Emerging Technologies of Meat Processing

Chapter 10

Emerging Technologies of Meat Processing Sergiy Smetana1, Nino Terjung1, Kemal Aganovic1, Amali U. Alahakoon2, Indrawati Oey2, 3 and Volker Heinz1 1

German Institute of Food Technologies (DIL e.V.), Quakenbrueck, Germany; 2Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin,

New Zealand; 3Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand

10.1 HIGH-PRESSURE PROCESSING High-pressure processing (HPP) is a technology relying on the transfer of pressure from intensifying pumps to the product by the means of liquid media (Simonin et al., 2012). It has been known for decades that pressures in the range of 400e600 MPa are able to neutralize bacterial activity and pasteurize food (Smelt, 1998). Liquid media allows the uniform distribution of isostatic pressure to the product (Norton and Sun, 2008), but also leads to an increased temperature profile (Warner et al., 2017). Even though this technology is foreseen as “nonthermal,” temperature variations during processing should be considered. The effect on the product depends on various processing parameters: pressure applied, temperature, time, and product composition (quality). HPP is targeting the improvement of food safety and shelf-life extension when applied to food products. However, a few studies point out a more tender processing effect comparing to thermal-based technologies (Aganovic et al., 2017; Bak et al., 2017; Oey et al., 2008). In the case of meat-processing, HPP is applied for preservation and shelf-life extensions (Guillou et al., 2016), meat tenderization (Bouton et al., 1977; Morton et al., 2017), change of protein properties (Warner et al., 2017), and microbial inactivation (Guillou et al., 2016). The change in visual appearance of fresh meat (due to the denaturation of myoglobin) is not considered to be satisfying for the industry or appealing to customers, limiting the application of HPP to ready-meal products (Warner et al., 2017). Implementation of HPP in the meat industry is limited due to other reasons. HPP requires relatively high costs for initial infrastructure and further processing, associated with batch-based approach (Fig. 10.1). Specifically, batch-based processing is a limiting factor for HPP to be more efficient and more sustainable than other technologies (Aganovic et al., 2017). Even though there are some limitations for the current application, there are also some benefits which make this technology considerable and competitive on the market now and in the future (Fig. 10.2). HPP could be simultaneously applied for a range of products (including meat) and is considered as a clean technology (which is relevant for clean label trend in industry and consumers). It is applied to the packaged products, thus avoiding the need for previous sterilization of packaging. It is still an emerging technology, which finds new applications (e.g., protein structuring). There are a few excellent reviews published on the topic of HPP application for the meat production (Buckow et al., 2013; Guillou et al., 2016; Ma and Ledward, 2013; Warner et al., 2017). Benefits and limitations of HPP together with its impacts on the meat properties define the scope of application, which mostly consists of products that have the same shape and mouthfeel as regular ones (ready-to-eat products, vacuum-packaged ham, bacon) (Huang et al., 2017). This chapter clarifies the effects of HPP application for such meat products and identifies the sustainability issues of respective processing.

Sustainable Meat Production and Processing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814874-7.00010-9 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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182 Sustainable Meat Production and Processing

FIGURE 10.1 Conceptual scheme of high-pressure processing (HPP). Adopted with permission of Hiperbaric Aganovic, K., Smetana, S., Grauwet, T., Toepfl, S., Mathys, A., Van Loey, A., Heinz, V., 2017. Pilot scale thermal and alternative pasteurization of tomato and watermelon juice: an energy comparison and life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production 141.

FIGURE 10.2 Global high-pressure processing (HPP) foods market forecast to 2025 with submarket share in 2015. Adapted from Huang, H.-W., Wu, S.J., Lu, J.-K., Shyu, Y.-T., Wang, C.-Y., 2017. Current status and future trends of high-pressure processing in food industry. Food Control 72, 1e8.

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10.1.1 Effects of High-Pressure Processing on Physical Properties of Meat HPP changes the structure and function of proteins mostly through the modification of noncovalent bonds (Warner et al., 2017). These selective effects could be used for targeted applications and modification of selected properties. However, the temperature changes with high-pressure levels might also affect the hydrogen and covalent bonds, which results in unfolding and irreversible denaturation of proteins. Such a duality in effects has also been observed in meat applications. One of the most known and researched effects of HPP on physical properties of meat relates to the ability of the technology to tenderize meat (Guillou et al., 2016). However, the studies differentiate in terms of conditions, which lead to tenderization or hardening of animal tissues. Sun and Holley effectively summarized the contradictory effects as a function of temperature and application time in relation to the maturity of meat (Sun and Holley, 2010). Therefore, HPP can either be applied at low or high temperatures, with differential effects on meat proteins and texture. Temperature-denatured proteins tend to aggregate in forms which remain stable after cooling. Whereas pressure impacts more on the dissociation and unfolding of proteins, with refolding and reassociation in new structures once the pressure is removed (Smeller, 2002; Warner et al., 2017). Therefore, if fresh meat is cooked (high temperature, no HPP) it becomes tough and hard to chew, while the same meat after the HPP treatment at high temperatures results in greater tenderness after cooking. The tenderness is achieved due to the combined effect of accelerated proteolysis (Ma and Ledward, 2004), increased fracturing of myofibrillar proteins, and muscle structure due to greater stability of collagen (Sikes et al., 2010), increased protein solubilization (Sun and Holley, 2010), aggregation of myofibrillar structure and reduced water loss (Hughes et al., 2014), or combinations of these, depending on the conditions applied (Warner et al., 2017). However, some authors propose that the tenderization associated with HPP meat is a result of either accelerated or arrested glycolysis (Sikes and Warner, 2016). Accelerated glycolysis is a result of calcium release during the application of HPP, and this is associated with severe contraction resulting in massive disruption to the myofibrillar structure and very tender meat (Bouton et al., 1977; Kennick et al., 1980). Another possible mechanism (arrested glycolysis), which occurs during HPP treatment is likely to arise from the denaturation of glycolytic enzymes, resulting in a higher ultimate pH in the muscle (Smit et al., 2017). Such variations in proposed mechanisms of meat tenderization demonstrate the difficulty in inducing reliable results across all muscle types, through the application of HPP. It is well known that there is considerable variation between muscles and carcasses in the stage of rigor, and thus muscle pH and sarcomere length at any defined time point in the prerigor period (Warner et al., 2017). Case studies investigating increased toughness of HPP meat included beef, pork, and chicken muscles (Del Olmo et al., 2010; Ma and Ledward, 2004; Smit et al., 2017; Zamri et al., 2006) with treatment of 400 MPa and higher pressures (Jung et al., 2000). Similar effects were observed for cooked ham at high-pressure (500 MPa) (Clariana and García-Regueiro, 2011). On the contrary, an increased tenderness was observed for beef meat at 500 MPa and 8
C (Ichinoseki et al., 2006). Morton et al. also indicated the reduction of shear force and improved sensory scores for HPP treated meat in comparison to chill aged meat (Morton et al., 2017). Additionally, treatment of meat at lower pressure levers (100e300 MPa) and injection of papain reduced toughness of beef meat (Schenková et al., 2007). Meat-based products (sausages, meat batters) also behave differently under various conditions (mostly temperature) treated under HPP (Guillou et al., 2016). Thus, increased temperature above 70
C during HPP resulted in higher cohesiveness (Yuste et al., 1999) but lower hardness and apparent elasticity (Fernández-Martín et al., 1997). Lower temperature under HPP loses firmness and increases cohesiveness of cocked sausages (Mor-Mur and Yuste, 2003). Additionally, it loses less weight. Reduction of cooking weight losses was also observed for meat batters (Sikes et al., 2009) together with increased gel elasticity (Iwasaki et al., 2006). However, the texture of meat batters can further be modified and become tougher if HPP is performed using additives, with gelation properties (dried egg white, starch, carrageenan) (FernándezMartín et al., 2000; Simonin et al., 2012; Trespalacios and Pla, 2009). Additional ingredients in meat products processed with HPP enhance meat binging properties. Protein network restructuring and creation of new texturized products can be achieved if NaCl, tripolyphosphate, glucono-delta-lactone, and -carrageenan, transaminase are added to HPP processed meat (Guillou et al., 2016; Hong et al., 2008a,b; Simonin et al., 2012; Trespalacios and Pla, 2009).

