Elementary teachers’ needs: issues of retention and recruitment

Elementary teachers’ needs: issues of retention and recruitment

Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (2000) 223}238 Elementary teachers' needs: issues of retention and recruitment Anne D. Cockburn* School of Educatio...

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Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (2000) 223}238

Elementary teachers' needs: issues of retention and recruitment Anne D. Cockburn* School of Education and Professional Development, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK Received 15 October 1998; received in revised form 28 April 1999; accepted 21 June 1999

Abstract The retention and recruitment of elementary teachers is an increasingly serious problem in many countries. This paper examines literature on work in general, and teaching in particular, in the light of data gathered from teachers who enjoy their jobs. It concludes that there is scope to improve the quality of elementary teachers' professional lives and hence enhance recruitment and retention possibilities. A further implication would be the greater involvement of teachers in curriculum innovation and inspection. ( 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Teacher retention; Elementary teachers; Job satisfaction

1. Introduction Since Robert Scha!er's classic paper, &Job Satisfaction as Related to Need Satisfaction in Work' (1953), there have been numerous articles and books discussing job satisfaction in general (e.g. Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi, 1992; Argyle, 1987) and job satisfaction among teachers in particular (e.g. Avi-Itzhak, 1988; Borg, Riding & Falzon, 1991; Chaplain, 1995; Evans, 1992,1998; Kloep & Tarifa, 1994; McManus, 1996; Nias, 1981,1989; Rodgers}Jenkinson & Chapman, 1990). These notwithstanding, in several countries around the world there is increasing alarm over the shortage of suitable applicants for teaching and the retention rates of quali"ed teachers (e.g. Farber, 1991; Independent, 1998; Rodgers}Jenkinson & Chapman, 1990). There is a host of popular views as to why these problems have arisen. These vary slightly depending on the * Tel.: #44-1603-592644; fax: #44-1603-593446. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.D. Cockburn)

country but generally focus on issues of salary, low status and morale. This empirical study focuses on a sample of elementary teachers who enjoy their job. An underlying aim was to ascertain whether the causes of their enjoyment were particular to them as individuals or whether they were more generic and, thus, potentially open to replication. Some of the factors * such as liking children * were predictable but others were less so. The latter, in particular, become increasingly relevant at a time when, in several countries, teachers are required to be more highly quali"ed than in the past. Nowadays, for example, there are many opportunities in a wide range of professions for those with the levels of academic achievement currently required for teaching. How can we tempt and retain such individuals when there are any number of well paid and exciting jobs for them to choose from? 1.1. A note on dexnitions The terms &Job Satisfaction' and &Needs Satisfaction' have both received extensive attention

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regarding their precise de"nitions. The former has been variously described by, for example, Argyle, (1987), Nias (1989), Evans, Packwood, Neill and Campbell, (1994), Evans (1998) and Arnold et al. (1998). Although one of Argyle's suggestions is perhaps a little too rigorous for most * i.e. would individuals continue their jobs if it were "nancially unnecessary * I would not dispute any of these de"nitions. None, however, has been employed explicitly in this study. Since volunteers were asked why they enjoyed their job, it was the individual teachers who, in e!ect, implicitly de"ned the term as it pertained to them and their particular situations. Indeed, on the basis of reviews of a wide range of literature on a similar issue, Argyle (1987) concluded that if people say that they are happy then they generally are. As will be explained below I used the following extract from Scha!er's work to elicit some discussion on the interviewees' perceptions of needs satisfaction within the job, Over-all job satisfaction will vary directly with the extent to which those needs of an individual which can be satis"ed in a job are actually satis"ed.(Scha!er, 1953, p. 3) In reacting to this the respondents de"ned &needs satisfaction' for themselves.

2. Procedure 2.1. Sample Posters were distributed to the 50 Primary (elementary) Partnership Schools used for the University of East Anglia's initial teacher training programme in the summer of 1998 with a request that those who enjoyed their job contact the author for an hour-long interview. The response rate was lower than expected although the author is well known in Norfolk schools. It may have been that this was the reason for the poor response! Other possible explanations include the time of year * teachers in English primary schools generally write pupils' reports in June * or that the notices were not put up in a prominent position or, more seriously, that only

a small sample of the teaching population enjoy their jobs. The last of these requires further investigation but, as will become apparent, there was considerable agreement among the interviewees regarding job satisfaction and related issues, almost certainly making the need for a larger sample unnecessary in this instance. In total, 12 primary teachers were interviewed. Brief biographical details for each are given in Table 1 although the names have been changed for reasons of con"dentiality. 2.2. Method Semi-structured interviews were conducted (Drever, 1995) which provided a skeleton of catalytic questions on why respondents became teachers, why they enjoyed their jobs, whether they had always enjoyed them, how they would encourage new recruits and their attitudes towards their life and careers. During the course of the interviews two short questionnaires were administered (see the appendix). Both were used as an informal reliability check for the interview data and prompts for further discussion. As it happened there were no marked inconsistencies between the interview and questionnaire data but, in theory, someone might have said that they wanted more of a leadership role and then written that they were &completely satis"ed' with the opportunities they had to direct other adults. The "rst questionnaire was devised by the author having reviewed the literature and noted key issues which had arisen in similar studies. Thus, for example, on the basis of his extensive research Csikszentmihalyi (1992) concluded that an appropriate level of challenge could greatly enhance a person's enjoyment and hence the inclusion of &challenges' in the list of possible factors contributing to job enjoyment. The second questionnaire was part of a battery used by Scha!er (1953) in his study of 72 workers in a range of jobs. In part, it was used to measure the extent to which each of Murray's (1938) twelve needs is satis"ed in each respondent's job. In part, it was used as a catalyst for discussion for, having been written over 40 years ago, it provided scope for interviewees to mention reactions to items such as

