- Email: [email protected]
Emission characteristics of waste tallow and waste cooking oil based ternary biodiesel fuels
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 Available online www.sciencedirect.com Available online atatwww.sciencedirect.com Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy (2019) 000–000 842–847 EnergyProcedia Procedia160 00 (2017) www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018, 13–15 December 2018, 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018, 13–15 December 2018, Sydney, Australia Sydney, Australia
Emission characteristics of waste tallow and waste cooking oil 15th International Symposium Districtand Heating and Cooling EmissionThe characteristics of waste on tallow waste cooking oil based ternary biodiesel fuels based ternary biodiesel fuels Assessing of using the heat demand-outdoor a the feasibility M. A. Hazrat , M. G. Rasula,*, M. M. K. Khana, N. Ashwathb, T.E. Ruffordc a a, a b c M. A. Hazrat , M. G. Rasul *, long-term M. M. K. Khan , N. Ashwath , T.E. Rufford temperature function for a district heat demand forecast School of Engineering & Technology, CQUniversity, QLD 4701, Australia a
b a Agriculture,
Science & the Environment,CQUniversity, CQUniversity,QLD QLD4701, 4701,Australia Australia School of Engineering & Technology,
a Engineering, The a University of Queensland, b c Australia & the Environment, CQUniversity, QLDQLD 4701,4072, Australia I. Andrića,b,cSchool *,Agriculture, A.of Chemical PinaScience , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Correc c
b
c School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal b Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France c Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France a
Abstract In this study, biodiesels derived from tallow and waste cooking oil were blended to form a waste tallow-cooking oil (WTC) biodiesel, which was further blended with petroleum derived extra low diesel (XLSD). of 5, 10, and 15% In this study, biodiesels derived from tallow and waste cooking oil sulphur were blended to form Mixtures a waste tallow-cooking oilbiodiesel (WTC) Abstract WTC in XLSD tested blended in an engine to comparederived the emissions combustion of the WTC biodiesel-containing to biodiesel, which were was further with petroleum extra lowfrom sulphur diesel (XLSD). Mixtures of 5, 10, and 15% blends biodiesel that XLSD.were Combustion WTCtoincompare XLSD blends produced higher CO2 and of NOx than combustion of XLSD. WTCfrom in XLSD tested in of anthe engine the emissions from combustion theemissions WTC biodiesel-containing blends to District networks addressed inthe theWTC literature as one of2 and the effective solutions forconcentrations. decreasing the The particulate matter (PM) are emissions werein lowest from biodiesel blends withmost the highest WTC biodiesel NOx emissions than combustion of XLSD. that from heating XLSD. Combustion ofcommonly the WTC XLSD blends produced higher CO greenhouse emissions from the sector. These systems requireblends high investments are fuel returned through heat Based on thisgas study, we conclude thatbuilding ternary biodiesel blends with WTC-biodiesel could be awhich suitable alternative to the reduce The particulate matter (PM) emissions were lowest from the WTC biodiesel with the highest WTC biodiesel concentrations. sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease, the need fuel from production locations, and to reducecould particulate matter fuel emissions from toexisting, Based on to thisimport study,diesel we conclude thatdistant ternaryoilbiodiesel blends with WTC-biodiesel be a suitable alternative reduce prolonging the investment return period. unmodified engines. However, further and optimisation thetofuels is required to reduce theemissions CO2 and NOx the need to diesel import diesel fuel from distant research oil production locations, of and reduce particulate matter fromemissions existing, The these main biodiesels. scope this paper is to assess theresearch feasibility using the heat demand outdoor to temperature heat demand from NOx emissions unmodified dieselof engines. However, further andof optimisation of the fuels is–required reduce the function CO2 and for forecast. district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665 from these The biodiesels. buildings vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district © 2018 that The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. ©renovation 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) compared with results from aunder dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and International validated by Conference the authors. on Energy and Power, Selection and peer-review responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection andshowed peer-review underonly responsibility of theis scientific committee of the 2nd could International Conference on Energy and The results that when weather change considered, the margin of 2nd error be acceptable foron some applications ICEP2018. