res. 117 (6), 184–190. Tong, J., Zhang, Q., Guo, L., Chang, Y., Guo, Y., Zhu, F., Chen, D., Liu, X., 2015. Compaction performance of biomimetic press roller to soil. J. Bionic Eng. 12, 152–159. Tsegaye, T., Mullins, C.E., 1994. Effect of mechanical impedance on root growth and morphology of two varieties of pea (Pisum sativum L.). New Phytol. 126, 707–713.
Harris, R.W., 1992. Root-shoot ratios. J. Arnold Arbor. 18 (1), 39–42. Hillel, D., 1998. Environmental Soil Physics. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA. Hultgreen, G.E., Kushwaha, R.L., Foster, R.K., Fowler, D.B., 1990. Designing a suitable packer for air seeders. Proceedings Air Seeding’ 90 123–134. Ishaq, M., Ibrahim, M., Hassan, A., Saeed, M., Lal, R., 2001. Subsoil compaction effects on crops in Punjab, Pakistan. II. Root growth and nutrient uptake of wheat and sorghum. Soil Tillage Res. 59, 57–65. Jia, H., Wang, W., Luo, X., Zheng, J., Guo, M., Jian, Z., 2016. Effects of profiling elastic press roller on seedbed properties and soybean emergence under double row ridge cultivation. Soil Tillage Res. 162, 34–40. Johnston, A.M., Lafond, G.P., May, W.E., Hnatowich, G.L., Hultgreen, G.E., 2003. Opener, packer wheel and packing force effects on crop emergence and yield of direct seeded wheat, canola and field peas. Can. J. Plant Sci. 83, 129–139. Joshi, P.K., Parthasarathy Rao, P., 2016. Global and Regional Pulse Economics. Current Trends and Outlook. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01544. Jury, W.A., Gardner, W.R., Gardner, W.H., 1991. Soil Physics, 5th ed. Wiley, Toronto, Canada. Lindemann, W.C., Ham, G.E., Randall, G.W., 1982. Soil compaction effects on soybean nodulation, N2 (C2H4) frxation and seed yield. Agron. J. 74, 307–311. Lipiec, J., Medvedev, V.V., Birkas, M., Dumitru, E., Lyndina, T.E., Rousseva, S., Fulajtár, E., 2003. Effect of soil compaction on root growth and crop yield in Central and Eastern. Eur. Int. Agrophys. 17, 61–69. Morrison Jr, J.E., Gerik, T.J., 1983. Wide beds with conservation tillage. J. Soil Water Conserv. 38, 231–232. Mosaddeghi, M.R., Hajabbasi, M.A., Hemmat, A., Afyuni, M., 2000. Soil compactibility as affected by soil moisture content and farmyard manure in central Iran. Soil Tillage Res. 55, 87–97. Ocloo, C.Y., 2011. The Response of Roots and Biomass Yield of Soybean and Maize Seedlings to Different Levels of Soil Compaction. Msc Thesis. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. Olson, M., Lopetinsky, K., Winchell, W., Sauchuk, C., 2004. Land Rolling Guidelines for Pulse Crops in Western Canada. AGRI-FACTS. Practical Information for Alberta’s
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Soil & Tillage Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/still
Effects of land rolling on soil properties and plant growth in chickpea production
T
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Songül Gürsoya, , Zübeyir Türkb a b
Department of Agricultural Machinery and Technology Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Dicle University, 21280, Sur, Diyarbakir, Turkey Diyarbakır Agriculture Vocational School, Dicle University, 21280, Sur, Diyarbakır, Turkey
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Land rolling Chickpea Penetration resistance Root growth Nodulation Yield
Land rolling after planting is a common practice in legume production systems in order to smooth the soil surface and improve plant growth by increasing root-soil contact. However, excessive soil compaction due to land rolling can increase soil strength and hamper root growth. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential effects of land rolling on some soil properties and plant growth parameters in chickpea production. For this purpose, the different ground pressures of land roller (0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 kPa) were tested at different times (pre-emergence and post-emergence) under field conditions. To examine the effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on soil properties and plant growth, moisture content, temperature, penetration resistance as soil properties and root dry weight, shoot dry weight, shoot-root ratio, nodule number and grain yield as plant growth parameters were measured. Results showed that the use of the land roller significantly influenced the soil properties (moisture content, temperature, and penetration resistance), plant growth parameters (root dry weight, shoot dry weight, shoot-root ratio, nodule number) and grain yield. The highest grain yield values at 20, 25 and 30 kPa ground pressure levels indicate that some compaction is needed to be able to increase crop yield and prevent the loss of soil moisture.