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Table 1 Biographical details of the teachers interviewed Code name

Age group

Years in teaching

Age group taught

School type

Status

Simon Linda Barbara Tina Sally William Robert Yasmin Karen Laura Wendy Nancy

35 or under 35 or under 35 or under 35 or under 36}45 36}45 36}45 46}55 46}55 46}55 46}55 over 55

0}5 0}5 0}5 6}10 6}10 '15 '15 11}15 11}15 '15 '15 '15

6}7 year-olds 5}6 year-olds 9}10 year-olds 6}7 year-olds 4}5 year-olds 6}8 year-olds 9}10 year-olds 7}11 year-olds 6}9 year-olds 7}8 year-olds 7}8 year-olds 7}8 year-olds

Middle class 4}8 ! Working class 4}8 Mixed middle 8}12 Working class 4}8 Working class 4}8 Middle class 4}8 Working class 8}12 Mixed rural 4}11 Mixed rural 5}11 Working class 4}8 Working class 4}8 Working class 4}8

Class teacher Class teacher Class teacher Class teacher Class teacher C " Headteacher Class teacher Part-time teacher Deputy headteacher Class teacher B Class teacher B Class teacher C

!Age range of children in school. "A letter after &class teacher' indicates the level of his/her additional responsibility. &A' is the lowest level.

My job enables me to have a good social standing. Finally, the respondents were asked for their views on Scha!er's comment regarding needs satisfaction presented above. The interviews generally lasted between 45 and 75 min, but in every case respondents were given plenty of time in acknowledgement of Nias' (1989) concern that interviewees should be encouraged to talk for as long as they liked. The interviews were then transcribed and returned to the respondents to allow them to amend material should they wish to do so. 2.3. Analyses Despite the relatively small sample size, there was a wealth of material to be analysed in the form of interview transcripts and questionnaire data. The "rst task was to determine whether the teachers' enjoyment of their jobs was a function of them as individuals or whether it was more likely to be generic. Biographical and professional details were therefore examined to ascertain whether the data might pertain to particular individuals in particular types of situations. This did not appear to be the case (see below) and, given the aims of the study,

the next focus for analysis was a consideration of the interviewees' reasons for becoming teachers and their thoughts on possible recruitment strategies. Understanding why the teachers enjoyed their jobs was then investigated to gain insight into issues of retention (see below). On exploring this topic it became clear that there were some facets of the job which were potential obstacles to job satisfaction. Moreover, the data revealed that not all of the teachers had always enjoyed their jobs. These issues were therefore examined together with strategies for overcoming such problems. Finally, the data were considered in the light of the broader research literature, focusing in particular on individual needs and teaching in relation to other professions so that a more complete picture of career characteristics might be obtained.

3. Results The results will be presented in "ve sections. Each will focus on a particular aspect of the teachers and their jobs which, when taken together in the discussion, will provide insight into the nature of elementary teaching as a career and the possibilities for enhanced recruitment and retention.

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3.1. The interviewees The respondents represented a range of age and experience (Table 1). They worked in a variety of di!erent schools: one, for example, worked in a middle-class rural school of 67 pupils while another worked in a large urban working-class school of over 400 children. One was a headteacher with some teaching responsibility (William), another was a deputy headteacher (Karen) and the others had varying degrees of responsibility beyond the classroom apart from Simon and Linda who were in their "rst year of teaching. With the exception of Sally, they all described themselves as having happy childhoods which, Csikszentmihalyi (1992) argues, may play a major role in subsequent happiness. That is not to say that they all had easy adult lives for there were at least three single parents among them, including Laura who had been left with a young child several years previously; she had had, however, `the most idyllic childhood I could possibly have hada, which may be signi"cant. Karen * who su!ers from bouts of depression * was somewhat quali"ed when asked whether she generally enjoyed life. All the other teachers were entirely positive in their responses to the same question. Yes, absolutely! (William) Life is for living and I like living! (Sally) Only three of the respondents were ambitious in the conventional sense: Linda, who was in her "rst year of teaching (`I think I want to be a heada); Barbara, in her fourth year was `2 already thinking of what I want to do in the futurea and William, a headteacher in his late thirties who described himself as `2 ambitious2I still have places to go and I want to go there. I don't know where they area. (By this he did not mean geographical places but whether, for example, he should become a nonteaching head which he was hesitant to do, as, `I love class teachinga.) The notion of ambition will be taken up again later but, given the age and experience of the respondents, such an apparent lack of ambition may not be signi"cant particularly in the light of some of the teachers' quest for challenges.

