Ego development and its relation to teacher education

Teochrng & Teacher Educauon. Pnnted in Great Bntain

Vol. 5. No

I. pp. 21-32. 1989 0

0742_USlx/R9 13.W+O 03 1989 Pergamon Press plc

EGO DEVELOPMENT AND ITS RELATION TO TEACHER EDUCATION

ANNE

L. CUMMINGS The University

and HARRY of Western

Ontario,

G. MURRAY Canada

Abstract - Relations among ego development, views of education, and academic performance were examined in a sample of 58 adult learners who were teachers. Participants were also rated by course instructors on participation and ability using categories derived from Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The results indicated that adult learners do differ significantly by ego level in how they view such educational issues as the role of the teacher and the source of knowledge. Path analysis revealed that class participation was a significant mediating variable for these relationships. However, ego level did not directly have an impact on the instructor ratings or course grades, perhaps due to attenuated variance on these measures.

educators for clarifying why adults approach learning environments from different frames of reference. This view has been taken one step further by educators who assert that development should be the aim of education (Chickering,’ 1980; Long, 1987; Wacks, 1987). When development is conceived as the aim of education, the emphasis shifts from imparting information to facilitating adults’ capacities for responding effectively to deeper and more complex issues. To examine adult development, Loevinger’s ,(1976, 1980) model of ego development was selected because it is the most comprehensive of the developmental theories, and because it can be measured by a well-researched test, the Washington University Sentence Completion Test. Loevinger (1976) describes her theory as an amalgamation of insights from other sources, rather than an original theory. Ego development is conceived as holistic because it encompasses the total human organism, including moral and personality development, cognitive

Teachers in inservice educational programs are rarely viewed as being adult learners, and yet the concepts of adult education have great applicability to teachers as learners. Researchers in the field of adult education (Epstein, 1986; Verduin, Miller, & Greer, 1986; Weathersby, 1981) assert that adult learners are a much more varied group than traditional postsecondary students. In addition, they claim that adults become increasingly different from each other as they age. Not only is there diversity among adults, but there is also the potential for growth within the individual adult. There is now general acceptance that adulthood is not a static period but rather a time of continuing development (Perlmutter & Hall, 1985; Rogers, 1986; Turner & Helms, 1986). Several theorists have devised detailed developmental stage theories to explain various aspects of human development, including the adult years (Erikson, 1950; Kohlberg, 1981; Loevinger, 1976; Perry, 1970; Piaget, 1952). Developmental stages are important to adult

This research was conducted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master’s degree of the first author. An earlier version of this paper was delivered at the Canadian Psychological Association, Montreal, Quebec, June 1988. The authors thank Jack Martin, Carol Crealock, Ted Hallberg, and Al Slemon for helpful suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. We are also grateful to Jody Galardo for assistance in the data collection. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to the first author at the Faculty of Education, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada N6G lG7.

21

22

ANNE

L. CUMMINGS

and HARRY

complexity, and interpersonal style. The ego is abstract rather than concrete, a process rather than a static product. The beginning stages of the model, presocial (I-l), impulsive (I-2), and self-protective (Delta) are rarely found in adults. Later stages are more common in adults and include the following: conformist (I-3), characterized by a conventional, stereotypical view of the world; self-aware (I-3/4), characterized by increased awareness of inner feelings and multiplicity of thinking; conscientious (I-4), characterized by differentiated thinking about self and others; individualistic (I-4/5), characterized by increased awareness of inner conflict and toleration of paradox; autonomous (I-5), characterized by cherishing individual differences and toleration of ambiguity; and integrated (I-6) characterized by integration of inner conflict. As with many developmental models, these ego stages are considered to be in an invariant, irreversible sequence moving through increasing differentiation and hierarchical integration. A number of researchers have related the concept of ego development to education. Gates (1982) believes that knowledge of ego development stages provides the most comprehensive system available for understanding the current functioning of students and for facilitating growth in self awareness. Spatig, Ginsburg, and Liberman (1982) used ego development to examine the extent to which student teachers were influenced by their instructors. As predicted, they found partial support for students at the conformist stage, having teaching styles that were less varied and closer to that of their instructors, than did students at the conscientious stage. Glickman and Tamashiro (1982) compared the ego level of first-year, fifth-year, and former teachers who had left the profession. They discovered that teachers still in the profession tended to be at the self-aware level (I-3/4) while those who had left were at the conformist level (I-3). They hypothesized that the need for set rules and guidelines by the conformist exteachers may have meant that the school environment was too unstructured for them. Ego development also has relevance for counselor education. Carlozzi, Gaa, and Liberman (1983) found support for Loevinger’s claim that empathic ability is evidenced in individuals