1. Introduction Chickpea is very important human food among pulse crops and are believed to be one of the first legumes cultivated by humans. Major chickpea producers include India, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran, and Mexico (Joshi and Parthasarathy Rao, 2016). In Turkey, the South East Anatolia is one of the most important regions for chickpea growing. In this region, chickpea is mostly grown in rainfed areas as winter or summer crop and it is a good pulse crop option in rotation with wheat or barley because it is able to fixate the atmospheric nitrogen into soil and to improve soil N. The chickpea described as summer crop is sown in March/April while sowing of winter chickpea is in October/November (Biçer et al., 2017). The land rolling after planting is a common field operation used in both winter and summer chickpea production in region in order to maintain seed/root-soil contact, preserve the soil moisture content and to smooth the soil surface for the harvesting of low-hanging pulse pods. However, land rolling can result in agronomic, economic, and environmental concerns if land roller does not have an adequate ground pressure and is not used in proper time according to soil conditions. These concerns include excessive soil compaction, reduced plant root
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growth and yield, erosion, potential plant injury and added expenses (Romaneckas et al., 2009; Carlson et al., 2016). Many researchers (e.g. Glinski and Lipiec, 1990; Johnston et al., 2003; Beutler et al., 2005; Berti et al., 2008) have emphasized the importance of seed/root-soil contact for different crops (e.g. wheat, canola, cuphea, soybean and field peas) because plant emergence and growth require the right combination of seed/root-soil contact and soil aeration for uptake of water and nutrient. Therefore, moderate soil packing in agriculture production is needed to get good seed/root-soil contact, suitable soil density, timely emergence of seed, root growth and the ability of the plant to absorb the moisture and nutrients from soil. Altikat and Celik (2011) reported that intra-row soil compaction increased the emergence rate of red lentils due to good soil–seed contact and the preservation of soil moisture when compared with no compaction and too low compaction level. Also, Håkansson et al. (2002) reported that using the land roller after planting improved final emergence of cereals by 4% and grain yield by 2%. Tong et al. (2015) reported that the increase in the roller weight increased the contact between seeds and soil, reduced water evaporation and helped seeds to absorb water from soil. The effects of soil packing on nutrient uptake by roots are very
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Gürsoy).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104425 Received 20 April 2019; Received in revised form 16 September 2019; Accepted 18 September 2019 Available online 23 September 2019 0167-1987/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Soil & Tillage Research 195 (2019) 104425
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Table 1 Monthly rainfall, average temperature, relative humidity during experimental year and long term average. Months
January February March April May June
Rainfall (mm)
Average temperature (˚C)
Relative humidity (%)
Growing season (2018)
Long-term
Growing season (2018)
Long-term
Growing season (2018)
Long-term
86.6 86.4 11.6 48.8 157.8 14.4
71.2 67.0 68.0 68.5 43.8 8.2
5.2 7.6 12.3 15.9 19.4 26.5
1.7 3.7 8.3 13.8 19.2 26.2
77.3 74.5 63.2 53.0 67.5 37.9
76.0 71.6 65.0 63.0 55.0 35.0
ground pressure of the land roller may increase soil penetration resistance 3) the excessive soil compaction by the land roller may decrease root growth, nodulation and grain yield in chickpea production.