10.1.2 Effects of High-Pressure Processing on Improvement in Meat Products Safety HPP is influencing the properties of the product in a complex way due to the combined effect of pressure and temperature. The HPP effects on microbial safety of meat depend also on several factors. First, they depend on the microorganisms and type of food matrix (Rendueles et al., 2011). Moreover, there are considerable variations in resistance to HPP within the species and can depend on the strain type (Alpas et al., 1999; Balasubramaniam et al., 2004). In general, the level of

184 Sustainable Meat Production and Processing

microorganism organization (and complexity) is influencing their sensitivity to the impact of high pressure. Eukaryotic microorganisms (e.g., protozoa and foodborne parasites) are more easily destructed than molds and yeasts (Rendueles et al., 2011), while bacteria and spores remain the most resistant ones. Bacterial endospores reach the extreme range of resistance to high-pressure, similarly to other physical treatments (PEF, irradiation, and temperature) (Patterson, 2005). At the same time HPP can effectively inactivate most vegetative bacteria with pressure levels up to 600 MPa and with the room temperature (Guillou et al., 2016; Rendueles et al., 2011). At the same time, microbial cells in the exponential phase are more sensitive to HPP than in the stationary growth phase (Manas and Mackey, 2004; Pagan and Mackey, 2000). Among other variables playing a significant role for microbial inactivation are the treatment parameters associated with pressure level and kinetics. Thus, increase in level of pressure, pressurization, depressurization, and holding time increased the rate of inactivation (Chapleau et al., 2006). HPP is known to be effective against Escherichia coli in different meat products when pressure reached levels higher than 500 MPa (Garriga et al., 2004; Gola et al., 2000; Jofré et al., 2009; Porto-Fett et al., 2010). Listeria monocytogenes inactivation was dependent on the type of food matrix and varied from complete inactivation (sliced cooked ham) to significant reduction (fermented salami) (Aymerich et al., 2005; Marcos et al., 2008; Porto-Fett et al., 2010). Other meat spoilage microorganisms (L. monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Campylobacter jejuni) could be inactivated in a range of 2.7 log10 CFU/g to undetectable levels depending on the increase of high-pressure to the levels of 600 MPa (Jofré et al., 2009). Like meat textures influenced by HPP the changes in temperature can influence the efficiency of microbial inactivation. Each microorganism can be characterized with a range of temperatures and pressures, at which the inactivation is the most efficient (Patterson and Linton, 2008). In general, the combined use of high-pressure and temperature of 50e60
C is efficient against most of the pathogens and spoilage microorganisms in food (Guillou et al., 2016). At the same time, not only the increase but also the lowering of the treatment temperature, sometimes to subzero levels or lower than 18
C, can induce the inactivation of certain species of microorganisms, such as Citrobacter freundii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Listeria innocua, and L. monocytogenes (Carlez et al., 1993; Patterson and Linton, 2008; Ritz et al., 2008). The identification of microorganisms’ treatment efficiency depends also on the composition of the product. Foods, representing a complex media matrix (contacting fats, proteins, sugars, salts, etc.) are known to change the resistance of microorganisms in comparison to buffered solutions (Molina-Hoppner et al., 2004; Rendueles et al., 2011; St-Hilaire et al., 2007). Acidity levels (pH) and water activity levels (aw) of the products influence also the microbial lethality of HPP treatment (Alpas et al., 1999; Black et al., 2007; Hayman et al., 2008; Rendueles et al., 2011; Wouters et al., 1998). The shelf life of products (meat) depend on the availability and development of spoilage microorganisms (mainly enterobacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and psychrotrophs), which in a great degree can be eliminated with HPP and pressure up to 600 MPa, however the efficiency of HPP for lactic acid bacteria inactivation depends on a type of meat product and following storage conditions (Garriga et al., 2004; Jofré et al., 2009; Simonin et al., 2012). Since microorganism inactivation is shown to depend on food matrix, cooking type, and the presence of additives, it is still advised to perform microbial control after HPP treatment (Guillou et al., 2016).

10.1.3 Effects of High-Pressure Processing on Qualities of Meat Products Rancid taste and off-flavors in meat products can be caused by lipid oxidation, which can be observed immediately after HPP (Tuboly et al., 2003) or after some storage time (Beltran et al., 2003, 2004). In most cases lipid oxidation occurs after high levels of HPP treatment (500e600 MPa) in chicken (Orlien et al., 2000; Schindler et al., 2010) and beef products (Ma et al., 2007). There are a few theories explaining the oxidation acceleration in HPP treated meat: membrane damages in muscles (Orlien et al., 2000), catalyzation of lipid oxidation due to the release of iron ions (Angsupanich and Ledward, 1998; Cheah and Ledward, 1997), or a rupture of adipocytes in beef patties (Carballo et al., 1997; Guillou et al., 2016). Sensory properties of HPP-treated raw chicken and beef are not significantly affected (Schindler et al., 2010) compared to untreated meat. However, due to longer preservation and elimination of microbial contamination, the aroma profiles of HPP-treated meat are more favorable comparing to untreated samples. Along the preservation properties HPP can enhance the perception of saltiness in processed products (Clariana and García-Regueiro, 2011; Fulladosa et al., 2009). It is well known that HPP is changing the color of raw meat, increasing the lightning (whitening) and decreasing the red index (Guillou et al., 2016; Jung et al., 2003; Marcos et al., 2010). The effect is observed at the levels higher than 200 MPa (Beltran et al., 2004; Del Olmo et al., 2010; Marcos et al., 2010). Lightening of meat is causing either protein coagulation or globulin denaturation and heme group displacement or release (Bak et al., 2017; Carlez et al., 1995). The decrease of red index in meat is associated with oxidation of ferrous myoglobin to ferric metmyoglobin (Cava et al., 2009; Jung et al., 2003). There is also a possibility of enhancing brownish color with further denaturation of ferric

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myoglobin (Wackerbarth et al., 2009). However, color alterations for cooked meat products like sausages, patties, and ham are erased during further processing (Gola et al., 2000; Mor-Mur and Yuste, 2003).

10.1.4 Contribution of High-Pressure Processing Technology to the Sustainability of the Meat Industry Multiple differences of HPP comparing to conventional thermal-based pasteurization indicate it as a technology of new meat product development. HPP-based product design should target the changes in physical properties and visual appearance. Two main paths for HPP application in meat are foreseen: (1) HPP applied at low temperatures and the prerigor meat for the improvements in tenderization; (2) HPP applied at high temperatures for yield and tenderness improvement applicable for food service industry (Warner et al., 2017). Both paths can potentially lead to more sustainable product development. HPP can be applied as a technology combining product development and processing that is effective against pathogens in ready-to-eat meat products. It is especially popular for meat products in the United States, as the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service approved HPP as a legitimate technology for L. monocytogenes in processed meats (Simonin et al., 2012), with the possibility of clean label indication (Verma and Banerjee, 2012). There are a few meat manufacturers relying on HPP technology in the United States including Applegate Farms, Hormel’s Natural Choice, and Perdue Short Cuts (Huang et al., 2017). The potential of HPP to contribute to sustainability of the meat sector is hardly analyzed in the literature. However, it is possible to draw a few conclusions from the studies aiming for energy and environmental impact comparison of HPP to other technologies. Pardo and Zufia (2012) identified HPP as one of the most environmentally promising processing technologies of packaged ready-to-eat dishes (Pardo and Zufía, 2012). According to the study, HPP is more beneficial than autoclaving and in a competitive range compared to microwave processing. Modified atmosphere packaging (as a preservation technology) is noted to be more beneficial than HPP (Pardo and Zufía, 2012). At the same time, this study has certain limitations to be reproduced (type of dish, type of HPP equipment, processing parameters). Other studies, which consider the possibility for research reproduction (Aganovic et al., 2017; Davis et al., 2010), compared HPP technology to pulsed electric field treatment (PEF) and thermal pasteurization in the case of juices. On a similar scale of production, HPP showed limitations of batch system and somewhat higher energy consumption. However, considering the uncertainties and data limitations they concluded similar level of energy use and environmental impact between HPP, PEF, and thermal treatment.

10.2 HYDRODYNAMIC PRESSURE OR SHOCKWAVE TECHNOLOGY Comparing to static HPP, shockwave technology or hydrodynamic pressure has emerged to address specific issues of meat consistent quality and tenderness. Instead of long HPP application, shockwave technology (SW) relies on instant development of explosive shockwaves with pressure up to 1 GPa in fractions of milliseconds (Bolumar et al., 2013). The application of explosive principles for meat treatment were first patented by (Bajovic et al., 2012; Godfrey, 1970), who used TNT explosive for the generation of “Hydrodynamic pressure processing.” Further modification of “Hydrodyne” technology by Long included tank along a hemispherical wall equidistant from an explosive charge and detonating the explosive (Long, 1993, 1994). The application of explosives for the shockwaves generation in experimental work remained to the end of the century, despite the potential risks associated with contamination, safety issues and technical challenges (Solomon et al., 2006, 2011). A new wave of interest to SW and its development (e.g., “Tender Class Systems” by Hydrodyne Incorporated (Claus, 2002)) was connected with electricity generation of shockwaves by a capacity generator system (Long, 2000), axial planer shockwaves generation by electromechanical transducers (Garcia and Woodall, 2001), systems of continuous shockwave food processing with electrically generated shockwave reflection (Long and Ayers, 2001), and electricity transmitting to a product through a diaphragm (Long et al., 2007). Currently, research literature reveals a number of ways to generate shockwaves: piezoelectric, electromagnetic, electrothermal or electrodetonation methods (Bolumar et al., 2013). The electrical-based SW systems rely on discharge of high voltage arc between two electrodes in water (Long and Ayers, 2001) or on sparker system (Bowker et al., 2011). Based on the main principles a number of different equipment configurations were developed and put on test (Bolumar et al., 2013; Claus, 2017; Solomon et al., 2006). Despite such developments, there are very limited industrial applications as well as number of research connected to meat treatment (Bolumar et al., 2013; Bowker et al., 2011; Claus et al., 2001; Claus, 2002).