G. MURRAY

above the conformity level. Finding that people at lower ego levels are unable to demonstrate empathy has implications for both the training and selection of counselors. With the preceding empirical evidence of the relevance of ego development for education, it is not surprising that the two areas have been linked theoretically. Lasker and deWindt (1976) developed a descriptive model relating ego stages to various aspects of education: institutional function, learning process. teacher role, student role, motive for education, source of knowledge, purpose of knowledge, and definition of knowledge. For example, at the self-protective level, knowledge is viewed as a means to concrete ends while at the conformist level, it is seen as being useful to meet the standards of others. In contrast, at the conscientious level, knowledge is thought to be needed to achieve competence and meet internal standards. Finally, at the autonomous level, knowledge is perceived as being for self-development and self-knowledge. The main implications for education of Lasker and dewindt’s schema are that both students and teachers are likely to vary greatly in their internal frames of reference as they approach the many facets of the teaching-learning process and these differences need to be taken into account when planning educational programs. However, as Chickering (1980) asserts, most educational institutions are geared to the self-protective and conformist stages with their emphases on teacher authority, memorizing, and the use of examinations to punish and reward. Instances are rare in which students are challenged in personal growth and are equal participants in the learning process through the selection of their own learning goals. The present study was designed to examine several issues relating ego development to adult education in a sample of teachers training to become guidance counselors. The first goal was to investigate the relationship between ego development, as measured by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test, and teachers’ views of various aspects of education, as measured by a sentence completion test based on Lasker and dewindt’s system. This focus serves as a construct validity study of ego development in relation to perceptions of educational issues. In addition, the validity of

23

Ego Development Lasker and dewindt’s theoretical formulations concerning ego development and attitudes toward education was assessed to determine whether teachers responded in predicted ways to various educational issues. A second area of inquiry questioned whether ego level could predict the participation and achievement of adult learners in a university professional education context. For this aspect, grades in the course, teacher ratings of student participation, and teacher ratings on a set of scales based on Bloom’s (1972) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives served as outcome measures. One of the major components of the course was a counselling practicum in which the students’ grades were based on their ability to demonstrate empathy in an interview. On the basis of Carlozzi, Gaa., and Liberman’s (1983) finding that empathic ability is found only in postconformist individuals, it was hypothesized that the higher the ego level, the higher would be the student’s grade in the counseling practicum. Bloom’s taxonomy was used as a basis for teacher ratings of student performance because it is comparable to Loevinger’s model in being hierarchical, including both affective and cognitive components, and having been widely utilized in the educational field as a guide for curriculum development and research (Kunen, Cohen, & Solman, 1981). Thus, it is an appropriate complement to ego development and Lasker and dewindt’s schema, both of which are also suitable foundations for educational curriculum and research. It was predicted that the Bloom rating scales would relate positively to ego development. To investigate the hypothesized relations among variables in the present study, a path analysis model of the central variables was developed. As a theoretical and statistical approach, path analysis is increasingly being employed in educational research (Linn, 1986). The model for the present study hypothesized that ego level influenced students’ views of education (Lasker & deWindt, 1976), class participation, grades, and the level of rating on Bloom’s taxonomy. Thus, the higher the ego level, the higher should be scores on the other five variables. Participation and views of education were viewed as mediating variables between ego level and academic performance.

In summary, no previous study has ascertained specifically how teachers at different ego levels differ in their views toward various aspects of education. Neither has there been study that has examined the direct effects of ego level and associated views of education upon academic performance. These were the dual aims of this study.

Method

Participants The participants were 58 (36 women and 22 men) elementary and secondary teachers who volunteered from two different class sections of a summer university program in guidance counseling in Ontario, Canada. Ages ranged from 23 to 56 years (M = 37), while teaching experience ranged from 0 to 24 years (M = 11.8). There were 35 secondarv teachers and 22 elementary teachers. Educational level was very homogeneous with 51 having a Bachelor of Education degree, four having a Master’s degree, and three having a teaching certificate.

Measurement of Ego Level During the first week of class, participants were given the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WV-XX, Form 81 for women and Form 81 for men) to measure ego level. It is a projective test consisting of 36 sentence-completion items covering the major topics in a person’s life. For example, “For a woman a career . . . . ” “Men are lucky because . ..) ” “My father . . . ,” and “I am . . ..” Respondents are instructed to write the first thing that comes to mind for each item. The WU-SCT was scored by two trained raters according to standard procedures recommended by Loevinger and Wessler (1970). First, all responses for each of the 36 stems were transcribed from the protocols. All responses for one stem were scored by the raters independently before proceeding to the next stem. After scoring each stem, the raters discussed divergences in scoring to arrive at a consensual score for each response. However, for the purpose of computing interrater reliability, the original scores before discussion were used.

24

ANNE

L. CUMMINGS

After all responses had been scored, a Total Protocol Rating (TPR) was given using the ogive rules established by Loevinger and Wessler (1970). The resulting TPR’s were used in all analyses. Interrater reliability for each of the 36 items was calculated using Pearson product moment coefficients which ranged from 0.47 to 0.90 with a median of 0.77. These values are almost identical to values reported by Loevinger and Wessler (1970). The corresponding reliability of the TPR score was 0.95, which is in the high range of Loevinger’s values. Application of the Spearman-Brown formula showed that the reliability of the mean rating of the two judges was 0.87 for individual items and 0.97 for the TPR score. Thus, rater variability was not a major source of variance in WU-SCT scores. To assess the internal consistency of the WU-SCT, coefficient alpha was computed. The obtained alpha of 0.77 was close to the range found by Holt (1980) and Waugh (1981) indicating a reasonably high level of consistency in the 36 test items.