complex because restricted growth of roots generally is known to decrease the uptake of nutrients although it increases the movement of nutrient ions to roots (Shierlaw and Alston, 1984). Johnston et al. (2003) found that some level of packing force, not greater than 549 N per press wheel, generally provided the best emergence and yield for wheat, canola and field beans while Altikat and Celik (2011) obtained the maximum emergences rate of lentil at the 60 kPa intra-row compaction level. However, several researchers (e.g. Shierlaw and Alston, 1984; Clark et al., 2003; Fageria et al., 2006) reported that excessive soil compaction resulted in a reduction in number and length of roots, restriction of downward penetration of the main root axes, decrease in leaf thickness, increase in the dry mass shoot to root ratio and a decrease in crop grain yield. Tolon-Becerra et al. (2011) found that too high compaction level inhibited the growth of maize roots and thereby reduced maize yield. Also, Croissant et al. (1991) determined that dry bean yield was reduced by 26% in compacted soil when compared to non-compacted soil. The changes in the root growth by compaction cause the changes in the shoot growth, nodulation and crop yield in legume production. Botta et al. (2010) reported that soil compaction unfavorably affects grain and protein yield of soybean while Buttery et al. (1998) determined that soil compaction resulted in a decrease in nodule number of soybean. The study of Siczek and Lipiec (2011) showed that the total nodule number and weight was the highest in moderately compacted soil. Also, several researchers (e.g. Gediga, 1991; Falkoski Filho et al., 2013; Sarto et al., 2018) reported the increased shoot growth and crop yield in moderately compacted soil. This increase in shoot growth and crop yield was mostly attributed to a greater root–soil contact and to a higher unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and a greater water movement towards the roots. This shows that determining appropriate soil compaction level is important for improvement of sowing quality and increasing of crop yield. Similarly, Cook et al. (1996) stated that there is a lack of knowledge about how and under what circumstances mechanical impedance to root growth affects shoot growth. The degree that a land roller can compact the soil varies with the water content of soil, soil texture and the stress applied to the soil (Plaster, 1992). It is known that the rolling time and the ground pressure of land roller are the most critical factors that affect the soil compaction. Olson et al. (2004) stated that there is limited research on land rolling of pulse crops although land rolling has been a common practice on pulse production. They also reported that more studies were required on rolling times and packing pressure under different soil conditions. In summary, the degree of soil compaction due to land rolling is very important issue for seed emergency and plant root growth because little information on effects of compaction force and times of land rolling on soil properties and plant growth is available for land rollers. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of different rolling times and ground pressures of land roller on some soil properties (moisture content, temperature, penetration resistance) and plant growth parameters (root dry weight, shoot dry weight, shoot-root ratio, nodule number and grain yield). Outlined hypothesis were: 1) land rolling may preserve the soil moisture content 2) the increase in the
2. Material and methods 2.1. Experiment site description and experimental design A field experiment was conducted in February-June 2018 at Dicle University Field Crop Production Field in Diyarbakır, Turkey. The experimental area is located 37°55′36″N 40°13′49″E at 670 m above sea level. The climate of the region is characterized by a semi-arid climate (humid winters and dry summers); rainfall distribution is variable within and among years. Mean annual precipitation, based on the longterm average, is 485 mm, about 80% of which occurs from November to May. Monthly rainfalls, average temperature and relative humidity records during the experimental year (2018) and over the long term (1929–2018) are shown in Table 1. In the experimental year, rainfall was below the long-term average in March and April and above average in May. Monthly average temperature was higher in the experimental year than long-term average. The topsoil of the experimental field (0–20 cm) had a clay soil (490 g kg−1 clay, 225 g kg−1 silt and 285 g kg−1 sand, by weight) with 9.9 g kg−1 of organic matter, 7.96 of pH, 0.08% of total salt, 49.4 g kg−1 of CaCO3, 206 kg ha−1 of P2O5, 1360 kg ha−1 of K2O, saturation with water of 62.7% at 0–20 cm soil depth. Gravimetric soil moisture content and bulk density was determined before the land rolling operations by using oven-dry method. At the time of pre-emergence land rolling, the average soil moisture content and dry bulk density was 26. 