Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career coping styles

    Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career coping styles Isabel Nunes Janeiro, Lu´ısa Paulo Mota, Ana Maria Ribas PII: DOI: Reference:

S0001-8791(14)00073-6 doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.05.006 YJVBE 2806

To appear in:

Journal of Vocational Behavior

Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

15 February 2014 2 May 2014 3 May 2014

Please cite this article as: Janeiro, I.N., Mota, L.P. & Ribas, A.M., Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career coping styles, Journal of Vocational Behavior (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.05.006

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Running head: EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF CAREER INTERVENTIONS 1

Title: Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career

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coping styles

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Authors: Isabel Nunes Janeiro,

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Luísa Paulo Mota

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Ana Maria Ribas

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Affiliation: Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa.

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Email: [email protected]

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Corresponding author: Isabel Nunes Janeiro

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Phone: (00351) 214535178

Mobile phone: (00351) 966110768 Institutional Adress: Faculdade de Psicologia Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013 Lisboa Portugal

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Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career coping

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Abstract

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styles

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Research on the efficacy of career interventions often lacks comparative analysis of the effects of different types of interventions. Additionally, little is known about the effects of

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interventions on diverse clients. Previous studies showed that students display different career coping styles and that these styles are relatively consistent across samples. The present study

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analyzes the effect of two types of career interventions (a single career information session

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and a six-week career intervention) on the career adaptability of students with different career

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coping styles. The study involved 319 students from grade 9 and grade 12 of three Portuguese public schools. Results show that although the interventions were effective for most of the students, the single informative session improved the career curiosity and confidence of only one group of students, whereas the six week career intervention revealed a more robust effect in students with insecure, pessimistic or superficial career coping styles. The theoretical and practical implications of the study are also discussed.

Keywords: Career adaptability, Career coping styles, time perspective, self-esteem, attribution beliefs, career interventions

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Introduction Rapid technological growth and globalization have changed the nature of work and

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careers. In view of the complexity of the current social context, vocational psychology theories are increasingly emphasizing the importance of promoting attitudes and strategies

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that enable individuals to respond effectively to the challenges of the new world of work

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(Savickas, 2013; Savickas et al., 2009; Super, 1990). As Savickas (2013; Savickas et al., 2009) argues, career adaptability is now a key component of an individual’s repertoire for

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dealing successfully with the world of work and accordingly, its promotion should be one of

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the main goals of life-long career interventions.

In the school context, career interventions are recognized by policy-makers worldwide

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as a fundamental service to be provided to all individuals and groups, as recent guidelines

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from different countries demonstrate (c.f. Amudson, 2006; Watts, 2011; Vuorinen & Watts, 2012). Research on the outcomes of career interventions are generally supportive of the

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effectiveness of school counseling activities (Whiston & Quinby, 2009). However, career interventions have different formats (e.g., group interventions or individual counseling; single format session or long programs) and their evaluation often lacks an analysis of the discriminative efficacy of the various formats of career interventions (Perry, Dauwalder, & Bonnett, 2009). Additionally, few studies have been conducted on the outcome of interventions in different groups of participants, according to characteristics such as, subtype membership and other critical client attributes (Heppner & Heppner, 2003). As several authors (e.g., Brown & Krane, 2000; Heppner & Heppner, 2003; Whiston, 2011) have noted, in order to stimulate career counseling process research it is important that research on the efficacy of interventions focuses more on the differences in the career counseling process and outcomes by exploring how, why and for whom they work (Brown & Krane, 2000, p. 740).

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The main objective of this study is to analyze the discriminative effects of two types of career intervention on the career adaptability of students with different career coping styles.

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Career attitudes and adaptability The concepts of career planning and career exploration are associated with the

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construct of career maturity introduced by Super (1957) early in his theory of vocational

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development. The construct, first defined as the ‘‘behavior manifested in coping with the developmental tasks of a given life stage’’ (p. 186), was later conceived as having a

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multidimensional nature, involving both attitudinal (career planning and exploration) as well

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as cognitive dimensions (knowledge of career decision process and information about the world of work) (Super, 1990). To explain the factors involved in the formation and

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development of career attitudes, Super (1990) presented the person-environment interactive

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model about the bases of career maturity. According to this model (1990), dimensions such as time perspective, attributional beliefs and self-esteem, amongst others, are considered

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fundamental for the development of career attitudes. Several empirical studies have confirmed the importance of these dimensions for career development, for instance, future time perspective has been found to be a key factor for the development of career maturity (e.g., Janeiro, 2010; Marko & Savickas, 1998; Taber, 2013); and control beliefs and selfesteem have been found to be significant correlates of career maturity/adaptability (e.g., Duffy, 2010; Janeiro, 2010; Luzzo & Jenkins-Smith, 1998; Powell, & Luzzo, 1998; SalmelaAro, & Nurmi, 2007). In addition to the clarification of the processes of career attitudes’ development, this model also establishes a framework to understand problems associated with the development of career coping attitudes. In other words, uncommitted attitudes toward career development may be conceived as being associated with difficulties related to, for example, time perspective, attributional beliefs or self-esteem (Janeiro & Marques, 2010).