Measurement of Views of Education A Views of Education Sentence Completion Test developed by the first author and based on the scheme devised by Lasker and deWindt (1976) was administered during the course as an exploratory instrument to assess whether the theoretical postulates and corresponding ego levels of Lasker and deWindt matched the ego levels of Loevinger. The test consisted of the following items: (a) A good teacher . . . . (b) Knowledge is . . . . (c) The learning process involves . . . . (d) Knowledge is used for . . . . (e) A person should get an education because . . . . (f) A good student . . . , (g) Knowledge comes from . . . . and (h) The purpose of schools is . . . . The sentence completion format was utilized to match the style of the WU-SCT. The responses were rated by the same raters using Loevinger’s theory of ego development and Lasker and dewindt’s schema to arrive at an ego level rating for each response. Interrater reliability coefficients on the eight items ranged from 0.46 to 0.88 with a median of 0.75. A scoring manual (available from the authors) was devised in conjunction with this process.

and HARRY

G. MURRAY

Measurement of Other Variables Academic performance and participation were measured by teacher ratings and formal course grades. At the end of the course, instructors rated subjects on a 7-point rating scale based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1972). The scales were constructed by the first author and included the following items: (a) Student demonstrates an awareness of feelings (receiving). (b) Student tries new methods of interacting with peers and clients (responding), (c) Student shows knowledge and comprehension of dealing with concepts of counseling (knowledge and comprehension), (d) Student analyzes communication to clarify feelings, content, and patterns (analysis), (e) Student applies abstract counseling theory to concrete situations (application), (f) Student synthesizes elements of interpersonal interactions to form new perspectives (synthesis), and (g) Student evaluates interactions to make appropriate judgments for self-evaluation (evaluation). Three instructors in each class section rated students on the Bloom scales. For one class, the interrater correlations on individual items ranged from 0.24 to 0.77. When the SpearmanBrown formula was applied, the reliability of the mean rating ranged from 0.56 to 0.87 with a median of 0.80. In the other class, correlations between raters ranged from 0.05 to 0.39. Applications of the Spearman-Brown formula yielded mean rater coefficients ranging from 0.14 to 0.66 with a median of 0.53. These lower coefficients for the second class did not necessarily reflect lack of agreement between raters, however, because there was truncated variability of ratings on the 7-point scales in the second class as compared to the first class. The ratings from the two classes were combined and intraclass correlations were calculated. The resulting values ranged from 0.49 to 0.59. While these values are not as high as one would desire, they are not unusual for untrained raters (classroom instructors). Instructors actually were very close to each other in terms of interrater agreement. When percentage of agreement between judges was defined as plus or minus one point, values ranged from 78% to 96% with a median of 87%, reflecting a high level of interrater agreement. The values from the three raters were

Ego Development

averaged and the averaged score was used in further analyses. Instructors also rated each student on the quality and quantity of class participation. Other dependent variables included two different class grades: one academic (counseling theory) and one practical (counseling practicum). These grades and the Bloom rating scales were viewed as outcome measures, whereas ego development was the major independent variable, and Views of Education and participation were viewed as intervening variables. All scores from all measures were converted to standard score form for each class individually. This procedure was employed to standardize the effect of two different sets of instructors rating two different sets of students. The standard scores from the two classes were then combined into one data set and used in further analyses.

Results The distribution of ego levels as measured by the WU-SCT was as follows: 14 at I-3/4 (selfaware), 32 at I-4 (conscientious), and 12 at I-4/.5 (individualistic). In this sample, the majority of participations were at the conscientious level, one level above the self-aware level which Loevinger (1976) views as the modal level for adults. On the Views of Education measure there was no overall score. However, the distribution of scores had the same basic shape as the WU-SCT results with most responses at I-4, fewer at I-3/4, still fewer at I-4/5, and least at I-3 and I-5. Both the Bloom rating scales and the Views of Education measure were factor analyzed using a principal-components factor analysis with varimax rotation to achieve a reduced set of statistically independent variables for use in further analyses. The Bloom rating scales yielded a single factor with an eigenvalue of 6.88, accounting for 86% of the variance. The factor loadings of the eight Bloom categories ranged from 0.88 to 0.95 with a median of 0.93. Obtaining only one factor is interesting because, theoretically, the categories of the Bloom hierarchy are considered to be independent of each other. A one-factor solution may