3.2. Reasons for becoming teachers and thoughts on recruitment The teachers joined the profession for a variety of reasons with "ve of them being clear that they had always wanted to be teachers. (William: `I've never wanted to work anywhere but in a schoola.) Three of them had had one or more jobs before opting to teach. (Linda: `I'd done a job where it didn't matter what I did2and that wasn't really what I wanted2I wanted to make a di!erencea. Robert said much the same but, laughingly added, `I think I might have been attracted by weeks and weeks of holiday!a) Two of them had initially wanted to teach, had a period of uncertainty and then decided that it was the right career for them after all. (Barbara: `It was something I'd always wanted to do2although, I must admit, there was a time in my "nal year at school when I thought I wouldn't be because it was the trenda.) Two had hoped to follow other career paths but were unable to do so due to an allergy to stage dust (Karen: `I would have liked to have been a ballet dancera) or ability (Yasmin: `I had hoped to be a doctor but I failed to make the gradesa.) When discussing the issue of recruitment the teachers' responses were of three distinct types. The "rst was straight-forward and came from four of the teachers: I would tell them that I enjoy it and why I enjoy it. (Tina) I would suggest that they gain some experience of working with children. It is crucial that you enjoy working with children. (Simon) The second type of response was rather more quali"ed and the three teachers who responded in this category may be represented by Nancy. I am not sure that I would encourage anyone2You have to want to do the job2It's very much a vocation. The "nal type of response re#ected considered responses to major problems within the profession. Five teachers suggested that recruitment will be poor until there is: (i) a greater understanding of needs of the individuals working within the profession as

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exempli"ed by Yasmin's comment that, `Things have changed. I think it would be di$cult to attract people who are very able if they've got a family to keep: it's practicalities I'm afraida; (ii) a more positive attitude, as Barbara explains, `I think you have to try and erase all the biases and prejudices they've got to begin with. I would like to take them (potential teachers) in there and just show them the look of a child who has just run 100 m 2Get them to actually look at the value of watching somebody do something they have never done beforea. 3.3. Why the teachers enjoyed their jobs It is di$cult to convey the warmth and enthusiasm with which some of the practitioners described their work. It is interesting, however, to note Laura and Karen's responses as to why they enjoyed their jobs. Laura * who had always wanted to teach * replied, `I just love being with the children2I enjoy teachinga. In some contrast Karen * who had wanted to be a ballet dancer * said, `I am not sure that I actually know2I suppose2I do enjoy working with the childrena. Other such di!erences were apparent between those who had consistently wished to teach and the other members of the sample. It would be a mistake to generalise on the basis of such a small group but attention to original career aspirations could be a signi"cant factor in the future particularly if these prove to be a predictor of later job satisfaction. Quite spontaneously 8 of the 12 teachers said that, "rst and foremost, they enjoyed teaching because of the children. Indeed, during the course of their interviews, all of the respondents reported that they enjoyed working with children. A key factor was the relationships that developed during the course of the year. What I really enjoy is the relationship with the children2they never cease to amaze me. (Wendy) The children's progress played a major role in the teachers' enjoyment of their jobs. This generally meant academic progress but social progress was

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also considered important by some. Tina particularly enjoys working with younger children, as 2their progress is more noticeable and more immediate and they come in sort of leaps which is very satisfying. William "nds the `Eureka Momenta highly rewarding. For me it's that sort of moment where you see somebody who has been struggling with trying to get to grips with something so long and, you know, you see that they're there and that they've achieved it. Nancy said, I love getting a new class in September thinking by the time they leave me at the end of the year they would know so much more and it would be because of what I could tell them. Linda emphasized that it was 2really brilliant because you see them develop socially as well as educationally. Nias (1989) too found that the majority of teachers in her study speci"cally mentioned being with the children and observing their progress as major sources of enjoyment. She did not, however, make the distinction between academic and social progress. Relationships with colleagues was another major factor in the teachers' enjoyment of their jobs. Colleagues were seen as: (a) a source of friendship; `B is such great fun and F is such great fun as well that we see each other sociallya (Laura). (b) a source of support in times of di$culty; `I think your relationship with colleagues is vital to getting through the days which are not quite so gooda (Sally). (c) a source of strength when impositions are placed upon one; `We have corporate grumbles and then we just get on with ita (Linda).and, sometimes, (d) a source of inspiration; `2when something is thrown out at us we all accept the fact that it is going to happen and there's a sort of enthusiasm to say, &Right, let's see if we can make it work' a (Sally).

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Eleven of the 12 teachers said that their relationship with their colleagues contributed, &a great deal' to their enjoyment of their job although Barbara, who was one of the 11 also added, I do get annoyed at some of the sta!2I have been "ghting for two years to sort of show people the way (to teach mathematics). (brackets added) The data from the present study indicate that challenges which initiate teacher e!ort play an important function in terms of job satisfaction. Karen pointed out that, in and of itself, `teaching will always be challenginga. In England in the last ten years this is probably more true than ever for, as Karen says, `There have been so many changesa. She acknowledges that, for her, this has not necessarily been a disadvantage; `If I was doing the same thing repeatedly I would get bored and not enjoy ita. Four of the other teachers in the sample agreed that the job was su$ciently demanding to satisfy them. It's not something that you can just walk into and think, you know, &Today is going to be an easy day' 2You don't have easy days really. Each and every day is challenging and brings opportunities you can never predict either. (William) In contrast, the seven other teachers in the study actively sought challenges. Wendy and Laura both said that they asked for a change in year group from time to time so that they did not `stagnatea. Simon saw his career in stages: at the end of his second year he was going to take on responsibility for Information and Communications Technology; then he was going to add another * as yet undecided * responsibility and then he was planning to move to a more challenging school before contemplating applying for deputy headships. The other four teachers in this group all created their own challenges more frequently than Simon. These ranged from Linda's plan to, `re-do the display by Wednesdaya, to Sally's thinking about how she could stretch the two more able members of her class when most of her pupils were at the other end of the intellectual continuum. Talking to the teachers it became clear that teaching satis"ed a range of their needs most of