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More recently, Savickas (1997; 2005; 2013) proposed the broader concept of career adaptability to replace the former notion of career maturity. Defined as the “individual’s

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psychosocial resources for coping with current and anticipated vocational development tasks, occupational transitions, and work traumas” (Savickas, 2013, p.157), career adaptability has,

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according to Savickas (1997), several advantages in relation to the notion of career maturity,

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namely the fact that it captures more precisely the individual / context interaction in the process of career construction throughout the individual’s life. Within the career construction

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model (Savickas, 2005; 2013), career adaptability is conceptualized as integrating dimensions

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such as career concern, control, curiosity and confidence. The adaptive individual is seen by Savickas (2013, p.159) “as (a) becoming concerned about the vocational future, (b)

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increasing personal control over one’s vocational future, (c) displaying curiosity by exploring

aspirations”.

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his possible selves and future scenarios, and (d) strengthening the confidence to pursue one’s

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The concept of career coping styles The concept of psychological styles has stimulated a variety of studies in different areas of psychology. In vocational psychology the research on this topic has been circumscribed to particular domains, such as the study of career decision process or career indecision (e.g., Brown et al., 2012; Gadassi, Gati, & Dayan, 2012; Gati & Levin, 2012; Ginevra, Nota, Soresi, & Gati, 2012; Jones, 1989). Thus, themes like the individual styles of coping with vocational tasks, specifically those related with career planning and exploration are still little investigated in vocational research (Janeiro & Marques, 2010). Based on Super’s (1990) model of the development of career maturity, Janeiro and Marques (2010) tested the hypothesis of different types of career coping difficulties. Using a cluster analysis, they analyzed the results of a sample of 620 students from grades 9 and 12 on time perspective, attributional beliefs, self-esteem and on career planning and exploration

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attitudes. The cluster analysis allowed the identification of four main styles of coping with career tasks: (1) the first cluster, labeled the Adaptive Style, grouped students who were

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future oriented, had high or moderate beliefs of success based on internal causes, had high or moderate levels of self-esteem, and had high scores on career maturity; (2) the second cluster,

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labeled the Superficial Style, grouped students that although had moderate levels of career

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attitudes, were mostly present and past oriented, they also had high beliefs of success based on external causes and had moderate levels of self-esteem; (3) the third cluster, labeled the

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Insecure Style, grouped students who were present oriented, had low beliefs in internal

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causes of success, moderate self-esteem, and scored low on career attitudes; and (4) the fourth cluster labeled the Pessimistic Style grouped students who scored low on career

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maturity, seemed to have a highly negative vision of the future and had extremely low scores

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on self-esteem.

These styles showed to be particularly consistent across samples (both in grade 9 and

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grade 12), and to have similarities with the coping styles observed in other domains, namely those suggested by the attributional theory (Abramson, Seligman, Teasdale, 1978; Gillham, et al. , 2001; Weiner & Graham, 1999), and those found in research on time perspective (Boniwell, & Zimbardo, 2004; Boyd & Zimbardo, 2005). Furthermore, the relations of these variables (time perspective, attributional beliefs and self-esteem) with career attitudes, seems to indicate the existence of complex strategies for coping with tasks that encompass several spheres of psychological functioning (Janeiro & Marques, 2010). Career interventions in the school context Career theories are increasingly advocating the need for career interventions to adopt a comprehensive, holistic, and lifelong approach (Gysbers & Henderson, 2001; Richardson, 2012; Savickas et al., 2009) and guidelines for best practices in different countries highlight the importance of career interventions as a lifelong process accessible to all individuals in

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various contexts (Amudson, 2006). Nevertheless, and because of time constraints and high costs, interventions in schools often assume a more economical format, being the most

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frequent a single session-format with information about the various options of courses and jobs. The lack of studies addressing which elements of vocational interventions are most

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effective (Perry et al., 2009) remains a pitfall for the advocacy of more holistic and

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comprehensive vocational interventions.

The main objectives of the present study were (1) to analyze the effects of two types

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of career interventions (a single group informative session vs. a six-session career group

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intervention) on the career adaptability of students, and (2) to analyze the effects of the two career interventions in students with different coping styles.