25

reflect a general factor underlying the Bloom categories or a “halo effect” from the raters. The Bloom categories were reduced to a single factor-score for use in further analyses. The eight-item Views of Education measure yielded three factors with eigenvalues of 1 .OOor higher. Factor 1 accounted for 33% of the total variance, whereas Factor 2 accounted for 15.9% of the variance, and Factor 3 accounted for 12% of the variance. The three factors were interpreted with respect to the characteristics of Lasker and dewindt’s schema. Factor 1 was composed of the stems, “A good student,” “Knowledge is used,” “Knowledge comes from,” and “A person should get an education because.” A common thread in the responses to these stems at most ego levels was the self in relation to education. Thus, Factor 1 was labeled, Self and Education. Factor 2 was a combination of “The purpose of school is” and “Knowledge is.” There is great similarity between these two categories in Lasker and dewindt’s schema. At each ego level, the purpose of schools could be viewed as delivering knowledge in its various forms. For example, at the self-protective level, the function of schools was described as showing how things should be done, while knowledge was described as helping one to get those things done. Factor 2, then, was labeled the Function of Schools. Factor 3 was a combination of “The learning process involves” and “A good teacher.” Examining Lasker and dewindt’s schema revealed that at each ego level, the learning process involved the role of the teacher. For example, the conformist person perceived the learning process as being the revelation of truth by an expert authority, while the role of a teacher was perceived as a presenter of such information. This factor was labeled the Learning Process. Factor scores for these three factors were computed and utilized in further analyses. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were calculated among the major variables. Demographic variables such as age, sex, and education did not correlate significantly with the major independent and dependent variables. As expected, ego level correlated significantly with Views of Education, although with only two of the three factors, Learning Process (r = 0.28, p < .05) and Function of School

ANNE

26

L. CUMMINGS

(r = 0.23, p < .OS). The fact that ego level did not correlate higher with Views of Education factors may be due to the exploratory nature of the instrument. As hypothesized, ego level did correlate significantly, though weakly, with Bloom ratings, (I = 0.21, p < .OS). This finding indicates that students with higher ego levels tended to receive higher ratings from teachers on cognitive and affective categories than students with lower ego levels. Contrary to expectation, ego level did not correlate significantly with academic grade, counseling grade, or student participant. However, participation correlated significantly with the outcome measure of academic grade (0.37), counseling grade (0.61), and Bloom rating (0.78). Although these correlations may reflect a “halo effect” with the same people rating students on participation, Bloom categories, and assigning grades, they may indicate that students who participate at a higher level also achieve at a higher level. Bloom ratings also correlated significantly with academic grade (0.24) and counseling grade (0.73). When all these correlations are considered together, it is not surprising that participation was such an important variable in a course designed for a large amount of participation. It is reasonable to hypothesize that students who have high quantity and quality of participation in such a course are likely also to demonstrate a high level of empathy in counseling interviews (counseling grade), be better at analyzing. synthesizing. and evaluating a counseling interaction (Bloom ratings), and learn academic material better (academic grade). To examine how well the criterion variables Table

and HARRY

G. MURRAY

could be predicted by the independent and intervening variables in combination, multiple regression analyses were undertaken. Three separate hierarchical multiple regressions of predictor variables were performed: one with academic grade, one with counseling grade, and one with Bloom rating as the criterion variable. Ego level, Views of Education (Factors 1, 2, and 3), and Participation served as predictor variables in all three analyses. Table 1 presents Multiple R and Beta values for the three regression analyses. In ail three cases, the independent variables taken together were capable of predicting criterion variables to a statistically reliable extent. As can be seen from the Beta values, the majority of the variance was due to the participation variable in the analyses. Ego level, however. did not add significantly to the prediction as indicated by the nonsignificant Beta values. The next step in the analysis strategy involved examining the causal relations among variables in the hypothesized model using path analysis. Figure 1 displays the recursive path model relating ego level to the other variables and gives the obtained path coefficients (Beta weights)., Path coefficients between ego level and outcome measures were not statistically reliable. However, as in previous analyses, there were statistically reliable paths from participation to the outcome measures of academic grade, counseling grade, and Bloom rating, and for two of the three paths between ego level and Views of Education. The path coefficients were decomposed into direct and indirect effects. The values obtained for the indirect effects are dependent on the

1

Multiple ReRressions of Outcome Measures on Itlde~endem Variables

Independent Variables

Bloom Rating Beta F

Ego level Views of Education 1(Self) 2 (Schools) 3 (Learning) Participation

0.04

0.17

0.02 0.08 0.06 0.76

0.55 0.84 0.46 66.23’ R= 0.79 F = 16.72’

* p < .os.

Crtterion Measures Academic Grade Beta F 0.16

1.3x

0.03 0.60 0.20 2.40 -0.21 2.45 0.26 3.93’ R = 0.48 F = 3.10*

Counseling Beta 0.02

Grade F 0.29

0.01 0.61 -0.05 0.22 0.05 0.21 0.63 27.74’ R = 0.62 F = 6.46’

Ego Development

27

‘k.05

Figure

1. Path analysis

model.