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference Energy and Power, Power, ICEP2018. (the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation ICEP2018. scenarios,Tallow the error valueWaste increased up Oil to 59.5% (depending on the weather renovation scenarios combination considered). Keywords: Biodiesel, Cooking Biodiesel, Emission Characteristics, PMand Emission, Ternary Fuel Blend, Waste Management. The valueTallow of slope coefficient increased average withinCharacteristics, the range of PM 3.8% up to 8% per Fuel decade, corresponds to the Keywords: Biodiesel, Waste Cooking Oil on Biodiesel, Emission Emission, Ternary Blend,that Waste Management. decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations. © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61410580310; Cooling. E-mail address: [email protected] * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61410580310;
E-mail address: [email protected] Keywords:©Heat Forecast; Climatebychange 1876-6102 2018demand; The Authors. Published Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 1876-6102 © 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection under responsibility of the scientific of the 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018. This is an and openpeer-review access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018. 1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. 1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018. 10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.149
2
M.A. Hazrat et al. / Energy Procedia 160 (2019) 842–847 Hazrat et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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1. Introduction Biodiesel has been proposed as a renewable fuel with potential to help reduce tailpipe pollution and overall CO2 emissions from transport, and to provide fuel security for nations that rely on diesel imports. Importantly, use of waste vegetables oils and animal fats is one biodiesel production strategy that doesn’t require a choice between food production and fuel production, or require additional land clearing for agriculture, like the case for biodiesel direct from feedstocks like palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed and canola oil. Biodiesel fuels are mainly mixtures of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) [1] and can be easily blended with conventional, petroleum derived diesel fuels for use in unmodified diesel engines [2]. However, being renewable and biodegradable, biodiesel can potentially contribute to the reduction of exhaust emissions compared to petroleum derived diesel fuels [2]. Some other potential advantages of biodiesels compared to conventional diesel include better fuel lubricity, higher flash point temperature, lower concentrations of toxic compounds and trace metals, and potentially net zero greenhouse gas emissions [3]. The chemical and physical properties of biodiesel fuels can vary with the feedstocks, and thus care must be taken to ensure biodiesels do not have issues that negatively impact the fuel performance – such as having too high a molecular weight that results in high fuel viscosity and density and can lead to cold flow plugging and poor fuel stability [4]. Various development studies have been performed in recent decades to improve the effect of diesel-biodiesel blends on emission characteristics of the diesel engines [4-9]. Waste animal tallow, poultry fats, and the cooking oils from meat and food processing industries contain high concentrations of free fatty acids and could be potential feedstocks for biodiesel production. Only a small amount of these animal and food wastes are used in industrial production because of the high cost of refining the waste. However, active plans and industrial incentives have been designed to encourage collection of these waste products to allow production of biodiesel. For example, the USA, Canada, China, Thailand, Singapore, and Australia have established plants to produce biodiesel [10]. Fig.1 shows that most biodiesel is produced from palm oil, soybean oil, and rapeseed oil, with waste (used) cooking oil (10%) and animal fats (7%) like tallow contributing 17% to the production of biodiesel. We report here the performance and emissions from engine tests using a blend of biodiesels from waste tallow and waste cooking oil with conventional extra low sulphur diesel (XLSD). The aim of this study is to encourage production of biodiesel fuel for cleaner environment, reduce waste products in a more realistic approach and achieve better energy economy.
Fig. 1. Feedstock share in global biodiesel production in 2016. Redrawn from [11].