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Based on the literature review about the efficacy of career interventions we expect

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that (1) career adaptability changes will be predicted by the type of intervention students participated; and that (2) students who participated in the six-week group intervention will

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show a greater increase in their levels of career adaptability when compared to those who participated in the single-session intervention format. As students with an adaptive style are future orientated and have more positive attitudes toward planning and exploration (Janeiro & Marques, 2010) we also expect that (3) students with an adaptive style will benefit the most with the career interventions. By contrast, as students with a pessimistic profile have a negative vision of future and low levels of career attitudes we expect that (4) students with a pessimistic style will be less likely to change their levels of career adaptability with short career interventions. Method Participants A total of 319 students from the 9th and 12th grade of three Portuguese public schools were involved in the study. Of these, 265 students (169 from the 9th grade and 96 from the

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12th grade) completed all of the stages of the study (pre-test questionnaires, participation in the interventions and post-test questionnaires), 135 students participated in a single

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informative session (87 from 9th grade and 48 from 12th grade) and 130 students participated in a six-week program (82 from 9th grade and 48 from 12th grade). The distribution of

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participants by gender shows that 148 (56%) of these students were female and 117 (44%)

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were male. Instruments

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In order to identify the career coping profiles of the participants, 3 questionnaires

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were administered before the intervention: the Time Perspective Inventory (TPI), the Career Attributions Beliefs Scale (CABS), and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI).

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Career adaptability was measured by The Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) – Form C, and

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this instrument was administered before and after the intervention. The Time Perspective Inventory (TPI) (Janeiro, 2012) measures various dimensions

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of time perspective. TPI was developed taking as theoretical references the conceptions about the structure of future time perspective (Nutin & Lens, 1985; Ringle & Savickas, 1983) and research about the structural independence of the three temporal dimensions (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Early versions of the questionnaire were based in a scale for the assessment of future time perspective, the Long-Term Personal Direction Scale (LTPD) (Wessman, 1973; Marko & Savickas, 1998). In the actual Form, TPI is organized into four scales: (1) the Future Orientation scale (16 items) assesses various dimensions of Future Time Perspective, namely, time extension, density, clarity, continuity and optimism, examples of items are “I have lots of projects for my future”, “I think about the future with enthusiasm”; (2) the Present Orientation scale has 8 items and assesses attitudes and beliefs about the present “I think life should be lived day by day” ; (3) the Past Orientation scale (4 items) assesses attitudes towards the past: "I would like to be a child again because everything was easier

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then”. Finally, the (4) Negative Vision of the Future scale (4 items) assesses negative or anxiety- laden perceptions about the future: “I am going into the future not by choice but

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because I cannot stop”. Psychometric analysis shows adequate reliability indices for Future (α = 0.86), Present (a = 0.76), Negative Vision of Future (α = 0.70) scales, and a less

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satisfactory coefficient for the Past Orientation scale (α = 0.51). Studies on the construct

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validity of the TPI show that the conceptual structure of the instrument is supported by the

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factorial structure, as explored by a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation (Janeiro, 2012).

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The Career Attributional Beliefs Scale (CABS) (Janeiro, 2011) assesses attributional beliefs related to career success or career failure. CABS is based on Weiner’s (1986)

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attributional model and follows Luzzo and Jenkins-Smith (1998) conceptualization about

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career attributions. CABS is divided into three main scales: (1) the Internal Success Beliefs scale (7 items) assesses the extent to which a student believes his/her career success will be

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linked to internal factors such as competences, hard work and effort; (2) the Internal Failure Beliefs scale (4 items) assesses the extent to which a student believes his/her career failure will be linked to internal causes such as lack of skills, lack of hard work, poor competences or insufficient effort; and (3) the External Beliefs scale (11 items) assesses the extent to which a student believes his/her career success or failure will be linked to external circumstances, such as luck or help from others. Sample items are “To work hard will be important to have success in my future career”; “If I fail in my future career it will because I don’t have the competence”; ‘‘Help of other persons will be important to succeed in my future career”. A PCA identified three main dimensions: one related to external attributions, another related to internal attributions associated with failure, and a third related to internal attributions associated with success. Reliability analysis shows satisfactory coefficients for

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the external attributions scale (α = 0.73), the internal attributions scale related to success (α = 0.70) and to failure (α = 0.72).