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One of the latest developments in the industrially applicable technology were performed within a German research project in German Institute of Food Technologies (DIL e.V., Quakenbrueck, Germany) (Bolumar et al., 2013; Heinz et al., 2011). The developments included the pilot plant design, which relied on underwater discharges of electric energy between two electrodes mediated by an aluminum wire. The prototype vessel of 50 L with achievable pressure up to 600 MPa relied on average power of 2 kW (peak power 40 kW); achieved with variations of electric energy pulses and wire geometry (Bajovic et al., 2012; Töpfl and Heinz, 2009). Further work was continued in the EU funded project “Shockmeat,” where the development of an industrial prototype for the continuous SW treatment was performed (Bolumar et al., 2013; Toepfl et al., 2013). Currently one of the prototypes is used in CSIRO (Australia) for research experiments at pilot industrial scale (Rohlik et al., 2017).

10.2.1 Effects of Shockwave on Physical Properties of Meat The initial design of SW focused its application on the meat industry and specifically meat tenderization. SW can be performed through two main mechanisms: (1) physical disruption of muscle structure and (2) enhanced proteolysis of structural muscle proteins. Both effects have been reported with the use of SW treatment (Bolumar et al., 2013). The first mechanism acts through the dissipation of energy and mechanical stress at the boundary between materials with different sound velocity and acoustic impedance (Bajovic et al., 2012). The myofibrillar structure got disrupted due to myofibrillar fragmentation in the region of the Z-lines and A-band/I-band juncture (Claus, 2002; Zuckerman and Solomon, 1998). This way physical tearing is highlighted as the main cause for tenderization. Additional aspects may include protein degradation and physical disruption of myofibril apparatus through decreased intensity of the troponin-T (TnT) band (in case of SW with aging treatment) and enhanced accumulation of 30 kD TnT degradation product (Bowker et al., 2008). However, more detailed studies with scanning electron microscopy (Bolumar et al., 2014; Zuckerman et al., 2013) highlight the appearance of bigger endomysial space and changes in collagen-fibril network of SW-treated meat. A few studies also point toward the changes in connection tissues due to the SW treatment (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016; Zuckerman et al., 2013). The improvement in tenderness is usually observed in the range of 10%e70% and is well documented in trials for the most abundant meats (beef, pork, lamb, turkey, chicken) (Table 10.1). At the same time, the effect is conditioned to a number of factors that have to be taken into account for the efficient application of SW (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016; Claus et al., 2001; Solomon et al., 2008, 2011). Application of SW for meat tenderization does not always result in an instantaneous effect. Successful application of SW requires specific preparation and postprocessing handling of meat to deal with direct mechanical and biological effects and secondary effects like protein hydrolysis (Heinz et al., 2011). SW can also support other conventional aging technologies to shorten the time of tenderization treatment (Bajovic et al., 2012).

10.2.2 Effects of Shockwave on the Safety of Meat Products SW technology affects meat properties not only through modification of protein structures and functionalities, but also through microbial inactivation (Bolumar et al., 2013; Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016). However, the application of SW technology for inactivation of microorganisms remains unclear due to conflicting results from different studies (Bajovic et al., 2012; Solomon et al., 2006). On the one hand publications report 2e4.5 log inactivation in beef and sausages (Patel et al., 2009; Williams-Campbell and Solomon, 2002), reduction of Trichinella spiralis in pork (Gamble et al., 1998), and L. monocytogenes reduction in meat and frankfurters (Patel et al., 2009). However, no effect was indicated for the treatment of Salmonella inactivation in minced chicken (Patel et al., 2006), or the inactivation of E. coli in ground beef (Podolak et al., 2006). Moreover, variations in conditions of treatment can affect the efficiency of the SW treatment for microorganisms’ inactivation. SW could be applied for certain levels of decontamination (or partial inactivation) under the correct treatment settings (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016), however, no significant treatment effect on microorganisms’ inactivation has been demonstrated so far. Such a limitation should be further researched as there are very few scarce studies and very few groups technically able to perform such scientific studies.

10.2.3 Industrial Relevance of Shockwave Technology, Its Profitability, and Contribution to the Sustainability of the Meat Industry SW technology is hardly assessable in terms of economic and environmental costs due to currently low industrial application cases. However, the costs analysis of a continuous shockwave prototype at the German Institute of Food Technologies indicated that the treatment with SW technology resulted in an additional cost of 0.2e0.4 V per 1 kg of meat

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TABLE 10.1 Effect of Electric Charges of Shockwave Technology on Meat Tenderness Tenderness Improvement (%)a

Species

Primal Cut/Muscle

Process Conditions

Beef

Top rounds

Energy setting (3e2), pulses (1e2)

20e28

Claus (2002)

Loin

Use of a high efficiency sparker. Distance (3.75e7.5 cm), pulses (5, 10, 40, 80), pressure (6e7 MPa)

20e30

Bowker et al. (2011)

Silverside Loin (longissimus lumborum)

Semiindustrial batch prototype from the German Institute of Food Technologies. Cylindrical steel vessel (1 m of diameter), distance (20 cm), pulses (5, for the silverside, and 1, for the loin).

25 18

Bolumar et al. (2013)

Loin (longissimus lumborum)

Semiindustrial batch prototype from the German Institute of Food Technologies. Cylindrical steel vessel (1 m of diameter), distance (20 cm), pulses (5, for the silverside, and 1, for the loin).

18

Bolumar et al. (2014)

Loin

TenderClass System. Energy setting (2) and pulses (2)

29

Claus (2002)

Topside Silverside

Cylindrical steel vessel (1 m of diameter), distance (20 cm), pulses (2, for the topside, and 2, for the silverside).

1 5

Bolumar et al. (2013)

Turkey

Breast

Hydrodyne pilot plant. Energy setting (72%), pulses (2)

12

Claus et al. (2001)

Chicken

Breast

Hydrodyne pilot plant. Energy setting (45%), pulses (2)

22

Claus et al. (2001)

Pork

References

a

Reduction of WarnereBratzler Shear Force (WBSF) by shockwave treatment compared to control untreated. Adapted from Bolumar, T., Claus, J., 2017. Utilizing shockwaves for meat tenderization. In: Reference Module in Food Science. Elsevier.

TABLE 10.2 Cost Analysis of Shockwave Technology for Meat Tenderization (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016) Cost Schockwave Technologya Case

Throughput (kg/h)

Amortization (V/kg)

Spare Parts (V/kg)

Operative Costs (V/kg)

Subtotal (V/kg)

Extra Packaging (V/kg)

Total (V/kg)

1

500

0.160

0.024

0.041

0.255

0.172

0.397

2

1800

0.050

0.007

0.012

0.069

0.172

0.241

Average

1150

0.105

0.015

0.026

0.147

0.172

0.319

a The amortization costs for the shockwave technology are estimated assuming a one-shift working scheme (8 h/day), 50% occupancy of the equipment time, and a five-year period for payback of investment.

(Table 10.2), depending on the scale of equipment (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016). The biggest costs are associated with amortization and packaging. The first is due to the low technology development level of SW, while the second is connected to the need of special packaging development. At the same time, the cost of packaging is rather indicative, as currently there is no packaging material fully resistant to SW treatment. Successful commercialization of SW would require the development of SW-resistant packaging (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016). Operation costs are in the range of 0.01e0.04 V per 1 kg of meat; in the same range as in conventional thermal treatment technologies. SW treatment is aiming at the improvement of meat quality (more specifically, tenderness), which should lead to higher price of the final product and selling it at higher, premium rates. It was estimated that SW application to meat can increase its market value in the range of 1%e5% (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016). Increase in the market value of meat with

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relatively low consumer acceptance should lead to higher rates of consumption for treated meat. This is especially evident for meats with the low initial tenderness. Improved meat quality then would lead to the improved consumer satisfaction and increased demand rates, eventually leading to higher consumption rates and opportunities for SW meat branding (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016) This way SW technology can reduce the wastage of meat (even though the rates are marginal) and increase the profitability of meat cuts, but also for adding value to the low-value cuts, which could absorb the costs of SW treatment (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016). However, such assumptions were made for pilot scale equipment and require further elaboration with experimental testing of consumer willingness to buy and willingness to eat. A clear benefit of improved environmental impact can be revealed when SW treatment is compared against other technologies for meat tenderization (long refrigeration, braising, dry aging, HPP, etc.). In this case, application of SW treatment leads to reduction of energy use, time of processing and emissions to the environment. Currently, there is a lack of studies comparing cost efficiency or environmental impact of different meat tenderization technologies. SW technology is a noninvasive processing treatment for meat tenderization, with no negative impact on microbiological or chemical qualities (Bolumar and Claus, 2017; Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016; Claus, 2016). Another benefit of SW technology is that it can be integrated in the meat industry at the end of slaughterhouse processing lines for the treatment of less tender meat. Electricity-based SW technology is an emerging technology, which can be applied for a single or a multitime treatment of meat (Warner et al., 2017). It is also possible to apply SW as a toll-processing facility, as a service offering existing companies a small-scale treatment for the specific meat products (Bolumar and Toepfl, 2016). The continuous process of SW technology evolution involving the experiments with design of equipment and pilot-scale testing should lead to full-scale industrial applications soon (Bajovic et al., 2012). The SW technology can further be developed to increase throughput, industrial stability, and better packaging systems (Bolumar and Claus, 2017). Such developments are especially relevant as advances in engineering and compliance with industrial requirements seems to be key factors influencing the transfer of the technology to the industrial application. Aspects such as costs, performance, operation durability, and reduction of environmental impact are essential for the confirmation before the technology can reach industrial-level investments. If such conditions are addressed in cost and time effective manner, then SW will have a potential to offer the effective means to tenderize meat and supply consumers with fresh product, without a need of extensive refrigeration treatment for tenderization (Bolumar and Claus, 2017).