M.A. Hazrat et al. / Energy Procedia 160 (2019) 842–847 Hazrat et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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3
2. Experimental Study 2.1. Materials and Ternary Blend Preparation Biodiesels from tallow (TB) and waste cooking oil (WCB) were obtained from ARfuels Barnawatha, Victoria, Australia, and mixed according to ARfuels’ commercial product ratio [7]. ARfuels Barnawatha has ceased their operation recently. The cold filter plugging points (CFPP) of the TB and WCB were 9.50C and -3.150C, respectively. An Australian standard mixing ratio was adopted to blend TB and WCB to produce the binary waste tallow cooking oil biodiesel blend which we label WTC. The properties of the WTC are summarized in Table 1 and compared to relevant fuel standards. The WTC was then blended at concentrations of 5% (WTC5), 10% (WTC10), and 15% (WTC15) in XLSD purchased from Caltex Australia Petroleum Pty Ltd. The XLSD meets the specification of less than 10 ppm Sulphur. Table 1 Properties of WTC100 and comparison to relevant fuel standards. Physical Properties
WTC
EN14214
ASTM D6751
Australian Standard
Relative Uncertainty (%)
Kinematic Viscosity (mm2/s, 40OC)
4.318
3.5~5
1.9~6.0
3.5~5
± 0.11
Heating Value (MJ/kg)
41.1
-
-
-
± 0.13
Oxidation Stability (h)
0.45
6h (min)
3h (min)
6h (min)
± 3.57
Acid Number (mg KOH/g)
0.49
0.5 (max)
0.5 (max)
0.8
± 0.15
Flash Point (OC)
160
120 (min)
130 (min)
120 (min)
± 2.42
Pour Point ( C)
6.1
report
report
report
± 2.23
Cloud Point (OC)
9.8
report
report
report
± 2.24
CFPP ( C)
7.2
report
report
report
± 2.33
Cetane Number (CN)
57.95
51 (min)
47 (min)
51 (min)
± 0.13
O
O
2.2. Engine test conditions and emission characterisation The WTC blended fuels were tested in a Kubota V330 (3.32L, 4 cylinder, naturally aspirated) test engine at the Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia. The engine was directly coupled to an eddy current dynamometer with a built in auto controller system to determine the engine performances and speed. The diesel fuel used was number 2 diesel fuel as specified by the ASTM D975. The tests were performed at a full load condition. The engine speed ranged from 800-2400 rpm with an interval of 200 rpm (i.e. 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2400). All the equipment used were calibrated accordingly before test runs. The emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), unburnt hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O2) from the engine tests were measured with a CODA emission analyser, and particulate matters (PM) measured with a MAHA MPM-4M analyser. Both instruments were connected directly to the engine test exhaust. The tests were performed at a dry condition; therefore, no vapour content was calculated. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Generally, the concentration of CO2 in exhausts from a diesel engine operating at stoichiometric conditions range from 1.0% to 10.0% (v/v) [12, 13]. But in the practical case, excessive air and sudden increase of injected fuel occur due to variation of speed at loads and the combustion occurs at a very high temperature. The CO2 emissions measured in our experiments are shown in Fig. 2, and we see that CO2 emissions from the biodiesel blends were higher than the benchmark diesel. One reason for the higher CO2 emissions could be that the ternary WTC blends are more dense than the diesel, and the engine’s fuel injection system was not adjusted for this change in density. Yıldızhan et al. [14] also observed higher CO2 emission with the WCB than diesel fuels, and those authors described the presence of extra oxygen along
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with high temperature combustion system. Fig. 5. shows the excessive oxygen emission after combustion takes place, hence the presence of extra air is a plausible cause. 3.2. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Emission In the diesel engine combustion system, excess oxygen, higher temperatures, residence time length and the higher temperature (>1300 OC) can power the formation of nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) as well as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which are frequently identified as NOx in the combustion chemistry [15]. Fig. 3 shows the emission quantification characteristics of the fuels. The diesel emitted the least amount of NOx, while the oxygenated ternary blends emit higher (WTC5WTC5>WTC10>WTC15. The higher the biodiesel content the lesser is the PM emission.