which seemed common to the majority. Many of these have been illustrated above through reports on their reasons for enjoying the job. Prior to discussing these in more detail, it is worth noting that all of teachers agreed that the statement below applied to them as individuals: Over-all job satisfaction will vary directly with the extent to which those needs of an individual which can be satis"ed in a job are actually satis"ed. (Scha!er, 1953, p. 3) Wendy * who had had a range of jobs * was clear. I de"nitely think this job ful"ls needs for me that other jobs wouldn't. Sally was very sure that she, `needed to teacha. Laura was more explicit. There is nothing better than sitting there and having children say, &Oh I do love you' (laughs). And that satis"es my need. To see a child that comes in and can't put two words together, or they can't read more than three or four words, and gradually they make progress: it's a wonderful sense of achievement. As will be discussed, in cases where needs were not being met, changes were made. 3.4. Potential obstacles to enjoying the job As she talked about being a teacher Tina said, I'm always apologising for it2You get two reactions when you say you are a teacher. The "rst is, &I could not do your job for all the money in the world' and the second is, `Cor, you get good holidays, don't you?a It was clear that none of the respondents became teachers because of the money. If you're in it for the money you're in the wrong job. (Karen) If it was a second income it would be wonderful. (Wendy) Tina, who has two young children and who has reached the top of her salary scale says,

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My husband is a student so we pay for childcare. We're actually in more debt now than we were before I was working and I went back to work so we wouldn't be in debt. Yasmin believes that Things have changed. I think it would be di$cult to attract people who are very able if they've got a family to keep: it's practicalities I'm afraid. Unlike Yasmin, most of the teachers did not raise the issue of salary when discussing possible ways to increase recruitment but, nevertheless, it seems that some of them were "nding it barely su$cient to meet their everyday needs. When completing their views on the contribution of status to their enjoyment of the job (see appendix) Karen left a blank (see below); Sally ticked, ¬ at all'; four respondents put, ¬ really' and the remaining half of them considered that it did, &a certain amount'. Of these six teachers in the last category there was some variation in their views as to what status primary teaching currently held in England. Robert, for example, described it as, `an honourable professiona and William said, `I'm proud of my statusa. In some contrast, Nancy observed that when she joined the profession 36 years ago, 2a teacher was still something 2you were accorded some sort of professional respect 2I think somehow we've lost a little bit with the public 2(now) everyone can tell us what to do and everyone seems to know better what to do in the job than we do ourselves. (brackets added) The same, however, seems increasingly the case with the other professions: doctors and lawyers are no longer held in the high esteem that they were in the past. Yasmin remarked, We were never regarded in the same class as lawyers and doctors. Now we're all lumped together and everyone hates us. Related to status is recognition of a job well done. The teachers in the sample appeared to vary both in their need for recognition and their expectations of it. For example Barbara, when referring to ques-

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tions on feedback in the questionnaires (see appendix) said, That's very rare actually: very, very rare. In fact I don't think I've had any hardly. Having said that she went on to remark that, `the children are gooda and that they had been `completely besotteda by work she had given them on the World Cup. Sally also considered that at her school there was very little overt praise from the management but she added two observations. The "rst that recognition of her performance was `withina her. The second was that she had every con"dence that She (the headteacher) wouldn't have me here if she didn't know that I was doing a good job. (brackets added) Like Sally, William believes that You just know you have made a di!erence to their lives. Tina considered that the profession would bene"t from `a bit more praisea but she found that the children in the working class area where she taught 2 give you a lot of feedback and are very open 2 These children are so rewarding. They are so pleased to have you really. Tina's need for feedback became more apparent when she discussed a school inspection where there had been no requirement for the inspectors to report back to the teachers: It really felt like a kind of violation that the inspectors came in, sat there, watched you teaching and took part of you away with them. And I felt like just chasing them down the corridor and saying, `What did you think?a Perhaps one of the greatest obstacles to enjoying the job was what was perceived to be continual negative remarks from the Government: I just wish the government could say, &Well isn't this wonderful'. That does not necessarily mean they can't make changes but they need to emphasize our strengths before they criticise us yet again. (Barbara)