10.3 OHMIC HEATING FOR MEAT PROCESSING The naming of the ohmic heating (OH) technology is based on the ohmic resistance (U). Due to the intrinsic resistance in the food, it is possible that electrical energy is converted into heat energy directly in the product. In addition to liquid foods such as soups, pieces of fruit in syrups, sauces, and juices, OH can also be used for meat products. Foreseen fields of application include cooking, pasteurization, heating, and thawing. In conventional heating techniques, heating is done by conduction from the edge zones (where an external heat source is applied). Such conventional approach requires time to make sure that the product reached the proper qualities inside the food. This is time-consuming, especially in the case of large-volume goods, and can lead to undesired changes in the product due to overheating and long holding times. As described above, the OH technology is different as heat is induced by ohmic heating in the product itself, the entire volume of the product is detected at the same time and thus heated very quickly and evenly. There are a few studies and patents on the application of OH technology for meat industry (Table 10.3). In DE 3820042 A2 by Gutekunst et al. (1988) “Method for cooking juicy, solid pieces of food,” the use of a device for ohmic cooking of raw pieces of meat is described. The treatment of boiled sausages or cooked ham is not described therein (Gutekunst, 1988). In WO 2002102215 A1, “New method and apparatus of cooking food,” by Farid et al. describes a method for heating frozen hamburger patties, which combines the principle of OH with a plate grill (Farid, 2002). There are also many patents applying OH to liquid foods such as milk or eggs (Polny, 1998; Reznik, 1998; Simpson and Stirling, 1984). The German Institute of Food Technologies (DIL e.V., Quakenbrueck, Germany) has a few developed and patented devices and procedures that apply OH to meat and sausages, especially to the heating of meat products (Hukelmann, 2013; Kohorst, 2011; Kortschack and Werner, 2013).

10.3.1 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Meat Properties During the cooking process, meat loses water and changes its texture and taste (Bejerholm et al., 2014). The faster it is heated to a certain temperature, the lower the loss of cooking and the juicier the meat is. In studies comparing OH and

TABLE 10.3 Studies on the Relationship Between the Characteristics of the Meat (Composition, Fiber Direction, Temperature) and the Electrical Equipment (Table of the Authors) Characteristics Product

Water (W)-; Fat (F)-; Salt (S)- Content (%)

Heating Regime (8C)

Electric Conductivity (EC) min/max (S/m)

Device

References

Lumbar muscle

Injected brine

5/85
C

1.43/5.42 (EC f T)

Custom made þ convection oven (Bejerholm et al., 2014), (Yildiz-Turp et al., 2013)

Zell et al. (2012)

Back muscles

Not specified

Not specified

Not specified

3.5 kW, 15 A, 0e250 V, 50 Hz Zell et al. (2009a), device designed after Sarang et al. (2008)

Dai et al. (2013)

Various muscle pieces

W: 74e77; F: 0.4e2.3

20
C

0.64e0.76

Custom made, 25 V, 50 Hz

McKenna et al. (2006)

Back fat; belly fat

W: 13; 32; F: 82; 60

Various muscle pieces

W: 73e74; F: 0.5e3.8; S: 0.15e0.21

5/85
C

0.3e0.6/1.2e1.7

Custom made 3.5 kW, 15 A, 0e240 V, 50 Hz (Bejerholm et al., 2014)

Zell et al. (2009a)

Lower shell muscle

Salted; unsalted; Fibers//current

5/85
C

1.1; 0.42/2.8; 1.42

Lower shell muscle

Salted; unsalted; Fibers//current

5/85
C

0.9; 0.4/2.4; 1.3

0.04; 0.09

0.5/1.6 Not specified

Not specified

Custom made (Bejerholm et al., 2014)

Zell et al. (2009b)

Lower shell muscle

Injected brine

Not specified

1.54

Custom made (Bejerholm et al., 2014)

Zell et al. (2010)

Various muscle pieces

W: 71.76e76.75; F: 1.3e7.4

25/140
C

0.348e0.665/1.322 e2.212

Device designed after Tulsiyan et al. (2008), alternating current 60 Hz

Sarang et al. (2008)

Chicken breast

Not specified

0/130
C

0.35/1.1

High frequency engine Bozkurt and Icier, 2010, 10e100 V, 20 kHz, 3 kW

Ito et al. (2014)

Sausage meat; fat

Minced; F: 2e15; 90

20/80
C

0.4e0.8; 0.08/0.7e1.3; 0.1

Device designed after Icier et al. (2005a)

Bozkurt and Icier (2010)

Meatballs

Minced; Fs: 76.63; F: 1.44

20/75
C

1.5/2.25

Custom made; assembly line equipment, 0e380 V, 50 Hz

Sengun et al. (2014)

Luncheon meat; Frankfurter

W: 67; 56; S: 1.3; 2

15/80
C

1.15; 1.5/3.25; 4.25

Device designed after Shirsat et al. (2004); 25 V, frequency 50 Hz

Shirsat et al. (2004b)

Sausage meat (without spices)

F: c. 25; S: 0e3.85;

15/80
C

0.37e1.88/1e5.5

F: 0; S: 2.6

15/80 C

1.88/5.5

Frankfurter

W: 53; F: 30; S: 1.9

82
C

Not specified

Device 3.5 kW, 50 Hz, 230 V Shirsat et al. (2004)

Brunton et al. (2004) and Shirsat et al. (2004a)

Ham sausage

W: c. 60; F: 20; 30; S: 1

15/75
C

1.5; 1/3; 2

Custom made, 240 V, 15 A

Piette et al. (2006)

Ham paste

W: c. 60; F: 20; 30; S: 1

15/70
C

1.5; 3.3/3; 6.3




189

S: 1.16

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Minced

Buttocks muscle

190 Sustainable Meat Production and Processing

conventional heating, it was found that conventionally heated meat products had a higher cooking loss (Yildiz-Turp et al., 2013). Yildiz-Turp et al. (2013) have summarized the color change from several studies. For example, products heated with electricity have a slightly lighter and more uniform color compared to traditionally heated products. This change can be attributed to the higher temperatures and longer heating time of the goods, which are necessary in conventional processes (Yildiz-Turp et al., 2013). At the same time, only a few authors have conducted investigations on the microbiological safety of OH treated meat products. For instance, Piette et al. (2006) reported inactivation of Enterococcus faecalis in ham sausage. OH with a core temperature of 80
C resulted in a reduction of 9.06 log10 CFU/g within 13.78 min. The authors concluded that OH can ensure the microbiological safety of meat products (Piette et al., 2006). It is important to calculate the F70 values to make sure that they are not lower than in conventional heating. Ito et al. (2014) reported that the aseptic state of products heated by current continued at a storage temperature of 35
C for 14 days (Ito et al., 2014). Overall, little literature was found regarding the microbiological inactivation of meat and sausage products by OH technology.

10.3.2 Perspectives of Ohmic Heating Application in the Meat Industry The experimental feasibility of OH application for Lyon sausage meat and boiled ham were carried in German Institute of Food Technologies (DIL e.V., Quakenbrueck, Germany) and traditional heating (Fig. 10.3). The duration, loss of cooking, texture, and color of both methods were examined and compared. In about 3 min it was possible to cook a caliber 90 mm boiled sausage to a core temperature of 74
C without loss of cooking. In the traditional process, the sausage was placed in a 78
C water bath for 70 min and heated to a core temperature of 74
C. The cooking of hams in a large mold (150 mm diameter) showed that a core temperature of 74
C can be reached in about 16 min (standard heating about 5e6 h). The texture analysis (Table 10.4) indicated that the heated sausage samples with a cut resistance of 9 kPa are somewhat softer than the conventionally heated samples, which gave a cut resistance of 10.4 kPa. This result can also be concluded from the images of the scanning electron microscope. While a continuous protein matrix can be seen on the scanning electron micrographs of the traditionally heated sausages, the images of the sausages heated by means of electricity showed somewhat coarser, partial fusions and different protein denaturation. A possible reason for these partial fusions could be the fast and intense OH process which causes electrically conductive regions to melt faster in the material than electrically nonconductive regions such as fat particles. However,

FIGURE 10.3 Prototypes for ohmic heating, top left for round shape and bottom left for rectangular shape (the associated, cooked products are on the right) (Figure of the authors).