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The Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) was developed by Coopersmith (1981) to assess four domains of self-esteem, namely the general, social, academic and family self-esteem. The

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inventory has 58 items and is organized in four subscales: the Home-parents self-esteem

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scale, the Peers-friends scale, the School-academic and the General self-esteem scale. The

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composite score of the four subscales is conceived as a global index of self-esteem. Reliability data for the total self-esteem score are generally good, varying between 0.80 and

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0.92 .The Portuguese version of SEI (Janeiro & Marques, 1999) revealed similar reliability coefficients to those observed in other countries. For the total self-esteem score, the reliability

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coefficient was 0.82, and the coefficients for each scale ranged from 0.78, in the general self-

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esteem scale, to 0.58 in the peers-friends’ self-esteem scale. The Career Maturity Inventory – Form C (Savickas & Porfeli, 2011) (Portuguese

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version) is a revised form of the CMI – Form B-1 based on the career construction theory. For this new form, the authors selected 24 items from the previous version and organized them into four subscales: (1) the Concern scale (6 items) assesses the extent to which an individual is oriented to and involved in the process of making career decisions; (2) the Curiosity scale (6 items) assesses the extent to which an individual explores the world of work and seeks information about occupations and their requirements; (3) the Confidence scale (6 items) assesses the extent to which an individual has faith in her /his ability to make wise career decisions and realistic occupational choices; finally, (4) the Consultation scale (6 items) assesses the extent to which an individual seeks advice from others in making career decisions and occupational choices. The option of the authors for favoring a consultation scale instead of a control one (as suggested by the career construction theory) was due to three main reasons: the difficulty of finding items in Form B-1 to operationally define a sense

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of control, the cross-cultural differences regarding the role of parents in career decision making and the problems with the hierarchical CFA (the control scale correlated only .28 to

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the higher order factor of readiness) (Savickas & Porfeli, 2011).Thus, the Consultation scale reflects a relational style and it is not included in the total adaptability score.

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Psychometric analysis of CMI – Form C (Savickas & Porfeli, 2011) shows a single

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higher order factor in the hierarchical CFA, which represents career choice readiness. The magnitude of the loadings of the first-order factors on the second-order factor of readiness

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was 0.51, for the Concern scale, 0 .83 for the Curiosity scale and 0.95 for the Confidence

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scale. The reliability coefficient for the CMI total score based on 18 items (without the Consultation scale) was 0.86, 0.62 for the Concern scale, 0.74 for the Curiosity, 0.78 for the

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Confidence scale and 0.69 for the Consultation scale.

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Procedures

Students participated in two types of career group interventions: Intervention A, a

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single career information group session and Intervention B, a six-weeks career group intervention. These interventions were administered by experienced school psychologists, the second and third authors of this research project. Intervention A aimed to provide the students with relevant career information about alternative courses and related career paths. This group single-session was 1h 30m long and was based on a PowerPoint presentation. Although the structure of the presentation was similar, the information presented at grade 9 and 12 was adjusted to the specific career information needs of students at each grade level. The second intervention, Intervention B, was specially organized for this study. In addition to more classical career intervention activities such as self exploration, career information, and decision-making, it included a first module of activities related to career adaptability. This program format is compatible with the number of sessions suggested by

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Brown and Krane (2000) for effective career counseling interventions. Key elements found by these authors (Brown & Krane, 2000) for delivering this type of interventions were also

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integrated in the organization of sessions, namely written exercises for participants clarify their career and life goals, individualized interpretation and feedback, up-to-date information

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about career paths, and modeling.

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Intervention B was composed by six sessions organized in three modules: Module 1 (Career Promotion) included two sessions with the objective of promoting career adaptability.

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The first session focused on time perspective and career planning and included activities such

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as the life line exercise, which stimulates self-reflections about the personal life story (past events, present challenges and future projects), and analysis of cases with different career

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paths and stories, stimulating reflection about the importance of goals and flexible planning

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and exploration. By fostering a positive future time perspective and positive attitudes towards career planning and exploration, the first session also stimulated career concern and curiosity.

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The second session aimed to promote adjusted self-attributions beliefs and self-esteem. Activities included discussion of life/case stories highlighting the importance of adjusted control beliefs in career development, and self analysis of sentiments of worth and difficulties, thus developing self-esteem and confidence; Module 2 (Self – knowledge) was organized in two sessions and aimed to increase career self-concept knowledge, by assessing vocational interests, and promoting self reflection about values, aptitudes and motivation in school; Module 3 (Career Information and Decision Making) comprised two sessions, the first on career information was similar to the one developed in Intervention A, and the second on developing a career project. In this final session students were asked to integrate the diverse elements of their self-concept (personal interests, aptitudes, motivation and values), adaptability strategies and the knowledge of career opportunities into a career project.