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The government should stop complaining about low standards and poor behaviour and children not reading. They do! 2Let us get on with our jobs and occasionally give us a pat on the back for what we do. (Laura) 3.5. Coming to enjoy the job Before considering the implications of the above, it is important to realise that not all of the teachers in the sample had always enjoyed their careers: some had to make major adjustments before this was possible. Simon, for example, found the "rst seven weeks in his "rst post to be `an utterly exhausting nightmarea: he was literally running all over the place and never satis"ed with his work. By chance, he met another teacher when he was out for a drink at half-term. This man, who had been teaching for 10 years and worked until at least 10 pm every evening, spent the entire conversation running himself down. As a result Simon learnt `very early on not to be overly critical of myselfa. He is also seeking * although he says that it is taking longer than he would like * to "nd a better balance between work and home life. Similarly Linda, who is in her "rst year too, is `trying very hard to have some outside school lifea. The more experienced teachers seem to have already been through such a process: It was a very conscious decision for it (the job) not to consume my life. It would be very easy for work to do that. (Karen, brackets added) Headteachers can contribute greatly to one's stress levels (Cockburn, 1996) as William discovered in his previous job where he was deputy. The headteacher, for me, wasn't the right person doing the right thing at the right time and I hated being in that school under her command! Eventually he was able to make, `a strategic movea, by a change of class. In consequence, I worked with reception (4-5 year-olds) 2 and that was the challenge I needed to refocus for myself 2 concentrate on that and shut out everything else. (brackets added)

Changing schools took him rather longer to organise as he was unable to produce a supportive reference from the headteacher but, in time, he was able to gain a headship for himself and now he thoroughly enjoys his work. Of course, there are aspects of the job which one cannot easily avoid such as pupil testing, government impositions and behaviourally challenged children. The following show how teachers' attitudes made such examples more positive. I'd not done Standard Assessment Tasks and it was a challenge which I felt I needed. (Wendy). You just have to get on and do it and make the best of it. (Laura) Every child has got something good about them and they may have terrible situations to cope with which makes them naughty sometimes. (Tina) Finally, it is interesting to note that the teachers did not see complaining as one of the appropriate options for their coming to enjoy the job. Linda added some insight into why the profession did not tackle the sources of their complaints. Maybe it's because we're easy targets and nobody puts up a big enough "ght and says, `Just stop and look at the di!erence we're making. This is why we do our jobs and this is the way it isa. There is no one prepared to make a fuss: they get cross internally, it washes over them and then they just get back on with their jobs.

4. Discussion As suggested in the introduction it is likely that, at least in part, some of the reason for poor retention and recruitment in elementary teaching arises from the demand * in some countries at least * for an increasingly highly quali"ed work force. People with relatively modest quali"cations are no longer accepted on training courses. It is only the more academically successful who can gain access to the profession and it is these very people who are also eligible candidates for the more lucrative professions such as law and medicine. This, in e!ect

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makes issues of recruitment and retention even more pressing. Despite the sample being relatively small, the individuals interviewed had varied backgrounds and were at di!erent stages in their careers. As demonstrated in the results they tended to enjoy elementary teaching for similar reasons but * given the variations in their experiences * it is likely that much of the enjoyment they report is a function of the job rather than them as individuals. As a minimum therefore, the data can highlight issues worthy of further consideration by the profession, governments and policy makers. 4.1. Recruitment Focusing "rstly on recruitment, it would be inappropriate to generalise from a sample of volunteers but data from this study suggest that teachers who enjoy their jobs tend to aspire to being teachers for a considerable time prior to embarking on their training. Further research would be required to ascertain whether this might be the case more generally, but if it is, then it is likely that recruitment campaigns need to begin with children at an early age. I am not, of course, advocating brain washing but rather introducing elementary students to a variety of career possibilities so that they can begin to re#ect on their personal qualities, needs and aspirations and relate them to the world of work in an informed manner. Thus, for example, relatively young children might have a range of work-based placements so that they could begin to gain some insights into the nature of various professions before making any decisions based on the second-, or even third-hand, opinions of others. In this way they might witness at "rst hand the joys of the job as described by the teachers in this study. The practitioners discussed two other factors which might in#uence recruitment: a greater understanding of the needs of individuals within the profession and a more positive attitude towards the profession. On the subject of needs, it is interesting to note that only one of the teachers speci"cally said that the thought of unusually long holidays attracted them to the profession although, as described

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above, Tina found herself always apologising for being a teacher for that very reason. Barbara, however, represented several of the sample when she said, I don't use my holidays as holidays as such. These days I spend the whole time writing reports or whatever. Research on teacher stress (Cockburn, 1996) also suggests that holidays serve other important functions such as described by Victoria: Teachers live this rather strange lifestyle of being intensely busy and then having holiday periods when they actually recharge their batteries and collapse. (Cockburn, 1996, p. 113) One of her colleagues remarked, I think holidays are really important. You should get away * right away * and give yourself time to get it all into perspective because you can get so submerged in it all that it's di$cult to see the wood for the trees. (Ibid, p. 124) The teachers Cockburn describes above were not necessarily enjoying their jobs * unlike those in the present study * but, nonetheless, their remarks provide further evidence of the necessity of holiday periods rather than portraying them as undeserved bonuses. It would appear, therefore, that although holidays may not necessarily attract individuals to teaching, they may well play an important role in terms of retention and rejuvenation. To shorten them * as has been discussed in the UK recently * might well demonstrate a serious lack of understanding of the nature of teaching and, in turn, hamper future recruitment. In terms of understanding teachers' needs it is also important to recognise that "nancial incentives may have to play a more major role in recruitment. In purely practical terms, as Yasmin pointed out earlier in the paper, teachers require su$cient money to look after their everyday needs. For some * especially those with heavy "nancial responsibilities * teaching might simply be out of the question on the grounds of salary alone. The issue is compounded when one compares teachers' salaries with those of other professionals with similar quali"cations. More than twenty years