causal ordering hypothesized in the model. For example, the indirect effect of ego level on Bloom rating was estimated by multiplying coefficients for each intermediate pathway involving Views of Education and Participation and adding values for separate pathways. The results showed that while the direct effect of ego level upon Bloom rating was only 0.039, the indirect effect was 0.137, thus resulting in a total effect that was greater than the direct effect. This result indicates that a change in ego level will result in a small change in Bloom rating, not only because of the direct effect of ego level, but also because of the indirect effect through student participation. Similar results were obtained for the other measures. Table 2 provides a breakdown of the direct and indirect effects for the present path analysis model. In summary, the path analysis lends some support to the general rationale of the hypothesized model. Participation appears to have a causal effect on the outcome measures and the indirect effect of ego level on the outcome measures is mediated mainly through participation. In addition to the quantitative analyses, a content analysis of teachers’ responses on the Views of Education Test was undertaken to identify themes and patterns that were consistent or inconsistent with Lasker and DeWindt’s model. A summary of the results is presented in Table 3. Responses to only one stem selected (“A good teacher”) will be discussed to provide

an example of the type of information resulting from the test. The responses to this stem are representative of the findings from the other seven stems. For all stems, there were no responses below the conformist (I-3) level. On the stem, “A good teacher,” one person at the conformist level describes the teacher as a presenter of information as hypothesized by Lasker and dewindt. However, the majority of responses present the teacher as someone who cares for students. At the next level, self-aware (I-3/4), a good teacher is viewed as someone who cares and is sensitive to the needs of students, has rapport, and is aware of students’ problems (“is fair, congenial, and sensitive to the needs of all her students”). In other words, a deeper involvement of the teacher with students and greater multiplicity is implied by the self-aware teacher than by the conformist teacher. Many responses for this stem occurred at the conscientious level (I-4). Lasker and deWindt describe the I-4 teacher as a role model who models skills, asks questions, and outlines forms of discourse. Several responses confirm these hypotheses; “is a good model for students to imitate,” and “should try to relate theory with practical application.” However, many other themes were also present at I-4. The multiplicity of characteristics suggested by the I3/4 individual is expressed at I-4 by contrasting two differing ideas. For example, the concern for students is here combined with knowledge

28

ANNE

L. CUMMINGS

and HARRY

G. MURRAY

Table 2 Direct and Indirect Effects of Variables in the Model Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Simple r

Ego Level

Views of Education

3 Participation Academic Grade Counseling Grade Bloom Rating

0.116 0.228* 0.280’ 0.179 0.196 0.137 0.215’

Direct Effect

0.116 0.228’ 0.2x0* 0.201 0.158 0.021 0.039

Indirect Effect

0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.022 0.047 0.112 0.137

Total Effect

Unexplained Effect

0.1 16 0.228* 0.280’ 0.179 0.205 0.133 0.176

O.o(I 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.009 0.004 0.039 0.023 0.046 0.056

Views of Education Participation

Viewsof

Academic

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.233* 0.101 -0.25s*

Grade

0.119 0.269* -0.215

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.061 0.027 -0.068

0.061 0.027 -0.068

0.058 0.242 -0.147

0.172 0.044 -0.066

0.00 0.00 0.00

0.146 0.063 -0.162

0.146 0.063 -0.162

0.026 -0.019 0.096

0.221* 0.203 -0.079 0.371* 0.614’ 0.775*

0.00 0.00 0.W 0.264* 0.627” 0.764*

0.178 0.077 -0.197 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.178 0.077 -0.197 0.264’ 0.627* 0.764*

0.043 0.126 0.118 0.107 -0.013 0.012

Education Counseling

2 3 Viewsof

0.233’ 0.101 -0.258’

Education

2 Viewsof

0.256% 0.147 -0.202

Grade

Education Bloom Rating

2 Participation

Academic Grade Counseling Grade Bloom Rating

*p< .os.

of subject area (“has empathy, knowledge. rapport. and mastery of teaching skills”) or contrasted with it (“works on developing positive foremost before self-worth first and academics”). At the individualistic level (I-4/.5), the role of the teacher is considered to be someone who challenges students to learn on their own (“creates the ‘space’ in which a child can experience many activities and learn without feeling threatened”). In addition, a good teacher is perceived as being concerned with the whole child intellectually, emotionally, educationally, physically, and spiritually. Lastly, for an individual at the autonomous level (I-5). Lasker and deWindt emphasize personal experience and reflection by the teacher. Again, responses validated their assumption. For example, a good teacher “is willing to admit that he/she is not omniscient nor omnipotent but can hein students learn how to search effec-

tively for answers (knowledge).” Responses also described a good teacher as a catalyst or facilitator who encourages and motivates students to search on their own for knowledge (“is a person who can motivate others into developing their talents after having helped the person to discover these talents”). When the progression from I-3 to I-5 is studied for this stem. the map for growth becomes clear. Teachers at different ego levels describe very different roles for teachers from merely a presenter of information at I-3 to a catalyst at I-5. The increasing conceptual complexity is also quite apparent as people move from single ideas at I-3 to multiple views at I-3/4 to contrasting thoughts at I-4 to greater depth and complexity at I-4/5 and I-5. In general, support was found for Lasker and dewindt’s hypotheses about the role of the teacher. However, many other themes were also discovered. Thematicallv. a caring for stu-

individualistic

I-5 Autonomous

l-40

l-4 Conscientious

l-3/4 Self-aware

I-3 Conformist

Ego Level

child”

kind. fair”

understanding”

“,o provide

Two sleps: undenland

life skills

abilities

Provide

future

broad

processes

life spiritual.

Helps students

self. others.