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Sessions were 1h 30m long and were delivered on a weekly basis. For this case too, sessions were adjusted to the specific needs of students at each grade level, while keeping the

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structure of the intervention broadly similar. Both interventions were delivered to groups based on their respective classes. After

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receiving authorization from the school administration and parents, students were invited to

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participate in the activities, on a voluntary basis, and required to sign a Statement of Consent. Classes were randomly assigned to the group program or to the career information

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intervention. Intervention groups (both in Intervention A and Intervention B) had an average

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of 22 participants, ranging from 20 (the smaller group) to 25 participants (the larger groups). Statistical analyses

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All analyses were conducted using SPSS 20.0. In order to establish students’ coping

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profiles a non hierarchical cluster analysis (K-means method) was carried out on the standardized scores of time perspective, attributional beliefs and self-esteem. To explore the

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effects of career interventions on the diverse groups of students the analyses were conducted in three steps: First, a linear regression model tested the predictive value of the type of intervention on career adaptability outcome. Career adaptability outcome was operationalized using residualized change scores as these scores adjust for pretreatment differences and reduce problems of measurement error (MacKinnon, 2008). The second set of analysis aimed to analyse the interaction effects of interventions and other variables (grade level and coping styles). As the groups based on grade level and coping profiles were statistical different on career adaptability, procedures of adjusting for pre treatment differences were not applicable (Cronbach & Furby, 1970; Field, 2013), so a factorial repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted. Finally, and serving as pos hoc comparisons, t tests repeated-measures explored the differences on career adaptability from pre-test to post test in the diverse groups of career coping styles.

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Results Table 1 shows the correlations between the measures and the reliability coefficients for each

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subscale. -------------------------

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Insert Table 1

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Correlations between measures show important relations between Future Time

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Perspective and three dimensions of career adaptability, namely Concern (r=0.34; p=0.00),

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Confidence (r=0.53; p=0.00) and Curiosity (r=0.49; p=0.00). Present Orientation shows an opposite pattern of correlations with career adaptability dimensions, correlating negatively

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with Concern (r=- 0.43; p=0.00), Confidence (r=-0.24; p=0.00) and Curiosity (r=-0.24;

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p=0.00). Although internal attributional beliefs seem to have no relation with the career adaptability inventory subscales, External beliefs correlated negatively with the Confidence

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(r=-0.16; p=0.00) and Curiosity (r=-0.20; p=0.00) subscales and positively with the Consultation subscale (r=0.31; p=0.00). Self-esteem related positively with the Confidence (r=0.26; p=0.00) and Curiosity (r=0.39; p=0.00) subscales of the CMI and with the Future Time Perspective of the IPT (r=0.37; p=0.00). The pre-test standardized scores of time perspective, career attribution beliefs and self-esteem were used to perform a cluster analysis (K-means method). A solution of 4 clusters was tested and considered a good solution, according to the general criteria for the determination of the number of clusters to retain (Afifi & Clark, 1998; Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2006; Hammond, 2000). Table 2 presents the standardized mean scores on the variables time perspective, attribution beliefs and self-esteem of the participants integrated in each cluster. Participants in the first cluster scored above average on future orientation, internal attribution beliefs related to success and self-esteem, suggesting a pattern

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of results similar to the Adaptive profile found in the previous study (Janeiro & Marques, 2010); the second cluster, although revealing a generally low profile, scored higher than

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average on present time orientation and self-esteem and lower on the internal attributions related to success, thus similar to the Insecure profile. The third cluster scores were

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extremely low on future time orientation and on self-esteem but were high on present time

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orientation, negative vision of the future and internal attributions beliefs related with failure, which means that this pattern is similar to the Pessimistic profile. Finally, participants in the

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fourth cluster scored above average on all of the variables but one, the future orientation;

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particularly high scores on this profile were on the present orientation and on the external attribution beliefs, showing a profile similar to the Superficial style (Janeiro & Marques,

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2010).

Insert Table 2

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The distribution of cases by clusters shows that the Adaptive and the Superficial clusters grouped the largest number of participants. The Adaptive and the Insecure clusters are relatively balanced gender wise, whereas the Pessimistic cluster has more females than males, and the Superficial cluster has significantly more males than females. The distribution by grade level shows that all clusters integrate grade 9 and grade 12 participants, nevertheless, the Superficial cluster aggregated more students from grade 9 and the Insecure group relatively more students from grade 12. The Adaptive and the Pessimistic clusters have similar proportions of students from each grade level. Table 3 presents the average scores of the four clusters on CMI scales ----------------Insert Table 3

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-------------------The students in the Adaptive cluster scored higher than all of the other groups on the

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Concern, Confidence and Curiosity scales (Table3). The Superficial group scored lower on Concern and higher on Consultation. The Pessimistic profile scored lower on the Confidence,

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significant on all of the dimensions of CMI- Form C.

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Curiosity and Consultation scales. The differences between the groups were statistically

At the pretest, the classes intervened with an information session (M = 10.11, SD =

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3.67) and those with a six week group program (M = 10.49, SD = 3.84) revealed no

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significant differences on the total CMI (without the consultation scale), t(263) = -0.82; p = 0.41. Although differences emerged on career adaptability between grade 9 participants (M =

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9.74; SD = 3.68) and grade 12 (M = 11.7, SD = 3.70); t(263) = -3.24; p = 0.001, differences

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between groups attending Intervention A and Intervention B in each grade level were not statistically different (Table 4).