846
M.A. Hazrat et al. / Energy Procedia 160 (2019) 842–847 Hazrat et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
Fig. 2.CO2 Emission
Fig. 4. HC Emission
Fig. 6. CO Emission
5
Fig. 3. NOx Emission
Fig. 5 O2 Emission
Fig. 7. PM Emission
4. Conclusions In this experimental investigation, the prospect of converting the waste tallow and waste cooking oil into fuel and their significant effect on fuel performance has been brought into attention. Besides, the mixing of two types of biodiesel fuel and their emission characterisations are performed. Even though the CO 2 and NOx were in higher rate from the emission of the ternary blends, further investigations may show success in reducing the emission of those gases. The reasons behind this statement is the influence of the operating conditions in producing emissions of the diesel engines, i.e. air/fuel mixture, combustion duration and peak temperature residence time, fuel injection, etc. along with the blending ratio between TB and WCB. The effective contribution observed from this study was the reduction of PM with the higher blend ratio (WTC15) of the ternary blends. Hence, a better way of waste management as well as the support of diesel fuel alternative along with less pollution contents can be achieved with effective use of the WTC fuels. The more the use of biodiesel-diesel fuel blends in the diesel engines, the more is the scope of achieving energy independence for a nation’s
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847
energy economy in the future. Besides, the increased fuel demand will encourage into building up a well-equipped supply chain management to collect the waste tallow and waste cooking oils from their respective sources. Acknowledgements The Authors would like to acknowledge the contribution towards research and innovation study facilities provided by the CQUniversity Australia. References [1] Bhuiya, M.M.K., et al., Prospects of 2nd generation biodiesel as a sustainable fuel—Part: 1 selection of feedstocks, oil extraction techniques and conversion technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016. 55: p. 1109-1128. [2] Bhuiya, M.M.K., et al., Prospects of 2nd generation biodiesel as a sustainable fuel – Part 2: Properties, performance and emission characteristics. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016. 55: p. 1129-1146. [3] Wyatt, V.T., et al., Fuel properties and nitrogen oxide emission levels of biodiesel produced from animal fats. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 2005. 82(8): p. 585-591. [4] Giakoumis, E.G. and C.K. Sarakatsanis, Estimation of biodiesel cetane number, density, kinematic viscosity and heating values from its fatty acid weight composition. Fuel, 2018. 222: p. 574-585. [5] Abdalla, I.E., Experimental studies for the thermo-physiochemical properties of Biodiesel and its blends and the performance of such fuels in a Compression Ignition Engine. Fuel, 2018. 212: p. 638-655. [6] Islam, M.M., et al., Improvement of cold flow properties of Cocos nucifera and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel blends using polymethyl acrylate additive. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016. 137: p. 322-329. [7] Private Communication, ARfuels Barnawatha, Victoria, Australia [8] Xue, J., Combustion characteristics, engine performances and emissions of waste edible oil biodiesel in diesel engine. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013. 23(0): p. 350-365. [9] Atabani, A.E., et al., Non-edible vegetable oils: A critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty acid compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance and emissions production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013. 18(0): p. 211-245. [10] Hajjari, M., et al., A review on the prospects of sustainable biodiesel production: A global scenario with an emphasis on waste-oil biodiesel utilization. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2017. 72: p. 445-464. [11] UFOP, Report on Global Market Supply 2017/2018 – European and world demand for biomass for the purpose of biofuel production in relation to supply in the food and feedstuff markets. 2018, Union zur Förderung von Oel- und Proteinpflanzen (UFOP): Germany. [12] Coronado, C.R., J.A. de Carvalho, and J.L. Silveira, Biodiesel CO2 emissions: A comparison with the main fuels in the Brazilian market. Fuel Processing Technology, 2009. 90(2): p. 204-211. [13] N. Patrakhaltsev, V. Gorbunov, and O. Kamychnikov, Toxicity in internal combustion engines (in Spanish). 1994, Russian University of People's Friendship: Moscow, Russia. [14] Yıldızhan, Ş., et al., Fuel properties, performance and emission characterization of waste cooking oil (WCO) in a variable compression ratio (VCR) diesel engine. Vol. 1. 2017. 56-62. [15] İlkılıç, C., Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fueled by 25% Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester and 75% Diesel Fuel Blend. Vol. 31. 2009. 480-491.