& inlersctions

explore

goal realization

& self 1” individual

develop

Shares knowledge

hypotheses

10 salve

seeks

of

& develop

ye, separates

friend

model.

problems

knowledge

Independently

them

takes advantage

opportunilies

&

to new ideas

Explores

Open

to do her best

teacher

curiosity

catalyst.

Fanlitator.

what

Wants 1” learn for self-growth Challenges

Enhance

for self-actualiziltion

these

answers

implementing

facilitates

search for

No, omnipotent

Learning about

but

students

lo learn on own

Challenges

capabilities

&

grow

Never s,ops learning

to polential

of

for

one’s limits &

& academic

physical,

Emolional.

throughout

Continuous

understood

that never fully

applying Complex

Concerned whole child

development

asked

Goes heyond

many areas

understandmgof

promote

&

fo

base for

learning

cope with world

,o

others

knowledge

gaining

wth

ideas while

&own

Interact

and world

others.

self.

&tore

toward

full pOten,ial

Develop

realize

attitude

&

steps:

receiving,

Three processing

whole

Help

students

bfc of many

Elab&a,ion

for growth

life & undcrstandirigof

10 find

all

answers to questions

from effort

that results

facets of life

Truth

of continues Is awareness

whole

Is endless.

society

For betterment

personal

Essential

doors,

make

life

quabty

awareness

wlf from

of common

increasing

limited

good Freeing

purrott

self-satiafacllon.

&

of

&

helping

Self-preservation.

self & others

-decisions.

Every aspect of life

accessible

life’s opportunities

Open

enrichment

&

growth

onc’c

Self-fulfillment

intellectual

horizons

self in

with &

understanding

for answers 10 bfe

place I” unwerse

for one‘s

& provide framework

pnrew,

&

as hfc

awilrc”c\\, view learning

Intrcasc

self-reabzation

achieve

Any source in \carch

break down prejud,ce\,

horimnr,

To hrnaden

weaknesses

strengths

humanity

To realize one’s

society

he able to cope with

self &

to o,hers

To discover

relation

Understand

ability

others

to

awareness

to take

of self I” rclatlon

lncreascd

&

to willingness risks

life’s to learn, question.

curiosity

Dewe

experiences

Internalizing

sources

throu~hou,

Broaden

Ongoing

whole self

p&css

used wselv

Involves

resoonsihilitv

for learning

as individual

diffcrcnt

experiences

m,eres,s

when

thinking

Educational

Achneve goals &

sI,ua,ions

relev~n,

Develop

Leads lo growth. _ ._... t”lllt,men,

Both inside & . ._ 01 se,,

Takes

with

Give more choices ““tslac

sxiety.

concepts

of

Growih

Concern

self self more well-rounded

Make

Challenge

Improve.

new

C”“l,o”m~“,

Accumulation

societv

& knows

Investigating, assimilating

perceiving,

decisions

of self &

to

Making

gwd

Bettermen, others

employment”

in

information

process

or

through

& learning”

l”terprete*

learning

experience

Gained

Worthwhile

milieu of

Whole

studen,

,“,etlcct”al,

emotional.

has

achievement

& sludent

teacher

tar

bdy.

(mind.

IS concerned

inspires

Is skilled. students

& between

Questions. curiosity

strength”

of

power.

“for fu,ure

“to function society”

“living

“become informed”

“wisdom.

“all our senscs~‘

gam” well

“personal

“apprecialion events in world”

aspects of school”

in many

“is involved

-to understand

-is open-minded”

“1” hctter world”

“ond&standing”

sourccs~’

“many

happiness”

future”

“experience”

sew

~~S”rvIvaI I” sowty”

“achieve

people”

media.

“skills for johr‘

“deal with life”

other

“hooks.

fo,

Educalion

Motive

“self-improvement”

“stored

& used for

“valuable,

“does her best”

precious”

facts”

teacher”

learned

“respectsothers.

Well-rounded

well

aware

weds

of

Is good model

Communlcaes

InteractIon

person

Develop

and feeling5

cognitive

of

greater

V&lop

self-awareness

behavwrr

accevted

socially

or

querlwnlnp

interpreting

Learn

mdividuality

Teach

Provide

applicalwn

& relate to o,h&

to ilnalyzc

“to stimulate

students

learning”

Is cmpatbic

“is sensitive

“experiencing.

“to socialize”

&

“understands of child”

“hard work & disapbne”

res&ihle

children”

development

someone”

from

“the learner directions

in an way”

%wCS ahout

knowledgcahle”

with

informalion interesting

1tws.z who arc

“dady existence”

“an accumulation

%ves

“presc”,s

“is dlrcction

about olhen”

‘~cnvironmcn,”

from

“everywhere”

Come

“living”

-to produce

for

doe5

“everything”

From?

Knowledge

Where

“information” of

Use is

Knowledge?

What

“a great thing”

learning”

strurturc

is

Knowledge?