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ago Lortie (1975), reporting on a study of American teachers, pointed out: 2income pro"les of teachers today are predictable, comparatively unstaged (i.e. increments are small) and `front-loadeda. A beginning teacher knows what he (sic) will earn and can see that long service brings limited reward2Earnings are `front-loadeda in the sense that one begins at a high level relative to one's ultimate earning potential. (p. 84, brackets added) To a certain extent the same is true in Britain today in that the salary gradient for teachers is only a shallow incline. At time of writing the recommended starting salary was 66% of the "nal salary for a classroom teacher without additional responsibilities. In contrast, should individuals opt for medicine or the law in the UK their starting salaries on qualifying would be slightly less than that of a fully experienced classroom practitioner and would double within ten years. Thus, although salary levels may not play a key role in retention (see also Borg et al., 1991; Evans, 1998; Kloep & Tarifa, 1994) it may be a signi"cant issue in recruitment and therefore merit further examination. Should it prove to be a deterrent to possible applicants, it may also be necessary to examine employers' attitudes * as well as their bank balance * for it has been said that

the incentive value of the job, and by salaries falling too low to be meaningfully o!set by such intangibles as status. (Rodgers}Jenkinson & Chapman, 1990, p. 306) Added to that a survey of over one thousand 16}19 year-olds by the Teacher Training Agency together with the National Union of Teachers (1998) found that many young people in the UK considered that they developed negative attitudes towards the profession from watching television news (51%) and documentaries (40%). This notwithstanding, it seems that status did not play a major role in the teachers' enjoyment of their jobs in the present study nor, indeed * with the possible exception of Nancy who was a student in the late 1950s * did it appear to in#uence their decision to join the profession. Further, as an aside, it is worth noting that every year we recruit a small but signi"cant percentage of mature women on our initial teacher training course. In my tutor group of fourteen randomly selected students in 1998/1999 I had six who decided to become primary teachers after having had their families. One of them remarked: I think teachers' status in society has decreased over the past 10 years but e!orts are being made to improve their situation. The status of teachers is however higher than my previous occupation so I think status was an issue when choosing teaching as a career.

The traditions of teaching make people who seek money, prestige or power somewhat suspect. (Lortie, 1975, p. 102)

This echoes a comment made by one of Nias' (1989) interviewees:

In terms of recruitment some of the teachers also considered that attitudes towards the profession were important. It has been suggested that attitudes towards teachers and their salary levels are interrelated.

Coming back to school provides the feeling of being a professional, even if it is a very low status2professional. It provides something that home life doesn't, because people just don't value that. (p. 91)

In many countries teaching has been regarded traditionally as employment of higher status than the salary level would indicate. Typically, teachers' status in their community operates as a non-monetary incentive helping to o!set the otherwise low wages. In many countries that equation is being threatened by a drop in the perceived status of teaching, thereby changing

To summarise, the data suggest that status and people's attitudes in general did not appear to have a negative e!ect in terms of recruitment. Indeed, for some who considered themselves in more lowly roles beforehand, becoming a teacher was perceived to be a way of enhancing their standing in the community. It is important to recognise, however, that this study provides no information on the

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number of individuals who decided not to embark on teaching because it was deemed, for example, a low status, poorly paid profession. Nor is there any data on how teaching is rated in terms of other professions such as dentistry and veterinary medicine. The author is currently pursuing such issues with university and school leavers but, on the basis of the current study, it seems highly likely that policy makers and employers need to acquire a greater understanding of teachers' "nancial and professional needs if they wish to enhance recruitment "gures. 4.2. Retention The attitudes and understanding of others also appear to play a critical role in teacher retention. Prior to considering them in such terms, however, it is important to recognise the factors which encourage practitioners to remain in the profession. The prime reason the teachers appeared to enjoy the job was the opportunity to work with children and to nurture their learning. This is what they were trained to do and it was clear that this was a source of immense satisfaction. Clearly, this is what distinguishes teaching from any other profession. Unfortunately, with increasing intervention from governmental policy makers in some countries, some of the pleasure derived from educating our young people is being gradually eroded. This will be considered in more detail below. The second facet of the job which contributed to teachers' enjoyment was their relationship with colleagues. Studies of Jamaican (Rodgers}Jenkinson & Chapman, 1990) and English (Evans, 1998) primary teachers also noted that this was an important factor in determining job satisfaction. Argyle's (1987) observations of workers in general demonstrate that: Social support, from co-workers and supervisors, is a major source of both job satisfaction and positive mental health. It can bu!er the e!ects of stress at work more e!ectively than other sources of social support. People in stressful jobs are in particular need of support from cohesive