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191

TABLE 10.4 Comparative Texture Analysis of Sausage Processed With Ohmic Heating and Conventional Cooking Technologies (X1: Texture Analyzer [TAXT 2 Winopal], 2 cm High and 2 cm Wide Sample Strip, X2: Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy [Nikon, Eclipse E600C1, Eyepiece CFI 10xI22]; Fat [Red (Dark Gray in Print Version)] Dyed With Nile Red [Dark Gray in Print Version]; Protein [Green (Light Gray in Print Version)] Stained with FitC; X3: Scanning Electron Microscopy) (Table of the Authors) Traditional Heating

Ohmic heating

TextureX1

Cutting resistance: 10.4 kPa (s ¼ 0.43 kPa)

Cutting resistance: 9.0 kPa (s ¼ 0.61 kPa)

Color

L* ¼ 72.10 s ¼ 0.39

L* ¼ 72.12 s ¼ 0.58

a* ¼ 8

a* ¼ 7

b* ¼ 12

b* ¼ 12

CLSMX2

REMX3

clear differences in color and matrix could not be determined by colorimetry and confocal laser scanning microscopy. From this it can be concluded that OH is suitable for further experimental purposes as there were no significant changes in the product properties of the sausages. Fig. 10.4 shows the mechanical structures developed by Eberhardt from the prototypes. This should be used for the planned project. The functionality of the system has already been tested. The system can be driven on with a sausage cart. The levels in the car are controlled automatically. In this system, in a heating step, four products can be heated simultaneously.

10.3.3 Potential of Ohmic Heating Technology for the Improvement of Efficiency and Sustainability in the Meat Industry The efficiency (heating rate) of OH depends on the treatment method and the process conditions (duration, temperature, and field strength of the process). Furthermore, the effectiveness is determined by the properties of the product itself, especially by its electrical conductivity (Bozkurt and Icier, 2010; Zell et al., 2009a). According to Shirat et al. (2004), the heating rate (the rate at which a sample is heated) depends on the electric field strength. Field strengths were investigated from 3 to 7 V/cm, giving heating rates of 4.66e25
C/min. This represents a significant advance compared to the heating rates of conventional heating methods (0.68
C/min) (Brunton et al., 2004; Shirsat et al., 2004a). The technology of OH has already been investigated in various scientific studies (Table 10.1). However, the equipment used is often self-constructed prototypes designed to study individual factors of influence. Furthermore, no clear functional relationship between technology/conductivity/temperature/product etc. can be derived from the sum of the results. Further investigations show that there is a proportional relationship between the temperature and the electrical conductivity. The higher the temperature of the product, the higher the conductivity. Thus, at 25
C, animal muscle pieces have a conductivity of 0.3e0.6 S/m, while the conductivity increases to 1.3e2.2 S/m at 140
C (Sarang et al., 2008). Zell et al. (2009a) and Sarang et al. (2008) observed that the electrical conductivity decreases with increasing fat content, since fat is not electrically conductive

192 Sustainable Meat Production and Processing

FIGURE 10.4 Further development to the industrial prototype (above chamber in the car can be filled with the appropriate forms, below different shapes) (Figure of the authors).

(Sarang et al., 2008; Zell et al., 2009a). Too high moisture content in the meat can also reduce the electrical conductivity, as this parameter reduces the concentration of ions dissolved in the meat (Zell et al., 2009a). Therefore, the concentration of ions that move freely in the meat is crucial for the electrical conductivity of the product (Shirsat et al., 2004b). The salt content in the meat and the distribution of the salt in the product have a reinforcing effect on the conductivity. A bovine muscle injected with a 3% saline solution has an electrical conductivity of 2.8 S/m at 85
C, while the conductivity of an unsalted muscle is 1.42 S/m. The homogeneous heat distribution is responsible for the homogeneous texture and color properties of the product. The uniform distribution of salt in whole muscle pieces is usually achieved by multipoint injections and subsequent tumbling (Zell et al., 2009b). Such approach is important because a high salt content increases the conductivity, while a uniform distribution of the salt ensures homogeneous heat distribution. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity is influenced by the arrangement of the muscle fibers. Zell et al. (2009a) has investigated the effect of fiber orientation and found that the electrical conductivity is higher when the fiber direction and current direction are parallel. The authors concluded that the fibers are a kind of conduit for the ions (Zell et al., 2009a). The size and orientation of the meat have only an effect on the conductivity, if the product is whole, coherent pieces of muscle. For dispersions of very small particles, such as sausage meat, these effects can be neglected because the products behave as a single homogeneous electrolytic unit (Palaniappan and Sastry, 1991). Previous experiments on treatment of meat with OH technology (DIL e.V.) allowed to indicate that the similar heating rate with the use of the technology could be achieved in a shorter time and with application of lower energy than in traditional oven heating. This leads to the previous estimates on savings in terms of energy and environmental impact, especially for the small-scale pilot production.

10.4 IMPLEMENTATIONS OF PULSED ELECTRIC FIELDS FOR MEAT PROCESSING The application of PEF as a nonthermal food processing technology to preserve the original fresh-like quality of foods is becoming popular. This technology could alter the microstructure of foods that open various applications for muscle foods such as meat and fish. Several studies have shown that PEF has an ability to improve meat tenderness, improve the subsequent drying process, and accelerate brine intake during cured meat processing.

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10.4.1 Effect of Pulsed Electric Field on Meat Tenderization PEF technology could improve the tenderness of different meat types and muscle cuts influenced by different postslaughtering conditions. In this application, PEF is used to alter the microstructure of meats and thereby facilitate the occurrence of chemical and biochemical processes in muscle foods. Meat tenderization by PEF can occur due to the combined impact of different interrelated mechanisms. The increase in cell permeability after PEF processing plays a major role in its ability to tenderize meat. For the pore formation, critical electric field strengths of 0.5 kV/cm or greater is required for animal tissues (Toepfl et al., 2006). Toepfl et al. (2014) reported that electric field strengths of 1e10 kV/cm and energy input of 0.5e10 kJ/kg is sufficient for the electroporation in animal tissues (Toepfl et al., 2014). However, in some situations this PEF intensity may not be strong enough to induce physical disruption of muscle fibers, and fewer effects on meat tenderization can be observed suggesting physical disruption is an important role in the tenderization process. There is another argument suggesting that meat tenderization can be supported by either one or both of physical disruptions occurs in the cell membrane and the release the calcium ions through this cell permeation to activate calpain enzymes which are responsible enzymes for meat tenderization (Bekhit et al., 2014). In addition, PEF treatment has proven to result in additional myofibrillar breakdown resulting small particle sizes of muscle fibers (O’Dowd et al., 2013). Several studies have shown that PEF can enhance the proteolysis of TnT and desmin in muscles which are considered as markers of loss of myofibrillar integrity (Bekhit et al., 2014; Suwandy et al., 2015a,b) and it has been significantly correlated to shear-force values. Proteolysis of TnT and desmin in PEF-treated meat has been mostly observed in those meats that have been aged after the PEF treatment (Bekhit et al., 2014; Suwandy et al., 2015a,b). PEF treatment of muscles before aging could help in the tenderization process through early activation of calpains by release of calcium ions from cell organelles due to enhanced membrane permeability. However, several studies have shown that the acceleration of biochemical reactions after PEF is not an expeditious approach (Bekhit et al., 2014, 2016; Suwandy et al., 2015a,b) and post-PEF aging is required to allow the proteolysis process. This fact suggests that PEF treatment should be strong enough to cause physical disruption which can accelerate biochemical reactions within the muscles as well. There seems to be a minimum electric field intensity above which PEF induces an improvement in the tenderization process in each muscle during a proper aging period. Bhat et al. (2018) have suggested that the absence of a proper aging period following the PEF treatment or the absence of critical electric field strength to induce physical disruptions could be the possible reasons for the insignificant response of PEF treatment observed in some studies (Bhat et al., 2018). In fact, there are some studies that did not show any significant improvement in the tenderness even with a proper aging time, 21 days (Arroyo et al., 2015b) and 3 days (Faridnia et al., 2014), while some researchers have shown an improvement in tenderness after PEF with 21 days aging period (Faridnia et al., 2016). These studies suggested that the effect of PEF on meat tenderization is dependent upon electrical field strength used, since low PEF intensity (1.4 kV/cm (Arroyo et al., 2015a) and 0.2e0.6 kV/cm (Faridnia et al., 2014)) has resulted in less effect on tenderness even with the aging period. Therefore, both treatment intensity and aging period may be of important factors in determining the effect of PEF on meat tenderization. This statement can be supported with the findings of Faridnia et al. (2016), which used high PEF intensity of 1.7e2.0 kV/cm, 50 Hz, 185 kJ/kg showing a significant improvement in tenderness of cold-boned beef biceps femoris treated with a post-PEF aging period of 21 d (Faridnia et al., 2016). It should be taken into consideration that high PEF intensity may cause some temperature rise and changes in water holding capacity of meat that can be negatively effect on meat tenderness as well. O’Dowd et al. (2013) and Faridnia et al. (2015) reported that PEF treatment induced a greater water loss from beef semitendinosus muscles at electric field strength 1.4 kV/cm and 1.9 kV/cm, respectively compared to untreated meat (Faridnia et al., 2015; O’Dowd et al., 2013). Increasing PEF voltage, frequency (Bekhit et al., 2014), and the number of PEF cycles (Bekhit et al., 2016) have increased purge loss of beef longissimus lumborum and semimembranosus muscles. High-intensity PEF treatments have been reported to cause temperature rise in meat and resulted in denaturation of proteins and enzymes needed for tenderization process (Bekhit et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2017). The effects of PEF on the microstructural and biochemical alterations and the respective effect on tenderness are shown in Table 10.5. The potential of PEF to improve meat tenderization seems to be dependent on several factors including PEF process parameters, physicochemical characteristics of the meat, and pre- and posttreatment conditions. PEF should be applied with a sufficiently high intensity which can have crucial effect on muscle cell membranes to trigger cell biochemical reactions. However, the effectiveness of PEF on meat is dependent on its characteristics such as electrical conductivity, its fiber types, and adaptations for locomotion as well. There are some other discrepancies associated with the effect of PEF processing on meat such as differences in meat-processing steps for instance chilling or freezing, and the postslaughtering practices such as hot-boned or cold-boned.