2% (dry basis) and 1.17 g cm-3 at the depth of 0–20 cm, respectively. At the time of the post-emergence land rolling, the average soil moisture content was 20.6% (dry basis) and the average dry bulk density of the 0–20 cm soil depth were 1.21 g cm−3. The previous crop in the experiment field was lentil harvested by a combine with a chaff collector. The tillage system for seedbed preparation included cultivator tillage at 15–20 cm depth in October and at 5–10 cm 3 days before seeding. The chickpea (variety: Cagatay) was sown on the 16th of February by a universal grain drill. The seeding rate was 25 seed m−2 and seeding depth was approximately 6 cm. The space between the rows was 30 cm. The 125 kg ha-1 of diammonium phosphate (18% N and 46% P2O5) was applied during planting. The empty weight of the land roller used in the experiment was 550 kg with roller diameter of 50 cm and roller length of 250 cm. The empty weight of the land roller included the frame design, the transport wheels, the hydraulics, etc. The weight of the land roller was increased by filling the 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the roller volume with water to 673, 795, 918 and 1040 kg. The ground pressures of the roller was calculated by dividing the roller weights to the soil contact area of the roller as 0, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 kPa. The roller was pulled by the MF 7240 tractor at 6.4 km h−1. The speed of 6.4 km h−1 was chosen to be the most suitable speed in matching the tractor to the land roller. The experiment was conducted in a split plot design with three replications. The main plot comprised two land rolling times [pre-emergence and post-emergence] and the sub-plots included five ground 2
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moisture content by 1.8%, 4.3%, respectively. An increase of 50% in the ground pressure of the land roller increased the soil moisture content by 6.5%. The ANOVA results showed that the soil temperature at 15 cm depth was significantly influenced by the ground pressure of the land roller. However, the difference between the land rolling times and the interaction effects of main factors was not statistically significant. The soil temperature was the highest in the untreated control treatment and the lowest in the GP40 treatment, and there was no significant difference among the GP20, the GP25, the GP30, the GP35 treatments (Fig. 2). The changes in soil porosity and moisture content affect soil temperature (Hillel, 1998; Jury et al., 1991). In this study, the land rolling could reduce the air pockets in which evaporation occurs, and ultimately decreases soil drying and heating. Similarly, several researchers (e.g. Radke, 1982; Morrison and Gerik, 1983) reported that higher soil water content caused lower soil temperatures. The effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the soil penetration resistance at different depths are presented at Fig. 3. The rolling time did not statistically influence the soil penetration resistance at all depths. While the ground pressure of the land roller significantly influenced the penetration resistance at the soil surface (∼0 to 15 cm depth), there was no significant difference among the ground pressure treatments at the subsurface layers (20 ∼ 30 cm soil depths). Nevertheless, the interaction effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller did not show significant variation on the penetration resistance at all soil layers. The increased ground pressure of the land roller significantly raised the penetration resistance at the soil layers of 0∼15 cm depth. At all layers of this depth, untreated control treatment had the lowest penetration resistance and the highest at the GP40 treatment. The increase of the ground pressure from 20 to 40 kPa increased the penetration resistance at 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths by 71%, 33% and 32%, respectively. This shows that the effect of the ground pressures on the penetration resistance was higher at 5 cm soil depth than 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths. Similarly, several researchers (e.g. Mosaddeghi et al., 2000; Altikat and Celik, 2011; Jia et al., 2016) found that higher soil compaction after sowing lead to higher soil penetration resistance. The greater Penetration resistance than 2000 kPa has been reported to significantly reduce root growth and crop yield (Oussible et al., 1992; Ishaq et al., 2001). In this study, the less penetration resistance than 2000 kPa was obtained for all ground pressures of the land roller at 0–30 cm soil depths. The root dry weight was not significantly affected by the rolling times. The ground pressure of the land roller had a pronounced effect on the root dry weight. The interaction of the rolling time and the ground pressure of the land roller was not significant. The highest root dry weight was observed at the GP20 treatment and the lowest at the GP40 treatment (Fig. 4). Using the ground pressure of the land roller at 20 kPa increased the root dry weight by 4.8% when compared to the untreated control treatment (GP0). However, the higher ground pressure than 20 kPa significantly decreased the root dry weight. This reduction of the root dry weight at the higher ground pressures of the land roller than 20 kPa can be attributed to limiting root growth due to the high mechanical resistance which the compacted soil presents to plant roots. The results of this study is supported by other studies (e.g. Bengough and Mullins, 1990; Tsegaye and Mullins, 1994; Cook et al., 1996), who reported that root dry weight decreased as mechanical impedance increased. The higher root dry weight at the 20 kPa ground pressure of the land roller than the untreated plots can be attributed to the increased root growth due to higher root-soil contact. The lower root dry weight in the untreated plots shows that root growth can decrease at very loose soil conditions (Atkinson et al., 2009). Fig. 5 indicates the effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot dry weight of chickpea plant. While the rolling time did not affect the shoot dry weight, there were significant differences among the ground pressures of the land roller.