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 Available online www.sciencedirect.com Available online atatwww.sciencedirect.com Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
ScienceDirect ScienceDirect
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Energy (2019) 000–000 842–847 EnergyProcedia Procedia160 00 (2017) www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018, 13–15 December 2018, 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018, 13–15 December 2018, Sydney, Australia Sydney, Australia
Emission characteristics of waste tallow and waste cooking oil 15th International Symposium Districtand Heating and Cooling EmissionThe characteristics of waste on tallow waste cooking oil based ternary biodiesel fuels based ternary biodiesel fuels Assessing of using the heat demand-outdoor a the feasibility M. A. Hazrat , M. G. Rasula,*, M. M. K. Khana, N. Ashwathb, T.E. Ruffordc a a, a b c M. A. Hazrat , M. G. Rasul *, long-term M. M. K. Khan , N. Ashwath , T.E. Rufford temperature function for a district heat demand forecast School of Engineering & Technology, CQUniversity, QLD 4701, Australia a
b a Agriculture,
Science & the Environment,CQUniversity, CQUniversity,QLD QLD4701, 4701,Australia Australia School of Engineering & Technology,
a Engineering, The a University of Queensland, b c Australia & the Environment, CQUniversity, QLDQLD 4701,4072, Australia I. Andrića,b,cSchool *,Agriculture, A.of Chemical PinaScience , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Correc c
b
c School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal b Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France c Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France a
Abstract In this study, biodiesels derived from tallow and waste cooking oil were blended to form a waste tallow-cooking oil (WTC) biodiesel, which was further blended with petroleum derived extra low diesel (XLSD). of 5, 10, and 15% In this study, biodiesels derived from tallow and waste cooking oil sulphur were blended to form Mixtures a waste tallow-cooking oilbiodiesel (WTC) Abstract WTC in XLSD tested blended in an engine to comparederived the emissions combustion of the WTC biodiesel-containing to biodiesel, which were was further with petroleum extra lowfrom sulphur diesel (XLSD). Mixtures of 5, 10, and 15% blends biodiesel that XLSD.were Combustion WTCtoincompare XLSD blends produced higher CO2 and of NOx than combustion of XLSD. WTCfrom in XLSD tested in of anthe engine the emissions from combustion theemissions WTC biodiesel-containing blends to District networks addressed inthe theWTC literature as one of2 and the effective solutions forconcentrations. decreasing the The particulate matter (PM) are emissions werein lowest from biodiesel blends withmost the highest WTC biodiesel NOx emissions than combustion of XLSD. that from heating XLSD. Combustion ofcommonly the WTC XLSD blends produced higher CO greenhouse emissions from the sector. These systems requireblends high investments are fuel returned through heat Based on thisgas study, we conclude thatbuilding ternary biodiesel blends with WTC-biodiesel could be awhich suitable alternative to the reduce The particulate matter (PM) emissions were lowest from the WTC biodiesel with the highest WTC biodiesel concentrations. sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease, the need fuel from production locations, and to reducecould particulate matter fuel emissions from toexisting, Based on to thisimport study,diesel we conclude thatdistant ternaryoilbiodiesel blends with WTC-biodiesel be a suitable alternative reduce prolonging the investment return period. unmodified engines. However, further and optimisation thetofuels is required to reduce theemissions CO2 and NOx the need to diesel import diesel fuel from distant research oil production locations, of and reduce particulate matter fromemissions existing, The these main biodiesels. scope this paper is to assess theresearch feasibility using the heat demand outdoor to temperature heat demand from NOx emissions unmodified dieselof engines. However, further andof optimisation of the fuels is–required reduce the function CO2 and for forecast. district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665 from these The biodiesels. buildings vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district © 2018 that The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. ©renovation 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) compared with results from aunder dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and International validated by Conference the authors. on Energy and Power, Selection and peer-review responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection andshowed peer-review underonly responsibility of theis scientific committee of the 2nd could International Conference on Energy and The results that when weather change considered, the margin of 2nd error be acceptable foron some applications ICEP2018. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference Energy and Power, Power, ICEP2018. (the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation ICEP2018. scenarios,Tallow the error valueWaste increased up Oil to 59.5% (depending on the weather renovation scenarios combination considered). Keywords: Biodiesel, Cooking Biodiesel, Emission Characteristics, PMand Emission, Ternary Fuel Blend, Waste Management. The valueTallow of slope coefficient increased average withinCharacteristics, the range of PM 3.8% up to 8% per Fuel decade, corresponds to the Keywords: Biodiesel, Waste Cooking Oil on Biodiesel, Emission Emission, Ternary Blend,that Waste Management. decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations. © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61410580310; Cooling. E-mail address: [email protected] * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61410580310;
E-mail address: [email protected] Keywords:©Heat Forecast; Climatebychange 1876-6102 2018demand; The Authors. Published Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) 1876-6102 © 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection under responsibility of the scientific of the 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018. This is an and openpeer-review access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018. 1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. 1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 2nd International Conference on Energy and Power, ICEP2018. 10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.149
2
M.A. Hazrat et al. / Energy Procedia 160 (2019) 842–847 Hazrat et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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1. Introduction Biodiesel has been proposed as a renewable fuel with potential to help reduce tailpipe pollution and overall CO2 emissions from transport, and to provide fuel security for nations that rely on diesel imports. Importantly, use of waste vegetables oils and animal fats is one biodiesel production strategy that doesn’t require a choice between food production and fuel production, or require additional land clearing for agriculture, like the case for biodiesel direct from feedstocks like palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed and canola oil. Biodiesel fuels are mainly mixtures of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) [1] and can be easily blended with conventional, petroleum derived diesel fuels for use in unmodified diesel engines [2]. However, being renewable and biodegradable, biodiesel can potentially contribute to the reduction of exhaust emissions compared to petroleum derived diesel fuels [2]. Some other potential advantages of biodiesels compared to conventional diesel include better fuel lubricity, higher flash point temperature, lower concentrations of toxic compounds and trace metals, and potentially net zero greenhouse gas emissions [3]. The chemical and physical properties of biodiesel fuels can vary with the feedstocks, and thus care must be taken to ensure biodiesels do not have issues that negatively impact the fuel performance – such as having too high a molecular weight that results in high fuel viscosity and density and can lead to cold flow plugging and poor fuel stability [4]. Various development studies have been performed in recent decades to improve the effect of diesel-biodiesel blends on emission characteristics of the diesel engines [4-9]. Waste animal tallow, poultry fats, and the cooking oils from meat and food processing industries contain high concentrations of free fatty acids and could be potential feedstocks for biodiesel production. Only a small amount of these animal and food wastes are used in industrial production because of the high cost of refining the waste. However, active plans and industrial incentives have been designed to encourage collection of these waste products to allow production of biodiesel. For example, the USA, Canada, China, Thailand, Singapore, and Australia have established plants to produce biodiesel [10]. Fig.1 shows that most biodiesel is produced from palm oil, soybean oil, and rapeseed oil, with waste (used) cooking oil (10%) and animal fats (7%) like tallow contributing 17% to the production of biodiesel. We report here the performance and emissions from engine tests using a blend of biodiesels from waste tallow and waste cooking oil with conventional extra low sulphur diesel (XLSD). The aim of this study is to encourage production of biodiesel fuel for cleaner environment, reduce waste products in a more realistic approach and achieve better energy economy.
Fig. 1. Feedstock share in global biodiesel production in 2016. Redrawn from [11].