TABLE 10.5 Effect of Pulsed Electric Field Treatments on Physical Disruption and Biochemical Changes and Meat Tenderization of Different Muscles (Table of the Authors) Post-PEF Aging Period

Effect of PEF on Physical Disruption or Biochemical Processes

Tenderizing Effect of PEF With or Without Aging

e

Additional myofibril breakdown Smaller myofibril particle sizes

PEF had no impact on tenderness

O’Dowd et al. (2013)

1e3 d

More porous myofibrillar tissue after PEF treatment

PEF had no impact on tenderness

Faridnia et al. (2014)

PEF had no impact on tenderness

Arroyo et al. (2015a)

21 d

Improved tenderness

Faridnia et al. (2016)

Electric field strength 1.4 kV/cm Frequency 10 Hz Pulse width 20 ms

26 d

No significant improvement in tenderness

Arroyo et al. (2015b)

Beef longissimus thoracis et lumborum and semimembranosus (hot boned)

Electric field strength 0.44e0.48 kV/cm for longissimus thoracis and 0.32e0.35 kV/cm for semitendinosus Frequency 90 Hz Pulse width 20 ms Repeated (1, 2, 3)

21 d

No effect on the tenderness of longissimus muscles, 3 treatment reduced tenderness of Semimembranosus muscle

Bekhit et al. (2016)

Beef longissimus thoracis et lumborum and semimembranosus (coldboned)

Electric field strength 0.31e0.56 kV/cm for longissimus thoracis and 0.27e0.56 kV/cm for semitendinosus Frequency 20, 50, 90 Hz

21 d

Reduced the tenderness of longissimus muscles regardless of the electrical input An increasing PEF treatment frequency caused improved tenderness of semitendinosus muscle

Bekhit et al. (2014)

Beef loins (M. longissimus et lumborum) (cold-boned)

Low PEF intensity of 2.5 kV, 200 Hz (High PEF intensity of 10 kV, 200 Hz

1 and 14 d

Elongated muscle fiber bundles with low PEF intensity treatment, shrinkage in the muscle fiber bundles with high PEF intensity treatment

Toughening effect of the PEF as the shear-force of the muscles increased with PEF

Khan et al. (2017)

Beef longissimus thoracis et lumborum and semimembranosus (hot boned)

Electric field strength 0.28e0.51 kV/cm for longissimus thoracis and 0.31e0.56 kV/cm for semitendinosus Frequency 20, 50, 90 Hz

21 d

Changes in the proteolysis patterns of troponin-T and desmin

Tendency of increasing toughness of longissimus muscles with increasing treatment frequency, whereas PEF treatment lead to improved tenderness of semitendinosus muscle

Suwandy et al. (2015b)

Beef semitendinosus

Electric field strength 1.4 kV/cm Frequency 50 Hz Pulse number: 1032 Total specific energy 250 kJ/kg

Myofibrils are ruptured along the Zlines and degraded due to PEF

Combined freezing thawing and PEF resulted in improved tenderness

Faridnia et al. (2015)

Meat Type

PEF Processing Parameters

Beef semitendinosus

Electric field strength 1.9 kV/cm Frequency 65 Hz Pulse width 20 ms Pulse number: 250

Beef longissimus thoracis

Electric field strength 0.2e0.6 kV/cm Frequency 1e50 Hz Pulse width 20 ms

Turkey breast meat

Electric field strength up to 3 kV/cm Pulse width 20 ms Frequency 5 Hz Pulse number 300

Beef Biceps femoris (cold-boned)

PEF of strength of 1.7e2.0 kV/cm, 50 Hz, 185 kJ/kg

Beef longissimus thoracis et lumborum (cold-boned)

Changes in the proteolysis patterns of troponin-T and desmin Increase in proteolysis of troponin-T largest extent with 1 PEF treatment

References

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195

Based on the available literature about the various aspects of meat tenderness, it is evident that PEF has a potential to influence the tenderization process of muscle and could be utilized as a postmortem involvement to maximize the tenderness gain. However, it should be considered that the tenderizing effects of PEF can be dependent on the postmortem status of muscles, their anatomical and physiological differences as well. Therefore, complete profiling for PEF effects on various muscles will be required.

10.4.2 Effects of Pulsed Elecrtic Field on Microbial Growth in Meats PEF technology is considered as a nonthermal preservation technology to inactivate microorganisms while imposing minimal detrimental influence on food quality (Wouters et al., 2001) at temperature lower than usually used by thermal preservation methods. Previous studies have revealed that PEF enables inactivation of bacterial and yeast vegetative cells in various foods, whereas bacterial spores are resistant to PEF. This technology is reported to inactivate Bacillus subtilis in pea soup, Listeria innocua, and L. monocytogenese in milk, Staphylococcus aureus in skim milk, E. coli in liquid egg, Lactobacillus brevis in yogurt, and Saccharomyces cervisiae in apple juice (Reina et al., 1998). Most of the applications of PEF are focused on inactivation of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. At high electric field strengths (>20 kV/cm), PEF has been shown sufficient to be destructive to many spoilage and pathogenic bacteria at or near atmospheric temperature (Zhao et al., 2013) and can be used as an alternative to conventional thermal pasteurization processes to inactivate food microbes and quality related enzymes while retaining the nutritional and sensory characteristics of the products (Sánchez-Vega et al., 2014). Barbosa-Canovas et al. (2004) stated that the PEF action toward microbial inactivation involves the instability of microbial membrane by the induction of electric field and electromechanical compression (Barbosa-Cánovas et al., 2004) which leads to pore formation and PEF forced opening of protein channels in the membrane as well (Sharma et al., 2014). Cytoplasmic content can be leaked out from the microbial cells through pores causing cell death. However, microbial inactivation by PEF can be dependent upon several factors such as type of microorganism, field strength, energy input, treatment time, conductivity of the medium, and pH (Toepfl and Heinz, 2007). It is evident that PEF treatment can sufficiently reduce the microbial number in several foods, however conductivity variations and high protein-fat content of meat has resulted in less applicability of PEF to inactivate microorganisms in some situations. In general, microbial inactivation is most effectively achieved in a highly conductive medium of low protein and low lipid (Giner et al., 2001). Some meat cuts are really heterogeneous with areas having different electrical conductivities due to high connective tissue content, different fat distribution and muscle fiber orientation (Alahakoon et al., 2017); therefore some areas will be less treated compared to others. It has been reported that PEF treatment of intact meat cuts did not lead to significant microbial inactivation and better effects can be found in meat immersed or suspended in solutions. Therefore, PEF technology can be useful for improving the safety of meat immersed in solutions or may be in brine solution. The reported effects of PEF on microbial quality of meat and meat products are summarized in Table 10.6. It has been proposed that PEF can be combined with mild heat and antimicrobials to achieve better results in terms of food safety and quality (Smith et al., 2002). This will result in a much higher microbial inactivation than the sum of the individual reductions achieved from each treatment alone, indicating synergy between PEF and the use of antimicrobials.