pressures of land roller and untreated control treatments [0 kPa (control), 20 kPa, 25 kPa, 30 kPa, 35 kPa, 40 kPa]. A total of 36 plots were used in the experiment. A sub-plot was 2.5 m wide and 30 m long. The pre-emergence land rolling was done immediately after seeding and the post-emergence rolling was done after the second node (V2) growth stage. 2.2. Measurements Aquaterr - Model T300 - Moisture Measurement Instrument was used to determine the soil moisture content and temperature at 15 cm depth 45 days after planting. The Aquaterr-moisture measurement instrument measures the moisture by capacitance and the temperature by solid-state temperature sensor. The Aquaterr moisture content readings was converted to volumetric moisture content by using the equation developed by Proulx (2001) and the data in the user manual published by the Aquaterr Instruments. The soil moisture and temperature measurements were taken in the afternoon (at 3 p.m). Soil penetration resistance were measured using a digital cone penetrometer FieldScout SC 900 (Spectrum Technologies, Aurora, IL) recording the pressure applied in Pascals every 2.5 cm, to a depth of 45 cm. Penetration resistance was also recorded at three locations of each plot 45 days after planting. To evaluate the effects of the treatments on root growth, shoot growth and nodulation in chickpea production, ten plants were randomly taken by digging out the plant roots to a depth of 30 cm at each plot at the flowering time. The plant roots was cut on collar from shoot and thoroughly washed with water for devoid of soil particles. The root and shoot samples were weighed to determine the root and shoot dry weight of each plant after they were dried in an oven at 65 °C for 72 h. The shoot-root ratio was calculated by dividing the shoot dry weight to the root dry weight. Evaluation of nodulation included counting the number of the nodule at each plant root. Grain yield was calculated as Mg ha−1 from grain weight, which was cut by hand and machine threshed in a 10.0 m2 harvest area for each plot. 2.3. Statistical analyses The JMP statistical software (SAS Institute Inc., 2002) was used to analysis the data by using the Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) method, and the mean comparison was made using Fisher's unprotected LSD at P ≤ 0.05. All data were tested for normality to determine if transformation was necessary. The main eff ;ects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller were presented when the interaction eff ;ects were not significant; otherwise, the simple eff ;ects of ground pressures for both rolling times were examined and presented. 3. Results and discussion Fig. 1 indicates the effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the volumetric soil moisture content at 15 cm depth 45 days after seeding. There was significant difference among both the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller when considering to their effects on the volumetric soil moisture content. The interaction eff ;ects of these factors were not significant. Using the land roller after seeding (pre-emergence) resulted in higher soil moisture content than the post-emergence rolling. This might be due to the fact that rolling after sowing can help minimize evaporation losses because it reduced the macro pores in soil. The volumetric soil moisture content increased with the increased ground pressure of the land roller. 45 days after seeding, the highest moisture content at 15 cm soil depth was measured at the ground pressure of 40 kPa while no packing (control) treatment had the lowest moisture content. The relative increase ratio of the soil moisture content was 4.3% when the land roller was used at the 20 kPa ground pressure. The increase of the ground pressure from 20 to 30 kPa and from 20 to 35 kPa increased the soil 3
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Fig. 1. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the volumetric soil moisture content (θV) at 15 cm depth. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, the ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
Fig. 2. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on soil temperature at 15 cm depth in the afternoon (at 3 p.m). Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, the ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
Fig. 3. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the soil penetrometer resistance at different depths. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
movement towards the roots under higher ground pressure may increase the shoot weight. The results of this study showed that the increased ground pressure significantly increased the moisture content at 15 cm soil depth (Fig. 1). This increase in the soil moisture content may result in increased shoot growth. Similarly, Sarto et al. (2018) reported that the contact between soil and root is deficient at very loose soil, so a small increase in pressure results in better conditions for absorbing