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Insert Table 4 ___

The analysis of the predictive value of the type of intervention on career adaptability, while adjusting for differences in the pre-intervention groups, revealed that the type of intervention was a significant predictor of career adaptability change (β =.165; t(264) = −2.72 p=0.007). A repeated-measures ANOVA reveals that, on average, the participants significantly increased their CMI scores from the pre interventions moment (M1= 10.30, SD = 3.75) to the post interventions moment (M2 =11.79, SD =3.93), F (1, 264) = 57.20; p=0.00, ηp2 =.18. However, a more detailed analysis shows that the two interventions had different effects on participants. As shown on Figure 1, the participants who attended the single information

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session show a slight, yet statistically significant, improvement on career adaptability scores from moment 1 (M1= 10.11, SD= 3.67) to moment 2 (M2= 11.15, SD = 3.97), F (1, 134) =

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16.87; p=0.00), ηp2 =.11. As expected, the participants who attended the six-week career intervention showed a major improvement on their CMI scores between Moment 1

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(M1=10.49, SD=3.83) and Moment 2 (M2=12.44, SD=3.79); F (1,129) = 32.46; p= 0.00,

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ηp2 =.20. The comparative analysis between the two types of interventions represents a medium-size effect d =0.33.

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Insert Graph 1 -----------------------------

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For the analysis of the differences between pre and post interventions, a three factors

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repeated-measure ANOVA (type of intervention × cluster × grade level) was performed. The analysis reveals that the interaction effect between moments and clusters of participants was

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also significant, F (3, 261) = 4.60; p =0.004, ηp2=.053 (Figure 2), however the interaction effect between moments and grade level was not significant F(1, 264) =3.31; p=0.07, ηp2=0.013. ----

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The analysis of the effects of the type of career intervention on the diverse clusters shows that the effects of the information session were not identical on the four clusters (Table 5). In fact, the only group that improved significantly on career adaptability with this type of intervention was the group with a Superficial profile (t (39) = -3.34; p=0.01). -----------------Insert Table 5

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-------------------By contrast, the six-week career intervention produced a more generalized effect on

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the career maturity of all participants. Nevertheless, the impact of the program varied across the career coping styles groups, whereas the groups with an insecure, pessimistic and

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superficial pattern improved their levels of career confidence and curiosity (Table 5), the

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adaptive style group, maintained the same levels in three of the four dimensions of the CMI. Interestingly, the only dimension that changed significantly in this group was Consultation,

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suggesting that these students became more autonomous in their approach to the career

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decision process.

Discussion

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Research on the efficacy of career interventions often lacks evidence on the

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comparative effects of different types of interventions, as well as on the effects of the interventions on different clients (Perry et al., 2009; Whiston & Quinby, 2009). The purpose

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of the present study was to examine the effects of two types of interventions on the career adaptability of different groups of students. As expected, the type of intervention predicted career adaptability outcomes. In fact, and although the two interventions had positive effects on career adaptability, the groupprogram produced larger effects on career adaptability than the single informative session. These findings support the notion that a relatively short format of five or six sessions can be effective (Brown & Krane, 2000) even for grade 9 and grade 12 level students. By contrast, the findings highlight the reduced efficacy of single career information sessions. The findings also helped to validate the concept of career coping styles. In fact, the profiles of the new clusters were similar to those found in previous studies (Janeiro & Marques, 2010) with different samples. Furthermore, the analysis of the relations between the different styles and the dimensions of career adaptability confirmed a pattern of

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differences between clusters. As expected, the adaptive style scored higher in most of the adaptability dimensions. On the other hand, students with a superficial style scored lower in

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the Concern scale and higher in the Consultation scale, suggesting that these students rely more on external factors and on others when dealing with career tasks. The insecure style

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the various dimensions of the CMI – Form C.

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scored lowest in Confidence and the pessimistic style scored the lowest of all the groups in

The analysis of the efficacy of the two types of interventions by groups of participants

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shows that the career information single-session helped to improve the levels of curiosity and

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confidence of the students with the superficial profile only. For the remaining almost 75% of participants the informative session had no effect at all on their levels of career adaptability.

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Conversely, the six-week career intervention had a significant impact on a larger number of

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participants, not only on the superficial style group, but on both the insecure and the pessimistic groups as well, which showed significant improvements in their levels of career

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confidence and curiosity.