10.4.3 Effects of Pulsed Electric Field on the Processing of Dry-Cured Meat Products Disintegration of animal tissues, basically the cell membrane permeabilization by PEF technology, has shown a potential application to enhance mass transport in meat. Therefore, PEF is being used to improve the curing process by enhancing the brine uptake process and thereby speed up the curing process. Apart from the electroporation, myofibrillar fragmentation, increase in muscle cell gaps by PEF can also be affected to enhance mass transport of marinades, salts, and spices within meat and meat products (Gudmundsson and Hafsteinsson, 2001). As Klonowski et al. (2006) has explained, PEF treatment resulted in porous, swamp-like structure which supports in capillary force and consequently holds injected brine better than untreated meat (Klonowski et al., 2006). The author has further stated that the changes in tissue structure after PEF treatment led to an increase in weight after brine injection indicating a greater water holding capacity and less loss during cooking. The extra benefit of using PEF for curing is that the treated meat can be tenderized and becomes soft. The effect of PEF parameters on improving mass transport and diffusion process of meat is shown in Table 10.7. However, to apply PEF successfully in the cured meat industry, it needs further optimization. Some possible ways to achieve the optimization have been proposed by Klonowski et al. (2006). Firstly, the correct treatment parameters (electric

196 Sustainable Meat Production and Processing

TABLE 10.6 Effect of Pulsed Electric Field Treatments on Microbial Quality of Meat and Meat Products (Table of the authors) Meat Type

PEF Processing Parameters

Inactivation Effect

References

E. coli K12 suspended in a meat injection solution

Electric field strength 7 kV/cm

2-log reduction of E. coli K12

Rojas et al. (2007)

Goat meat immersed in a brine solution

PEF intensities 0, 20 and 30 mA/cm2 Treatment durations 2, 8 and 32 min Frequencies 100, 1 k and 10 kHz

8-log in E. coli O157: H7

Saif et al. (2006)

Minced beef meat

Frequency of 28e2800 MHz Electric field strength 300 V/m

Inactivation of Y. enterocolitica (6.7 log10 CFU/g of meat)

Stachelska et al. (2012)

Raw chicken meat and in liquid media

Electric field strength 3.75 and 15 kV/cm Frequency 5 Hz Pulse width 10 ms

No significant reductions in total viable counts of Enterobacteriaceae, Campylobacter jejuni, E. coli

Haughton et al. (2012)

Raw chicken meat and in liquid media

Electric field strength 65 kV/cm Frequency 500 Hz Pulse width 5 ms

Reductions of isolates of Campylobacter in liquid between 4.33 and 7.22 log10 CFU/mL

Haughton et al. (2012)

TABLE 10.7 Effect of Pulsed Electric Field Treatments on Mass Transport in Meat and Meat Products (Table of the Authors) Meat Type

PEF Processing Parameters

Effect

References

Pork

Electric field strength 3 kV/cm

Improved the diffusion of salt and nitrite

Toepfl and Heinz (2007)

Pork

Electric field strength 1.2 kV/cm and 2.3 kV/cm Frequency 100 Hz Pulses 300 Specific energy 22.6e181.1 kJ/kg

Increased the rate of saline diffusion Reduced the curing time

McDonnell et al. (2014)

Ham

Pulse number 20, 40, 80 or 120 Electric field strength 1.2 kV/cm or 2.0 kV/cm

Showed a porous structure that holds brine through capillary forces

Klonowski et al. (2006)

field strength and pulse number) should be established to create optimal structure which can increase the capillary force and hold water. Secondly, porous structure can be increased by applying more pulses and/or higher strength.

10.4.4 Pulsed Electric FieldeAssisted Cooking Processes The search for environmentally friendly and low-cost technologies forces the food industry to develop new methods combining several technologies together to guarantee the sustainability of the food chain. The use of novel technologies paves a way to enhance cell disruption in animal tissues where these effects noticeably produce favorable benefits to the texture and sensorial properties of the product. The positive effects of PEF on product structure modifications, tenderization, safety, and improved water binding can be particularly interesting for cooking operation. The cooking ability of PEF-assisted operations for animal tissues are still in the stage of basic research. However, the interest of applying PEF-assisted cooking has been growing due to its nonthermal nature which preserves the fresh-like quality of foods where traditional cooking at relatively high temperatures can affect the basic sensory properties of foods. The new way of cooking has been prepared through combined effects of electroporation and pulsed OH in the preparation of food products (Blahovec et al., 2017). It is evident that an E-cooker can be used for fast preparation of food

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products like fish, meat, and vegetables. Each specific product requires thorough adaptation of PEF-assisted cooking operation. These E-cookers generally use low electric field strength (10e180 V/cm) with high pulse duration (1e20,000 ms), and pulse number (1e2,000,000) with total cooking time of 0.5e1000 s (IXL e-Cooker B.V., 2016). E-cooker could partly operate as a PEF-stimulated cooker at low temperatures and PEF thermally stimulated electroporation upon heating above 40e50
C. Such cooking allows homogenous heating at low temperatures resulting better conservation of the original nutritive value, original flavor, color, and taste. On the other hand, it facilitates rapid cooking and provides opportunities to use PEF as a pretreatment for cooking of foods (Blahovec et al., 2017). The PEF-induced electroporation can also be used as a pretreatment technique to different cooking such as sous vide processing. Currently, sous vide processing is considered as a meat tenderization technique for different meat cuts including collagen-rich meat cuts (tough meat), however a long-time for cooking or high temperature is required to melt these collagen into gelatin. The sensory deterioration of meat for a long time or at a high temperature is the major concern of using sous vide for tough meat cuts. At relatively high electric fields and high specific energy, PEF may be effectively applied to change the microstructure of connective tissue in muscle foods (Alahakoon et al., 2017) and thereby reduce the thermal stability of collagen. A combination of PEF and sous vide cooking can potentially be applied to improve the tenderness of collagen-rich meat cuts while reducing the time taken for sous vide processing time at moderate temperatures where further studies are needed.

10.4.5 Consumer Acceptance of Pulsed Electric FieldeTreated Meat PEF is now being used for meat processing at the pilot scale to improve tenderness, to increase the brine intake during curing, and to reduce the pathogenic bacteria for some meat products. It has so far been reported that PEF causes minimal changes in meat quality in terms of the color, lipid stability, volatile profile, and protein functionality, however the PEF processing conditions and pretreatments such as chilling/freezing should be taken into consideration to avoid any unfavorable changes in the meat quality. However, in the sense of public perception on PEF-treated meat and meat products, the current available studies are not sufficient and further studies are required. The public acceptance of PEF-treated products is based on sociopolitical factors, risks/benefits, and possibility of product attitude evaluation. In general, PEF is considered as safe and no dangerous chemical reactions have been reported. However, there is fear from consumers on the PEF name because it is a technology associated with electricity (Nielsen et al., 2009). Consumers have doubts that potential toxicological changes could occur in PEF-treated food products due to the direct contact between the electrodes and the food product. However, it has already been confirmed that the potential of generating such undesirable changes are insignificant (Soliva-Fortuny et al., 2009). Khan et al. (2018a,b) recently reported that chicken breast treated with high PEF (10 kV, 200 Hz and 20 ms) had significantly higher Ni (nickel) concentration than control and samples treated with low PEF (2.5 kV, 200 Hz and 20 ms) (Khan et al., 2018a,b). Authors have explained this increase in Cr and Ni concentration of the meat is within the safety limits and there are no chances of toxicity, however further research still needs to be done. Information on this technology should be dissipated well among consumers to change their attitude toward the terminology of the technology and to avoid any negative perception of consumer’s acceptance of the products. The “freshness” or the less detrimental effects of the PEF-treated meat and its benefits should be promoted to improve the customer demand. PEF processing has not been reported to cause side effects such as severe structural and oxidative changes, and off-flavor developments in meat. It avoids the rise in temperature during processing compared to other meat tenderization techniques such as thermal and HPP. PEF processing could be used as an environment friendly and energy efficient tenderization technique, which can be a cost-effective method to alter the muscle and cell structure (Toepfl et al., 2006). Most importantly, PEF is considered as a stand-alone technology that can be applied to different muscles either prerigor or postrigor (Suwandy et al., 2015a). Any adverse effects on meat quality from PEF treatment can be prevented by considering the parameters such as chilling and freezing as a pre- and posttreatment, storage conditions, and the PEF processing parameters. Several studies have stated that PEF may have the potential to increase the lipid oxidation of PEF-treated meat (Faridnia et al., 2015; Ma et al., 2016) and meat color can be dependent upon the magnitude of the temperature increase induced in the meat during PEF treatment. Khan et al. (2017) reported lower mineral concentration (P, K, and Fe) in high PEF (10 kV, 200 Hz, and 20 ms) treated beef samples compared to low PEF (2.5 kV, 200 Hz, and 20 ms) treated samples (Khan et al., 2017). These results suggest that high-intensity PEF treatment may negatively affect the quality of beef indicating that the PEF treatment of beef cuts should be optimized within a range of processing parameters to avoid any negative effects. Some studies have reported that PEF treatment can cause denaturation and aggregation of egg proteins (Liu et al., 2017) and both pulse intensity and energy input are the decisive factors in determining PEF-induced denaturation and aggregation and protein

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denaturation in soy protein isolates as well (Li et al., 2007). The intermolecular cross-linking and aggregation of proteins may reduce their degradation by digestive enzymes (Gatellier and Santé-Lhoutellier, 2009). However, the intermolecular cross-linking and aggregation in meat proteins or their effects on digestibility of PEF-treated meat by digestive tract enzymes has not been elucidated.