The interaction of the rolling time and the ground pressure of the land roller was not significant. The shoot dry weight at the GP40 was the highest while the GP0 and the GP20 treatments had the lowest shoot dry weight among treatments. The shoot dry weight increased with the higher ground pressure of the land roller can attributed to the increased water and nutrient uptake from soil due to the better root-soil contact. Also, a higher unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and a greater water 4
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S. Gürsoy and Z. Türk
Fig. 4. The effect of the rolling times and ground pressures of the land roller on the root dry weight of the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
ratio in peas was smaller in compacted soils than in loosened soils. However, Goodman and Enos (1999) found that the shoot:root ratios of plants grown in compacted soil were higher than those grown in noncompacted soil. An increase in shoot growth without a similar increase in root growth is commonly thought to be placed a plant in jeopardy (Harris, 1992). The variance analysis showed that the ground pressures of the land roller significantly affected the nodule number per plant although the rolling time and the interaction effects of variables were not significant. It is seen in Fig. 7 that the increased ground pressure of the land roller caused a significant decrease in the nodule number at plant. The highest nodule number per plant was observed at the GP0 and the GP20, and the lowest at the GP35 and the GP40 treatments. Increasing the ground pressure from 20 kPa to 30 kPa decreased the nodule number per plant by about 20% although this decrease was not statistically significant. This decrease in nodule number might be due to the fact that the increased ground pressure of the land roller reduced aeration, temperature and mechanical impedance. These results are consistent with previous researches reported by Lindemann et al. (1982); Buttery et al. (1998); Siczek and Lipiec (2011), which show that nodule number were decreased with increased soil compaction. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on chickpea grain yield is presented in Fig. 8. The grain yield was influenced by the ground pressures of the land roller but the effect of the rolling time was not significant. The interaction effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller was not significant for grain yield. Using the land roller at the ground pressures of 20 kPa and 25 kPa increased the grain yield of chickpea by about 32% when compared with the untreated (control) plots. However, increasing the
water and nutrients without hindering growth. The results of this study are consistent with the findings of Falkoski Filho et al. (2013); Gediga (1991); Sarto et al. (2018) who reported that increasing soil penetration resistance to a certain level increased the dry matter production of plant shoots associated with the effects promoting water and nutrient uptake for different crops. The effects of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot-root ratio of chickpea plant are presented at Fig. 6. The ground pressures of the land roller significantly affected the shootroot ratio while the rolling time did not cause any change in the shootroot ratio. Also, the interaction effects of the rolling time and the ground pressure of the land roller were not significant for this parameter. While application of the highest ground pressure of the land roller (40 kPa) resulted in the highest shoot-root ratio among treatments, the GP0 and the GP20 treatments had the lowest and the difference between those two treatments was not significant. Increasing the ground pressure from 25 kPa to 35 kPa caused an increase in the shoot-root ratio by about 20% although it was statistically not significant. Also, application of the highest ground pressure of the land roller (40 kPa) increased the shoot-root ratio by about 49% as compared to untreated plots (the control treatment). The shoot:root ratio was commonly used to evaluate how environmental stresses affect the overall health of plants. The previous researchers (e.g. Grzesiak, 2009; Ocloo, 2011; Dawkins et al., 1983; Goodman and Enos, 1999) found the conflicting results on the impact of soil compaction on shoot:root ratio of various plant. While Grzesiak (2009) found that the shoot-root ratio of maize increased as soil compaction increased, Ocloo (2011) observed that shoot-root ratio of soybean and maize decreased with increased soil compaction. Dawkins et al. (1983) determined that the shoot:root
Fig. 5. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot dry weight of the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa. 5
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Fig. 6. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the shoot-root ratio of the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
the hampered root growth due to decreasing the soil aeration and increasing the soil mechanical resistance in the compacted soil (Clark et al., 2003; Fageria et al., 2006).