Career interventions seem to be efficient in helping students to deal satisfactorily with career tasks as shown by several studies (Whiston & Oliver, 2005); however the impact of the interventions appear to be moderated by certain characteristics of the students. Contrary to initial expectations, students with a superficial profile have benefited the most from the two interventions. One factor that may explain this result is the tendency that these students have to rely on external sources when dealing with career tasks, as the results on the external attribution beliefs and consultation suggest, and this tendency may make them more permeable to career interventions. Future studies should clarify the consistency of these results, together with the medium and long term effects of interventions with this group of students. Given that the results of students with an insecure or pessimistic career coping

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styles only changed with the six week career intervention, they seem to benefit only from career interventions when these are wide-ranging and comprehensive in nature.

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On the other hand, students with the adaptive profile did not change their overall career adaptability levels with either career intervention. Although this finding may be

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explained by their high results on career adaptability prior to the interventions, the real

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efficacy of career interventions for these students remains an open question. Future studies should resort to other evaluative methods to analyze the effects of general career

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interventions on students with this type of profile.

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These findings may have several implications that are worth mention. Firstly, they support the relations between variables, such as time perspective, attributional beliefs, self-

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esteem, and career variables, as had been suggested by vocational development and career

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construction theories (Super, 1990; Savickas, 2013). At a more practical level, the relations between variables also reaffirm the importance of integrating in career interventions specific

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activities that might help students achieve a more balanced time perspective, adjusted control beliefs and self-esteem.

Secondly, the study also confirms that interventions based on an informative approach alone have a reduced impact on the generality of students. Less expensive interventions are frequently the most favored, but in the cost/benefits ratio it is also important to understand the real efficacy of such interventions. Overall, the data reinforces the need for more integrated and continuous career interventions throughout the school years. Finally, the findings indicate that interventions have a differentiated effect on different groups of students, highlighting the importance that career interventions adopt formats adjusted to the specific needs of different students. The study has several limitations that must be taken into account. In particular, the results may reflect the effect of a particular kind of intervention and not a generalized trend of

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their impact on the groups. The study did not include a group without any kind of career intervention what would be relevant for controlling the effect of other variables, namely the

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maturation effect. It would be important that future research could test with larger sample sizes the moderator effect of students’ characteristics on the efficacy of career interventions.

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It would be also interesting if future research could analyze with follow-up studies the

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consistency and medium-term impact of interventions in the different groups of students.

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Psychology in the Schools, 46, 267-272. doi:10.1002/pits.20372.

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Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career coping styles –

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Tables

1 - Concern

---

2 - Curiosity

2.66 1.80

.15

2

3

3.84 1.59 -.04

Consultation 5 - Total CMI

-

__ -

.21** .27**

10.283.68 .50** .84** .86**

(3C)(1)

__ .25**

70.9415.43 .34** .53** .49** -.08 31.289.57 .04 7 - Present .43** .30** .24** 17.185.35 -.02 -.15* .18** 8 - Past .22** 11.745.14 -.02 9 – Neg. Future .21** .41** .29** 10 – Int. Sucess 41.865.32 .14* .11 .05 .07 15.525.71 11 – Int. -.03 -.15* -.05 -.02

12 – Ext. Beliefs 13 - SelfEsteem

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6 - Future

Failure

34.529.32

-.11

34.138.31

5

6

__

3 - Confidence 2.84 1.83 .21** .61** 4-

4

-

-

.20** .16**

.05 .39** .26**

7

8

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1

9

10

11

12 13 alpha .48 .66 .66

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SD

.62

.78

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M

4.77 1.19

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Table 1 - Correlation Matrix and Reliability Coefficients (n=319)

.31**

__

.61** __ __ .40** .36** .02 .24** .19** .43** .41** .38** .12 .36**

-.09

.86 .80 .56

__ .15*

.68

__

.13 -.16*

.75

__

.76 -.11 .21**

-.05

.08

.13

.13 .29**

__ .73

-.04 .30** .35** .25**

-.01 .34** .37**

-.10

-.01

.39**

.10 .23**

.13

Notes: (1)Total CMI (3C) - Composite score of the subscales of Concern, Confidence and Curiosity * Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed) .** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed).

__

- __ .83 .22** .14*

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Table 2 – Final Cluster Centers (n=265)

Adaptive

Superficial

35 (23.6%) 18 (15.4%) 27(16%) 26 (27%) -.51

38 (25.7%) 19 (16.2%) 38 (22.5%) 19 (19.8%) -.82

29 (19.6%) 38 (32.5%) 51 (30.1%) 16 (16.7%) -.15

-.72

-.23

.31

.87

-.17

-.65

.04

.71

-.72

-.20

.63

.57

Intern Sucess Beliefs

.54

-1.05

-.08

.19

Intern Failure Beliefs

-.13

-.54

.36

.30

External Beliefs

-.38

-.52

.03

.89

Self Esteem

.56

.14

-1.30

.26

Present Orientation Past Orientation

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Negative Future

46 (31.1%) 42 (35.9%) 53 (31.4%) 35 (36.5%) .96

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Gender Female Male Grade 9 12 Future Orientation