10.4.6 Industrial Feasibility and Energy Evaluation of the Pulsed Electric Field System Energy evaluation of any processing technology can be done by calculating the changes in internal energy, the applied energy intensity, and the total energy consumed at the power source (Heinz et al., 2003). Firstly, the internal energy is primarily dependent on the thermophysical properties of foods. These thermal properties such as specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity of foods have an influence on energy consumption of the processing operations. The electrical conductivity and dielectric constant of foods impact on the energy conversion during PEF processing. If the food is highly conductive, the resultant heating can facilitate cell disintegration which can be considered as a combined form of energy. The energy demand in PEF processing can also be lowered (Heinz et al., 2003). Therefore, the energy requirement for PEF processing is affected by food properties as well. The distribution of low conductive fat throughout the muscles and alteration in muscle fiber direction will play an important role in the electrical conductivity of the meat, and therefore it impacts the energy demand. In highly heterogeneous muscles such as briskets muscle fiber orientation is highly variable along the muscle, which impacts electrical conductivity. Therefore, the influence of electrical conductivity is the key factor to be considered when processing meat in the PEF system. Secondly, the applied energy intensity is a function of critical PEF processing factors. The input measurements such as applied voltage, frequency, treatment time in PEF treatment can determine the energy intensity. Electrical field strength (E) is calculated using Eq. (10.1); where V is the peak voltage and d is the electrode gap. E ¼ V=d

(10.1)

Specific energy (SE) can be calculated using Eqs. (10.2) and (10.3) Specific energy ðkJ=kgÞ ¼

pulse count  pulse energy sample mass

Specific energy input ðkJ=kgÞ ¼

V2  ðnGÞ RW

(10.2) (10.3)

V is the pulse peak voltage (in kV), n is the number of pulses applied (dimensionless), s is the pulse width of square pulses (in microseconds), R is the effective load resistance (in ohms), and W is the weight of meat sample (in kilograms) to be treated in the PEF treatment chamber (Zhang et al., 1995). Thirdly, the total energy consume at the power source calculations are determined by a capacitance of capacitor, the limiting charging current by a resistor, and the repetition rate by a discharge switch (Rodríguez-González et al., 2011). Electrode resistance can be examined by total electrode area and volume under the similar electrodes. Electrode resistance (RE) is generally calculated by Eq. (10.4), which is a relationship of electrode gap (d), cross-sectional area of electrodes (AE), and the electrical conductivity of the product (s); RE ¼ d=ðAE  sÞ

(10.4)

Peak power Ppeak can be calculated using Eq. (10.5). Ppeak ¼ s  E2  V

(10.5)

There are many factors which should be considered in designing the PEF system in commercials scale. To achieve a profitable PEF system, technical constraints at all levels of PEF equipment should be addressed. Operational requirements must be met, and financial criteria must be achieved. The three key parameters that should be considered in designing PEF system are (1) the required process protocol (e.g., field strength, treatment time), (2) product characteristics (electrical conductivity), and (3) the desired throughput (Heinz et al., 2003). Nowadays, laboratory or pilot scale PEF systems are being tested to obtain the optimal process conditions based on the effectiveness, product quality, and the power utilization. In terms of electric field strength, the system voltage and treatment chamber size should be selected. These two parameters result in desired field strength, and chamber size determines the current required in each chamber of each pulse. In addition, pulse width, the number of chambers, and pulse frequency can be adjusted to ensure the treatment time. Reduction of the gap distance decreases the peak power required, while it

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increases the need of higher frequency. To ensure correct estimation of cost and complexity of the PEF system these processing parameters should be carefully assessed. In terms of the financial criteria of the technology application to the industry, the following factors should be considered such as the product throughput and output, the number of PEF units needed, the installation cost, the fixed capital cost, running cost, labor cost, the power, etc. The capital cost is affected by the PEF system capacity and the power cost is basically determined by the protocol and the efficiency of the PEF system. It may be possible that PEF technology brings additional benefits to the meat product quality over other meat tenderization techniques. However, the benefits of the PEF technology that brings to the meat industry should be large enough to pay for the initial and the working capital, and to provide meaningful returns to rationalize the investment in the industrial application.

10.4.7 Contribution of Pulsed Electric Field Technology for the Sustainability of the Meat Industry Evaluation of new technologies is partially based on how consumers perceive environmental sustainability of the PEF process. Some consumers are open to innovation and believe that new technologies provide benefits and reduce risk (Bruhn, 2007). Apart from PEF, there are other food processing technologies used in the meat industry such as HPP, electron beam irradiation, UV, traditional thermal processing. The use of novel food processing technology like PEF provides social benefits, sustainability, and environmental protection as well. PEF as a nonthermal technology involves in less heat production, therefore, less significant effect on color, lipid stability, and sensory quality of meat has been reported which helps to retain their nutritional and functional value as well. It is also important to understand the principles of energy conversion of PEF processing technologies over traditional thermal processing. In terms of this energy conversion, the process inputs (e.g., applied power) and outputs (e.g., throughput and temperature) change should be measured and controlled as it was discussed in the previous sections. The energy conversion during PEF processing is dependent upon its conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy (Heinz et al., 2003). However, thermal energy produced during PEF treatment can be recovered to preheat the meat which can positively impact on improving the cell disintegration and thereby energy wastage can be minimized. PEF can be carried out without creating significant heating (lower temperatures) compared to traditional thermal processing of meat to make them tender. The lower temperature heating provides no need for a cooling system which can be supportive to reduce the total energy usage. In addition, this technology potentially contributes to the sustainability of the meat industry due to no water consumption. Unlike high hydrostatic pressure and thermal processing, the use of PEF for meat tenderization does not require water and therefore, there is no problem of releasing water effluents as well. Some heating and cooking processes release particulate matter and gases, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds and other chemicals’ emissions. However, there are no such environmental concerns reported for PEF technology. PEF technology can potentially be used to reduce the aging time and cost associated with aging without causing any detrimental effect on meat qualities. The changes in meat structure and texture caused by PEF treatment and its contribution to accelerate biochemical processes leading to meat tenderization during aging have already been reported for several muscle types and cuts. Several researches have shown that aging time of meat can be reduced with PEF treatment and further studies are needed to ensure whether meat dry/wet aging can be partially or completely replaced by PEF treatment.

10.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE TRENDS HPP is a technology emerging on the market of meat products. Application of HPP for fresh unpackaged meat is problematic and often unfeasible. Its application, on the other hand, is foreseen for the packaged high-value products to assure their safety and stability. HPP is one of the very few technologies, useful for the application of packaged product and able to assure microbial safety. Its performance in terms of sustainability is limited with batch-based processing system, but feasible for the extension of a shelf life. Furthermore, the design of HPP equipment should target the advances toward improved efficiency of energy consumption and pressure recovery. On the other hand, shockwave is being developed as an applicable continuous industrial technology specifically aimed at meat processing. Initially aimed for meat tenderization, there are some scare evidences of improvements in microbial inactivation. The analyses of costs and environmental impact of SW technology are also lacking, and only some evidence points to sustainable costs that are not significant if the improvement in meat quality leads to increased consumption and lower waste rates.

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Ohmic heating is a known technology, which is not widely applied for meat treatment mostly due to technical difficulties. Continuous experiments demonstrate its efficiency against microbiological contamination for numerous homogenous products. Previous analyses indicate its potential as cost-efficient technology for meat-product treatment. However, to achieve wide industrial application further development of the technology is required. Finally, PEF technology provides various applications for meat industries and further research is still required to obtain optimal PEF processing conditions for different animal species, meat muscles, and meat cuts. Other potential PEF applications such as PEF-assisted cooking should be explored since it could open new opportunities either in kitchen operation or in food industries for the improvement and the retention of sensorial quality of cooked meat, especially for tough meat cuts. Furthermore, the design of PEF equipment should be advanced to achieve more environmentally friendly and energy efficient options for meat processing and clear information should be provided to consumers to improve consumer acceptability and marketability of PEF-processed meat and meat products.

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FURTHER READING Barbosa-Canovas, G.V., Sepulveda, D.R., 2005. Novel Food Processing Technologies. Marcel Dekker, New York. Bolton, D.J., Catarame, T., Byrne, C., Sheridan, J.J., McDowell, D.A., Blair, I.S., 2002. The ineffectiveness of organic acids, freezing and pulsed electric fields to control Escherichia coli O157:H7 in beef burgers. Letters in Applied Microbiology 34, 139e143. Heinz, V., Toepfl, S., Knorr, D., 2002. Impact of temperature on lethality and energy efficiency of apple juice pasteurization by pulsed electric fields treatment. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 4, 167e175.