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working groups or socially skilled supervisors. (p. 43) In contrast, when studying both stress and job satisfaction among 710 primary teachers on the Maltese Islands, Borg et al. (1991) agreed with Cockburn's (1996) study, namely that colleagues could be a source of stress. Certainly this concurs with William's experience of his headteacher described above. It is not always possible, however, to adopt his strategy of non-involvement, particularly in schools where collegiality is considered an essential part of planning and decision making. A lack of good working relationships is not particular to teaching and it is interesting to note that: 2 mistrust of fellow workers is connected with high role ambiguity, poor communications, and psychological strain in the form of low job satisfaction and to feelings of job-related threat to one's well-being. (Arnold et al., 1998, p. 435) The "nal notable contribution to teachers' enjoyment of the job was the challenge inherent in their work and the possibility of creating additional demands to meet their needs. This runs counter to Lortie's (1975) observation: Since e!ort brings scant reward, those who exert extra e!ort are likely to feel under-rewarded. (p 86) Csikszentmihalyi (1992), however, argues that happiness comes from "nding challenges appropriate to one's skills, adding: It is not only the &real' challenges presented by the situation that count, but those that the person is aware of. It is not the skills we actually have that determine how we feel, but the ones we think we have. (p. 75) Lortie (1975), more than twenty years ago, contrasted teaching with other professions: The potential upward steps in teaching are fewer and hold less signi"cance than one normally "nds in middle class work 2Stages (as found in e.g. law and medicine) force younger people to

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A.D. Cockburn / Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (2000) 223}238

expend e!ort in the hope of ultimate gain2The law student strives for good grades so that he can get a good position in a law "rm; if he succeeds, he "nds himself confronted with new challenges and strivings * this time, to get a partnership. (pp. 84, 85) As the data illustrate it appears that teaching today does, by its very nature, provide challenges for teachers. When these are insu$cient there is ample scope to devise further demands for oneself. Unlike some of the other professions, however, there are a very limited number of stages one can go through and remain in school * usually only teacher, deputy and principal * which may prove frustrating for more ambitious individuals. To conclude, the elementary teachers in this study enjoy their jobs, in part, for reasons particular to teaching * namely the education of young children * and in part, for reasons common to some other professions * good relationships with colleagues and suitably demanding challenges. It would appear therefore that, in essence, teaching potentially includes many of the factors others have classed as important when considering basic needs satisfaction (see, for example, Alderfer, 1972; Maslow, 1943; Murray, 1938). 4.3. Analysing elementary teaching in terms of general job characteristics Focusing more speci"cally on the job in general, elementary teaching relates well to three of Hackman and Oldham's (1980) "ve core job characteristics, namely skill variety, task identity (i.e. the extent to which the job produces identi"able outcomes) and task signi"cance (i.e. the extent to which the job has high impact on other people). It appears however that, in recent years at least, it satis"es Hackman and Oldham's other two signi"cant job characteristics to a lesser extent. The "rst is autonomy. There have been so many imposed changes in the English educational system in the last 10 years which, although not necessarily perceived as inappropriate by the teachers in this study, have lessened their autonomy in terms of

freedom from government impositions. Such impositions have not been con"ned to the UK. The motivation behind such changes is generally * quite commendably * to raise standards. However Sikes (1992) argues that: 2motivating all (imposed) changes lies the assumption (which may or may not be justi"ed) that all is not well and that students are not receiving the best education because teachers and their teaching is inappropriate or inadequate. (p. 37) This, in turn, often results in teachers losing con"dence in their abilities (Powell & Solity, 1990) and a feeling that their professional freedom is being reduced (Sikes, 1992). Fullan and Hargreaves (1992) suggest that, to a certain extent, these negative feelings may be alleviated if innovators, &actively listen to and sponsor the teacher's voice' (p. 5). The second job characteristic Hackman and Oldham (1980) consider critical is &feedback obtained directly from the job' (p. 80). In part, this was satis"ed for the teachers in this study as they gained an impression of their performance from their pupils and, to some extent, from colleagues and senior sta! in their schools. The data clearly demonstrate however that such feedback was in contrast to negative comments the teachers said they experienced from the media and other external agencies. The situation has been particularly serious in recent years in England and Wales as * again in a quest to improve standards * schools have been subjected to frequent, and typically extremely thorough, inspections. Although teachers in the current study hinted at a lack of autonomy and feedback, it may be no accident that they were not unduly worried by that. Take, for example, their obvious enjoyment of the job. This coupled with the fact that they generally had happy and secure childhoods suggests that these were individuals with an underlying faith in themselves and their own abilities. Moreover, if they were dissatis"ed, they had the con"dence to change aspects of their lives if necessary. It is likely, however, that the need for such action was relatively low given the supportive role of their colleagues. The importance of colleagues has been discussed