What

“enjoys

learning”

Rote

“likes lo think”

Student

“likes children”

Role

?arcs’~

Teacher

“is anythmg”

Process

“is hard work”

Learning

“10 facdilate

-to educate”

Function

Institutmnal

ANNE

30

L. CUMMINGS

dents was expressed at every ego level, although with varying degrees of complexity. An emphasis on having empathy, using a variety of teaching methods, individualizing instruction, and trying new things did not appear until I-4. At I-4/5, a new focus on teachers themselves continuing their own learning was present; while at I-5, there was the awareness that teachers are not omniscient. Thus, in this sample of teachers, very different approaches would probably be taken in fulfilling the role of the teacher based on the ego level of the individual. Responses to the other seven stems also demonstrated similar patterns. One of the interesting thematic findings from the other responses was that below I-4 these teachers viewed education, schools, and knowledge as being needed for practical situations such as daily living, jobs, and survival. Concurrently. responses at higher levels of ego development were geared to inner growth, developing potential, self-fulfilment, and self-actualization. These differences further confirm that these teachers will most likely have different emphases in their delivery of education to students.

Discussion The present study focused on two areas of major concern. One focus of the study examined the predictive power of ego development in relation to measures of academic performance. Neither academic nor counseling grades correlated significantly with ego development. This result may have been due to the limited variability in this study of both ego level (only 3 levels) and course grades (only A’s and B’s). Jensen (1980) reports the same difficulty in predicting grades in graduate school from Graduate Record Examination scores when the grades are all A’s and B’s, These conditions place severe limitations on obtaining high correlations between predictor and critcrion variables. Thus, greater variability in ego levels and grades might have produced higher correlations. It is also likely that these teachers would have achieved well regardless of their ego level. Ego development correlated significantly. though weakly, with cognitive and affective

and HARRY

G. MURRAY

achievement (Bloom rating score). While this correlation was not strong enough to provide a definitive relation between ego development and the Bloom Taxonomy, it does indicate that further research about this relationship is warranted. The set of strong correlations between participation and outcome measures was an interesting finding. This relationship appears to indicate that people who participate well also achieve at a high level. This is a reasonable conclusion for a sample of teachers, in particular. Teachers are very likely to value class participation in that vocal students reinforce teachers and make their jobs easier. This view is further confirmed by responses to the stem, “A good student . . .” These teachers viewed a good student as questioning, challenging teachers to do their best. sharing knowledge with others. and getting involved. Thus, examples of class participation were associated with being a good student (achievement) in the minds of these teachers. In the initial conceptualization of this study, participation was seen as an intervening variable between ego delr?lopment and outcome measures. When the path analysis results were examined, there was some support for participation as a mediating variable for ego development in that unexplained effects were small under this assumption and ego development had a larger indirect effect than direct effect on most outcome measures. However, in a predictive sense, participation was a much better predictor of grades and instructor ratings than was ego development. This result may indicate that teacher evaluation is more influenced by overt behavior of students than by internal developmental factors. Hauser (1976) asserts that Loevinger’s model does not predict or even assume a relationship between overt behavior and ego development. He believes that instead of searching for a single external criterion, a more fruitful approach is to consider patterns of behavior. In this sense, grades may have been too narrow a behavior to correlate well with such a complex construct as ego development. Rather than expecting predictive power from ego development, there is probably greater benefit in considering its descriptive power. Even though past studies with ego development

Ego Development

have not yielded large numerical results. there is often rich content that provides information about people’s perceptions, expressive styles, modes of interacting, and conceptual complexity. This richness of content was observed in the second part of the present study: the relations between ego development and how teachers perceive educational issues. The statistically reliable correlations between ego development and two of the three Views of Education factors gave some support to ego level being helpful in assessing how a person perceives educational issues. In particular, the content analysis of responses on Views of Education provided useful information for understanding differences in how teachers approach educational experiences. For example, of continuing concern to teacher educators is understanding why some people become effective teachers while others fail and leave the profession. Glickman and Tamashiro (1982) hypothesized that conformist teachers left the profession because the school setting was too unstructured for them. However, from the stem, “A good teacher,” teachers at I-3 conceptualize the role of teacher only as a presenter of information or as someone who cares for children. These responses could indicate that there would not be the inner resources in these teachers to cope with the intricacies of the student-teacher relationship or to deal with the complexity of the learning process. A second contributing factor to conformists leaving teaching may be inferred from the findings of Spatig et al. (1982) who report that student teachers at I-3 are more apt to simply copy the teaching style of their instructors and thus have a smaller variety of teaching strategies than student teachers at I-4. When responses to the “good teacher” stem are considered, it is evident that concern for a variety of teaching methods, individualizing instruction, and trying new things does not appear until I-4. Thus, it may be that I-3 teachers do not survive in teaching because their conceptual simplicity cannot accommodate a framework that includes a multiplicity of approaches. Another interesting finding from the content analysis of Views of Education was the emphasis on caring for the student and concern for