M.A. Hazrat et al. / Energy Procedia 160 (2019) 842–847 Hazrat et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
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3
2. Experimental Study 2.1. Materials and Ternary Blend Preparation Biodiesels from tallow (TB) and waste cooking oil (WCB) were obtained from ARfuels Barnawatha, Victoria, Australia, and mixed according to ARfuels’ commercial product ratio [7]. ARfuels Barnawatha has ceased their operation recently. The cold filter plugging points (CFPP) of the TB and WCB were 9.50C and -3.150C, respectively. An Australian standard mixing ratio was adopted to blend TB and WCB to produce the binary waste tallow cooking oil biodiesel blend which we label WTC. The properties of the WTC are summarized in Table 1 and compared to relevant fuel standards. The WTC was then blended at concentrations of 5% (WTC5), 10% (WTC10), and 15% (WTC15) in XLSD purchased from Caltex Australia Petroleum Pty Ltd. The XLSD meets the specification of less than 10 ppm Sulphur. Table 1 Properties of WTC100 and comparison to relevant fuel standards. Physical Properties
WTC
EN14214
ASTM D6751
Australian Standard
Relative Uncertainty (%)
Kinematic Viscosity (mm2/s, 40OC)
4.318
3.5~5
1.9~6.0
3.5~5
± 0.11
Heating Value (MJ/kg)
41.1
-
-
-
± 0.13
Oxidation Stability (h)
0.45
6h (min)
3h (min)
6h (min)
± 3.57
Acid Number (mg KOH/g)
0.49
0.5 (max)
0.5 (max)
0.8
± 0.15
Flash Point (OC)
160
120 (min)
130 (min)
120 (min)
± 2.42
Pour Point ( C)
6.1
report
report
report
± 2.23
Cloud Point (OC)
9.8
report
report
report
± 2.24
CFPP ( C)
7.2
report
report
report
± 2.33
Cetane Number (CN)
57.95
51 (min)
47 (min)
51 (min)
± 0.13
O
O
2.2. Engine test conditions and emission characterisation The WTC blended fuels were tested in a Kubota V330 (3.32L, 4 cylinder, naturally aspirated) test engine at the Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia. The engine was directly coupled to an eddy current dynamometer with a built in auto controller system to determine the engine performances and speed. The diesel fuel used was number 2 diesel fuel as specified by the ASTM D975. The tests were performed at a full load condition. The engine speed ranged from 800-2400 rpm with an interval of 200 rpm (i.e. 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2400). All the equipment used were calibrated accordingly before test runs. The emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), unburnt hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O2) from the engine tests were measured with a CODA emission analyser, and particulate matters (PM) measured with a MAHA MPM-4M analyser. Both instruments were connected directly to the engine test exhaust. The tests were performed at a dry condition; therefore, no vapour content was calculated. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Generally, the concentration of CO2 in exhausts from a diesel engine operating at stoichiometric conditions range from 1.0% to 10.0% (v/v) [12, 13]. But in the practical case, excessive air and sudden increase of injected fuel occur due to variation of speed at loads and the combustion occurs at a very high temperature. The CO2 emissions measured in our experiments are shown in Fig. 2, and we see that CO2 emissions from the biodiesel blends were higher than the benchmark diesel. One reason for the higher CO2 emissions could be that the ternary WTC blends are more dense than the diesel, and the engine’s fuel injection system was not adjusted for this change in density. Yıldızhan et al. [14] also observed higher CO2 emission with the WCB than diesel fuels, and those authors described the presence of extra oxygen along
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with high temperature combustion system. Fig. 5. shows the excessive oxygen emission after combustion takes place, hence the presence of extra air is a plausible cause. 3.2. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Emission In the diesel engine combustion system, excess oxygen, higher temperatures, residence time length and the higher temperature (>1300 OC) can power the formation of nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) as well as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which are frequently identified as NOx in the combustion chemistry [15]. Fig. 3 shows the emission quantification characteristics of the fuels. The diesel emitted the least amount of NOx, while the oxygenated ternary blends emit higher (WTC5
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Fig. 2.CO2 Emission
Fig. 4. HC Emission
Fig. 6. CO Emission
5
Fig. 3. NOx Emission
Fig. 5 O2 Emission
Fig. 7. PM Emission