A.D. Cockburn / Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (2000) 223}238

more extensively elsewhere (Cockburn, 1996) but, in the light of this study, it is increasingly clear that the creation of e!ective sta! relationships requires further investigation. 4.4. Implications for future policy This study points to some of the factors which might potentially improve the retention and recruitment of elementary teachers. In essence most relate to a lack of understanding and respect for practitioners' professionalism. Inadequate "nancial incentives may also be a factor in poor recruitment given that suitable candidates are now academically eligible to apply for other, better paid, professions. A greater recognition of teachers' qualities and their work would enable practitioners to focus on their strengths * the most obvious of which is teaching * and aspects of the job that they enjoy. That does not mean that they would abandon inspections, innovations and everything else related to the raising of standards and the seemingly increasing need for accountability. Rather, if teachers' experience and expertise were acknowledged, together with appreciation of both their willingness to be challenged and the complexities of innovation, then a spirit of genuine consultation and collaboration could be initiated. Not only might this raise the morale of the profession but it might encourage recruitment and induce the more disillusioned to remain. 4.5. Implications for future research It is important to recognise that this was a small scale, preliminary study. Nevertheless, it has raised several important questions which merit further research. The "rst relate to recruitment: why do some individuals opt to teach while others choose other professions? What in#uence does an individual's own schooling have on his/her career choice? Do job seekers have realistic knowledge and understanding of various jobs before they select one? Do priorities change as one becomes older: for example do school leavers place the same emphasis on

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factors such as salary and intellectual challenge as those about to leave university or those seeking a change of jobs? The second set of questions revolve around the issue of elementary teachers' job satisfaction both at home and abroad: how representative are the data collected? What do the * largely silent * majority of teachers think of their jobs: do they enjoy them or are they just seen as a way to pay the bills? Which factors in particular contribute to their job satisfaction or lack of it? Do similar issues play an important role for other professionals? Are there international di!erences? The third theme which requires further study is experienced teachers' views of their job. Most particularly, what factors transform some individuals from enthusiastic novices into jaded practitioners anxious to leave the teaching profession? Why do some individuals enjoy their jobs while others, in very similar situations, do not? How, and by whom, might teachers be encouraged to view their job in a more positive light? How might policy makers be persuaded to involve elementary teachers in fundamental decision making? Clearly there is much scope for further research. There may well be obstacles to be overcome, however, particularly in gaining access to those who are disillusioned or "nd their jobs particularly stressful (Cockburn, 1997). It is becoming increasingly clear that time is of the essence now that elementary teacher recruitment and retention are issues of such serious concern. Not only should such research provide further insight into the nature of teaching and teachers but some of it may well increase our understanding of other professions, enhance our understanding of job selection and thus, ultimately, enable individuals to make more informed decisions as to their future careers.

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Richard Davies, Maggie Maclure, Bev Labbett and two anonymous referees for commenting on this paper in such a positive and constructive manner prior to its re-submission.

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Appendix A Enjoying the job Strictly conxdential Initials:

Date:

Aue uroup : 35 or under h 36+45 h Years in teachinu: 5 or under h Aue of class: Status: class teacher h deputy h

46+55 h 56 and o*er h 6+10 h 11+15 h 16 or more h Number in class: headteacher h

How much do the following factors contribute to your enjoyment of the job?

Salary Relationship with colleagues School organisation Your status in the community The challenges Career prospects The curriculum Your relationship with the children The holidays The autonomy you have Feedback on your performance

a great deal * * * * * * * * * * *

Would you describe yourself as ambitious? yes h Do you enjoy your own company? yes h

a certain amount * * * * * * * * * * * fairly h quite h

not really * * * * * * * * * * *

not at all * * * * * * * * * * *

not really h not really h

What are your interests?.............................................................................................................................................................. Do you take exercise? yes h

not really h

and enjoy it? yes h

not really h

Robert Schaffer’s (1953) Questionnaire Initials ~~

Date ~~

CONFIDENTIAL

Please use the following scale to rate your satisfaction with speci"c aspects of your work: 5"completely satis"ed 4"very well satis"ed 3"well satis"ed 2"slightly satis"ed 1"not at all satis"ed

A.D. Cockburn / Teaching and Teacher Education 16 (2000) 223}238

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(1) On my job when I do a piece of work I know that I'll get enough praise and recognition for it. (2) Where I work I get all the opportunity I want for making friends and enjoying the company of my fellow-workers. (3) When I've "nished a day's work I can really be satis"ed with the knowledge that I have used all my skills and abilities. (4) In the course of my work I have all the opportunity I might want to direct other adults. (5) My work results in bene"ts to many people. (6) My work o!ers me real opportunities for self-expression. (7) The income I receive from my job enables me to live in a manner which I consider adequate. (8) I do not have to do anything on my job which is not in accordance with my ideas of right and wrong. (9) In my work I get all the help and supervision I need. (10) There is ample opportunity in my work to use my ingenuity and inventiveness. (11) I feel that my job is a secure one. (12) I have as much freedom as I want on my job. (13) In my work I always get the credit I deserve for any work I do. (14) I have to concentrate and put forth some e!ort to do my work, but it is not too hard for me. (15) I often have to think up some new ways of doing things and solving problems in the course of my work. (16) My job gives me plenty of opportunity to enjoy time with my family and friends. (17) On my job I am free from too much supervision. (18) I have as much responsibility as I want with respect to supervising the work of other adults. (19) My work is as worthwhile as most others I would want to be in with respect to helping other people. (20) In my job I am completely free from any worry about violating my religious or ethical values. (21) On my job I can always act just the way I picture myself - I don't have to act like somebody else. (22) I get all the help and advice that I need from my supervisors. (23) My job is quite permanent. It will be there as long as I might want it. If not, I at least know that I'll always have some sort of adequate income. (24) My present job enables me to have a good social standing.

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