Insecure

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Pessimistic

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Final Cluster Centers

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3.90

2.79

Curiosity

4.02

2.42

Consultation

3.78

3.64

13.18

10.04

CMI(3C)

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Confidence

3-Pessimistic 4-Superficial Total (n=57) (n=67) (n=265) 4.60 4.22 4.77 2.16

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F

1.22

10.61**

2.85

1.85

18.76**

1.33

2.25

2.68

1.85

38.74**

3.60

4.49

3.89

1.61

4.44**

8.09

8.60

10.29

3.75

41.80**

Notes: CMI(3C)- Composite score of the subscales of Concern. Confidence and Curiosity *p < .05. **p < .01

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SD

2.12

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Concern

1- Adaptative 2- Insecure (n=88) (n= 53) 5.26 4.83

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Table 3 – Means of Career Adaptability (CMI 3C) by Career Coping Profiles

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CMI (3C) Pre Test Group Intervention A

M

SD

9.59

3.64

Grade 12 (96) t-test

11.06

3.74

M

SD

10.85

3.97

CMI (3C) Post Test

Group Intervention B

M

SD

11.71

3.98

-2.40**

12.32

3.97

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Group Intervention A

3.85

t-test

t-test

3.59

11.47

D

9.91

SD

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-.58 Group Intervention B

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Grade 9 (169)

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Table 4 – Means and Standard Deviations of CMI (3C) at the Pre and Post-test (n=265)

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M

SD

10.11

3.68

11.49

3.84

M

SD

11.16

3.98

12.44

3.79

-.54

t-test

12.65

3.49

t-test

-.43

-1.23

Notes: CMI (3C) - Composite score of the subscales of Concern, Confidence and Curiosity *p < .05. **p < .01

Total (265)

t-test

-2.69**

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33

1- Adaptive (n=42)

2- Insecure (n=19)

M2

t

M1

M2

t

Concern

5.21

5.31

-.64

4.95

4.84

.46

Confidence

3.57

3.83

-1.33

3.00

3.58

4.14

3.93

1.17

2.58

3.37

Group Program Concern Confidence

Curiosity Consultation Total CMI(a)

(n=40)

M2

t

M1

M2

t

4.59

4.50

.46

4.28

4.45

-.75

2.12

2.59

-1.44

2.25

2.77

-1.94*

-1.75

1.32

2.24

-1.76

2.20

3.18

-

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-1.44

3.75**

3.93

-.25

3.37

3.79

-.85

3.62

3.79

-.85

4.55

12.93 13.07

-.44

10.53 11.79

-1.72

8.03

9.32

-1.72

8.72 10.40

1- Adaptive (n=45) M1

M2

5.30

5.13

4.20

4.63

3.91

4.22

3.70

3.13

13.41 13.98

(a)

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Total CMI*

3.88

2- Insecure (n=34)

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Consultation

.734 3.34**

3-Pessimistic (n=23)

4-Superficial (n=27)

M1

M2

t

M1

M2

t

M1

M2

t

1.27

4.76

4.97

-.90

4.61

4.57

.13

4.15

4.26

-.40

2.68

3.74

2.22

3.39

1.93

3.56

2.32

3.50

1.35

2.61

2.33

3.89

3.79

3.41

3.57

3.57

4.41

4.26

9.76

12.21

8.17

10.57

-1.67

-1.00

2.10* -.96

3.41** 3.47** 1.43 3.77**

-2.62*

3.24** .00 3.05**

Notes: Total CMI- Composite score of the subscales of Concern. Confidence and Curiosity *p < .05. **p < .01

4.40

t

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Curiosity

4-Superficial

M1

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M1

3-Pessimistic (n=19)

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Table 5 – Differences between CMI Means from Moments 1 and 2 by Clusters

8.41 11.70

4.59** 3.72** .66 4.93**

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Effects of two types of career interventions on students with different career coping styles -

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Figures

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Interventions on CMI

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Figure 1 – Effects of Type 1 (Information Session) and Type 2 (Group program) career

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Figure 2 – Interaction effects Intervention type (Information vs Program) and Clusters

Note: Cluster 1 – Adaptive; Cluster 2 – Insecure; Cluster 3 – Pessimistic; Cluster 4 - Superficial

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Running head: EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF CAREER INTERVENTIONS 36

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Highlights

Compare the effects of two career interventions on diverse groups of participants

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The two career interventions had a significant impact on career adaptability

•

A short group program had a more robust effect than a single informative session

•

Career coping styles moderated the effects of career interventions

•

Insecure and Pessimistic style students benefit only with the short program

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•