ground pressure from 25 kPa to 30 kPa and 35 kPa decreased the grain yield by 9% and 40%, respectively. The results of this study clearly showed that the grain yield of chickpea was improved by using of the land roller having the ground pressures of 20–25 kPa when compared with no land rolling, which is in agreement with the findings of various researchers (Hultgreen et al., 1990; Lipiec et al., 2003) who reported that crop yield increased in moderately compacted soil and decreased with further compaction. Boone and Veen (1994) reported that crop yield decreased with the reduced uptake of water, oxygen or nutrients due to a limited growth or activity of the root system under soil compaction. Fig. 9 shows the grain yield of chickpea influenced by the penetration resistance at 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths. As shown in Fig. 9, the grain yield of chickpea increased as a quadratic relationship with increasing in the penetration resistance at all soil layers. However, the grain yield was significantly affected by only the penetration resistance at 10 cm soil depth, and there was no significant relationship between the grain yield and the penetration resistances at 5 cm and 15 cm depths. The maximum yield of 3.253 Mg ha−1 was observed at penetration resistance of 730 kPa and started decreasing at penetration resistance of 920 kPa. This result appears to be in consistent with the findings of Sivarajan et al. (2018) who reported that yield increased with an increasing soil resistance trend and declined thereafter. Also, Beutler et al. (2005) reported that yield of soybean started decreasing at Penetration Resistance of 850 kPa at 0–20 cm soil depth. In our study, the decreased yield at lower penetration resistance than 730 kPa might be resulted from the decreased uptake of nutrients by roots due to the fact that the contact between soil and root is deficient (Roath, 1998; Berti et al., 2008). The decrease observed in grain yield at the higher penetration resistance than 920 kPa might be resulted from
4. Conclusion The results of this research have demonstrated that the limited soil compaction by a land roller after seeding in chickpea production will improve plant growth and prevent the loss of soil moisture under the soil and climate conditions like the experimental field. This affirmation is supported by: 1 The moisture content at 0–15 cm soil depths increased with the ground pressure of the land roller 2 The root dry weight was the highest at the 20 kPa ground pressure of the land roller. However, the higher ground pressures of the land roller than 20 kPa significantly reduced the root dry weight. 3 The shoot dry weight and shoot:root ratio increased with the ground pressure of the land roller. 4 The increased ground pressure of the land roller caused a significant decrease in the nodule number at plant. Increasing the ground pressure from 20 kPa to 30 kPa decreased the nodule number per plant by about 20%. 5 Using the land roller at the ground pressures of 20 kPa and 25 kPa increased the grain yield of chickpea when compared with the untreated (control) plots. However, the higher ground pressure than 30 kPa significantly decreased the grain yield.
Fig. 7. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the nodule number at the chickpea plant. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa. 6
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Fig. 8. The effect of the rolling times and the ground pressures of the land roller on the chickpea grain yield. Means followed by different letters are significantly different according to LSD’s multiple range test at the significance level of 0.05. GP0….GP40, The ground pressures of the land roller at the 0……40 kPa.
Fig. 9. Grain yield of chickpea as influenced by the peneration resistance at 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm soil depths. *, significant at 0.05 level (P < 0.05).
Declaration of Competing Interest
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