4. Conclusions In this experimental investigation, the prospect of converting the waste tallow and waste cooking oil into fuel and their significant effect on fuel performance has been brought into attention. Besides, the mixing of two types of biodiesel fuel and their emission characterisations are performed. Even though the CO 2 and NOx were in higher rate from the emission of the ternary blends, further investigations may show success in reducing the emission of those gases. The reasons behind this statement is the influence of the operating conditions in producing emissions of the diesel engines, i.e. air/fuel mixture, combustion duration and peak temperature residence time, fuel injection, etc. along with the blending ratio between TB and WCB. The effective contribution observed from this study was the reduction of PM with the higher blend ratio (WTC15) of the ternary blends. Hence, a better way of waste management as well as the support of diesel fuel alternative along with less pollution contents can be achieved with effective use of the WTC fuels. The more the use of biodiesel-diesel fuel blends in the diesel engines, the more is the scope of achieving energy independence for a nation’s
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energy economy in the future. Besides, the increased fuel demand will encourage into building up a well-equipped supply chain management to collect the waste tallow and waste cooking oils from their respective sources. Acknowledgements The Authors would like to acknowledge the contribution towards research and innovation study facilities provided by the CQUniversity Australia. References [1] Bhuiya, M.M.K., et al., Prospects of 2nd generation biodiesel as a sustainable fuel—Part: 1 selection of feedstocks, oil extraction techniques and conversion technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016. 55: p. 1109-1128. [2] Bhuiya, M.M.K., et al., Prospects of 2nd generation biodiesel as a sustainable fuel – Part 2: Properties, performance and emission characteristics. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016. 55: p. 1129-1146. [3] Wyatt, V.T., et al., Fuel properties and nitrogen oxide emission levels of biodiesel produced from animal fats. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 2005. 82(8): p. 585-591. [4] Giakoumis, E.G. and C.K. Sarakatsanis, Estimation of biodiesel cetane number, density, kinematic viscosity and heating values from its fatty acid weight composition. Fuel, 2018. 222: p. 574-585. [5] Abdalla, I.E., Experimental studies for the thermo-physiochemical properties of Biodiesel and its blends and the performance of such fuels in a Compression Ignition Engine. Fuel, 2018. 212: p. 638-655. [6] Islam, M.M., et al., Improvement of cold flow properties of Cocos nucifera and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel blends using polymethyl acrylate additive. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016. 137: p. 322-329. [7] Private Communication, ARfuels Barnawatha, Victoria, Australia [8] Xue, J., Combustion characteristics, engine performances and emissions of waste edible oil biodiesel in diesel engine. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013. 23(0): p. 350-365. [9] Atabani, A.E., et al., Non-edible vegetable oils: A critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty acid compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance and emissions production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013. 18(0): p. 211-245. [10] Hajjari, M., et al., A review on the prospects of sustainable biodiesel production: A global scenario with an emphasis on waste-oil biodiesel utilization. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2017. 72: p. 445-464. [11] UFOP, Report on Global Market Supply 2017/2018 – European and world demand for biomass for the purpose of biofuel production in relation to supply in the food and feedstuff markets. 2018, Union zur Förderung von Oel- und Proteinpflanzen (UFOP): Germany. [12] Coronado, C.R., J.A. de Carvalho, and J.L. Silveira, Biodiesel CO2 emissions: A comparison with the main fuels in the Brazilian market. Fuel Processing Technology, 2009. 90(2): p. 204-211. [13] N. Patrakhaltsev, V. Gorbunov, and O. Kamychnikov, Toxicity in internal combustion engines (in Spanish). 1994, Russian University of People's Friendship: Moscow, Russia. [14] Yıldızhan, Ş., et al., Fuel properties, performance and emission characterization of waste cooking oil (WCO) in a variable compression ratio (VCR) diesel engine. Vol. 1. 2017. 56-62. [15] İlkılıç, C., Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Fueled by 25% Sunflower Oil Methyl Ester and 75% Diesel Fuel Blend. Vol. 31. 2009. 480-491.