31

the development of the whole person that appeared on several stems at several ego levels. Traditionally, the central goal of eduation has been viewed as imparting knowledge to students. This goal overlooks caring for the whole person including the emotional, psychological, and physical aspects. Noddings (1984) addresses this issue by stating that the major goal of education should be the enhancement of caring. As a care giver, the teacher does not ignore the intellectual domain. However, nurturing the student’s ethical ideal and caring for the student as a person come first. The teachers in this sample appear to be in agreement with Noddings from such statements as “a good teacher cares about the all round development of her students not just her subject matter” and “the purpose of schools is to develop the social, emotional, and intellectual needs of students.” Caring, as an integral part of the school curriculum, is further discussed by Ayim (1988). She recommends both adding courses to the curriculum, such as a course on parenting skills, and incorporating caring into the teaching of all disciplines. For example, science courses need to discuss the moral and human implications of scientific research and new technologies. The application of caring and the affective domain to education is also congruent with ego development. Too often, when people conceptualize how the ego gives meaning to life experiences, they focus only on cognitions and forget about emotional factors. In reality, the ego gives meaning in terms of cognitions, emotions, and functional roles. Thus, any model that applies ego development to education is incomplete without including the affective and relational domains. In conclusion, content analysis of responses to the Views of Educational Sentence Completion Test demonstrates that teachers in this sample varied greatly in their conceptualizations about such educational issues as the role of teachers and the purpose of school. Differences in both conceptual complexity and thematic content were quite apparent at the different ego levels. While the exploratory nature of this instrument makes generalization of the results to other teachers difficult, the findings discussed here warrant further investigation. Ego development theory combined with Lasker and

32

ANNE

L. CUMMINGS

dewindt’s model appears to have strong explanatory power for observed differences in both current teachers and student teachers. These models also have potential for enhancing curriculum development that include the affective domain in an effort to meet the needs of practitioners in an increasingly complex profession.

References Ayim. M. (1988, February). Setring educational goals: Toward learning we can live with. Paper presented in lecture series. “Horizons of Human Potential.” University of Western Ontario, London, Canada. Bloom. B. S. (Ed.). (1972). Taxonomy of educarional objecrives: Cognitive and affecrive domains. New York: David McKay. Carlozzi, A. F., Gaa, J. P., & Liberman, D. B. (1983). Empathy and ego development. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 30, 113-116. Chickering, A. W. (1980, August). Psychology teaching and lifelong learning. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. Montreal. Epstein, H. V. (1986). The older college student. A changing American tradition. Inrernarional Journal of Lifelong Education, 5, 33-43. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Sociery. New York: Norton. Gates, L. (1982). Ego development as the goal of education. Educarion, 103.90-93. Glickman, C. D., & Tamashiro, R. T. (1982). A comparison of first-year, fifth-year, and former teachers on efficacy, ego development, and problem-solving. Psychology in rhe Schools, 19,558-562. Hauser, S. T. (1976). Loevinger’s model and measure of ego development: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin. 83, 928-955. Holt, R. R. (1980). Loevinger’s measure of ego development: Reliability and national norms for male and female short forms. Journal of Personaliry and Social Psychology, 39.909-920. Jensen. A. R. (1980). Bias in menral resring. New York: Free Press. Kohlberg. L. A. (1981). The philosphy of moral developmenr: Moral stages and the idea of jusrice. San Francisco: Harper and Row.

and HARRY

G. MURRAY

Kunen, S.. Cohen. R.. & Solman, R. (1981). A levels-ofprocessing analysis of Bloom’s taxonomy. Journal of Educational Psychology. 73,202-211. Lasker. H. M., & dewindt. C. (1976). Implications ofexo srageforadulr development. Mimeographed. Cambridge: Harvard Graduate School of Education. Linn, R. L. (1986). Quantitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.). Handbook ofresearch onreaching(3rded.. pp. 92-118). New York: Macmillan. Loevinger. J. (1976). Ego developmenr. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Loevinger, J. (1980). Some thoughts on ego development and counseling. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 58. 389-390. Loevinger. J., & Wessler. _R. (1970). Measuring ego developmenr I: Consrrucrion and use of a senrence compl&ion rest. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass: Lone. H. B. (1987). on rhe educarion of . , New .DersDecrives . adults in the United Srares. New York: Nichols. Noddings. N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach ro erhics and moral educarion. Berkeley. CA: University of California Press. Perlmutter, M., & Hall, E. (1985). Adulr developmenr and aging. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Perry, W. G. (1970). Forms of inrellecrual and erhical developmenr in rhe college years. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Piaget. J. (1952). The origins of inrelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press. Rogers, D. (1986). The adulr years: An inrroducrion to aging (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Spatig. L., Ginsburg, M. B., & Liberman, D. (1982). Ego development as an explanation of passive and active models of teacher socialization. College Srudenr Journal, 16.315-325. Turner, J. S., & Helms, D. B. (1986). Contemporary ad&hood (3rd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart. and Winston. Verduin, J. R.. Miller, H. G.. & Greer, C. E. (1986). The lifelong learning experience. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Wacks. V. Q. (1987). A case for self-transcendence as a purpose of adult education. Adulr Education Quarterly, 38.46-5.5. Waugh, M. H. (1981). Reliability of the sentence completion test of ego development in a clinical population. Journal of Personality Assessmenr, 45, 485487. Weathersby. R. P. (1981). Ego development. In A. Chickering and Associates (Eds.), The modern American college (pp. 19.5-205). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Received

14 June

1988

q