Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology: Current development, and potential biotechnology applications

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology: Current development, and potential biotechnology applications

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Kusam Lata Ranaa, Divjot Koura, Neelam Yadavb, Ajar Nath Yadava a Department of Biotechnology, Eternal University, Sirmour, India, bGopi Nath P.G. College, Veer Bahadur Singh Purvanchal University, Ghazipur, India

10.1

Introduction

Nanoparticles (NPs) also referred to as nanopowder or nanocluster or nanocrystal are aggregates of atoms or molecules with dimensions in between 1 and 100 nm (Ball, 2002). Today, nanotechnology is of great interest and promising area of research as NPs are effectively a bridge among bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures. The word nanotechnology was introduced by Prof. Norio Taniguchi of the Tokyo Science University and the concept of nanotechnology was given by Richard Feyman. One of the unique fusion between biotechnology and nanotechnology lead to nanobiotechnology (Ahmad et al., 2005). In the recent time, novel method for the production of NPs is the use of biological systems has emerged as a new tool. Various organisms, both unicellular and multicellular, are known to produce NPs either intra or extracellularly (Simkiss and Wilbur, 2012). In the 1960s, Richard Feynman awarded with Nobel Prize for putting forwarding the early visions of nanotechnology (Grumezescu, 2017). Nanotechnology find favorable application in diagnostics, biomarkers, contrast agents for cell labeling, biological imaging, antimicrobial agents, anticancer nano-drugs, drug delivery systems, and nano-drugs for cure of various disease (Singh and Nalwa, 2011). In agriculture and food sector, the utilization of nanotechnology is moderately latest, compared to its use in pharma sector. Nanotechnology has find its application in protection of plant, monitoring growth and development of plant, enhancement in the quality, and production of food worldwide (Locke et al., 2000). To expand the application of NPs, one of the most important method for their synthesis is to produce reliable, nontoxic, and eco-friendly one. The production of NPs by “biogenic” approach is much far better to chemical method as in green nanotechnology the microbes are involved in the synthesis of NPs (Bhattacharya and Mukherjee, 2008). The green chemistry approach connects the nanotechnology and microbial biotechnology for synthesis of NPs by microorganisms and will be a positive step toward the reduction of global warming leading to sustainable development (Alghuthaymi et al., 2015). Microbes are regarded as potent Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818734-0.00010-3 © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture

green nanofactories for the synthesis of NPs. Recognizing the eco-friendly nature of microbes various researches for synthesis of NPs from these microbes is ongoing and is one of the boon for advance research in nanotechnology. From the ecosystem, microorganisms grasp target ions and by generation of various enzymes convert the metal ions into the element metal. On the basis of location of NPs synthesized by microbes, they are classified into intracellular and extracellular (Mann, 2001). The “biogenic” approach or biological method make use of bacteria, fungus, actinomycetes, yeasts, and viruses for biosynthesis of gold, silver, gold-silver alloy, selenium, tellurium, platinum, palladium, silica, titania, zirconia, quantum dots (QDs), magnetite, and uraninite NPs (Narayanan and Sakthivel, 2010). Microorganism are abundant in the nature which makes them to be preserved and reused again and again as compared to plant (Azmath et al., 2016). Microorganism can synthesize nanomaterials (NM) in aqueous solutions, which can be easily filtered, separated, and is one of the cost-effective method (Hulkoti and Taranath, 2014). As compared to other microbial community, “endophytes” have made a considerable impact by secretion of diverse secondary metabolites with plentiful biological activities and is relatively one of the new areas giving rise toward synthesis of NPs by endophytic microbes (Baker and Satish, 2015). Endophytic microbes are referred to as those microorganism which inhabit inside the plant tissue without causing any apparent harm to their host includes bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and viruses (Rana et al., 2016). A large number of endophytic microbes including Bacillus cereus (Sunkar and Nachiyar, 2012b), Pseudomonas veronii (Baker and Satish, 2015), Colletotricum sp. (Shankar et al., 2003), Pencillium citrinum (Alappat et al., 2012), Aspergillus fumigatus (Bala and Arya, 2013), Rhodococcus sp. (Ahmad et al., 2003), and Saccharomonospora sp. (Verma et al., 2013) have been isolated from different sources and known for the ability to synthesize NPs. This chapter provides a brief overview of microorganisms synthesizing different types of NPs followed by current applications of biosynthesized NPs in the medical and biological fields and their future applications.

10.2

Endophytic microbes as bio-factories of NPs

In the past few years, importance is given to research in the area of nanotechnology. The nanotechnology has a broad area of application including medicine, industry, environments, and agriculture (Fig. 10.1). The inorganic NPs mainly silver and gold are gaining significant importance due to potential application in various fields. NPs synthesized by physical and chemical method pose certain problems to ecosystem as well as human beings. Synthesis of NPs by biogenic route provides an alternative way for the exploration of new biosources proficient to reduce metals to their nanosizes. Some of the microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and plants have been proved successful for synthesis of NPs (Table 10.1). A very few reports are available on the synthesis of NPs from endophytic microbes and the biosynthesis of NPs by endophytic microbes is considered to be clean, nonhazardous, and environ suitable “green chemistry” procedures.

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology 233

Fig. 10.1 A schematic representation of applications endophytic microbiomes in nanotechnology and different aspects of nanotechnology in agriculture.

Table 10.1 Endophytic microbes producing nano-particles and their biotechnological applications Sources

Applications

Chiliadenus montanus

Cellulose into sugars

Nanoparticle size

234

Nanoparticles/ endophytes

Reference

CaCl2 nanoparticles Lysinibacillus xylanilyticus

Yousef et al. (2019)

Cobalt oxide nanoparticles Aspergillus nidulans

Nothapodytes foetida

20.29 nm

Vijayanandan and Balakrishnan (2018)

3.6–59 nm

Saad et al. (2018)

Copper nanoparticles Convolvulus arvensis

Antimicrobial

Gold nanoparticles Colletotrichum sp. Aspergillus clavatus Penicillium citrinum Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Colletotrichum lindemuthianum Phyllosticta sp. Saccharomonospora sp. Pseudomonas veronii

Pelargonium graveolens Azadirachta indica Bauhinia variegata Bauhinia variegata

Shankar et al. (2003) 20–35 nm

Verma et al. (2011) Alappat et al. (2012) Alappat et al. (2012)

Bauhinia variegata

Alappat et al. (2012)

Bauhinia variegata Azadirachta indica A. Annona squamosa

Alappat et al. (2012) Verma et al. (2013) Baker and Satish (2015)

Antibacterial

5–25 nm

MgO nanoparticle Streptomyces coelicolor

Ocimum sanctum

Anti-multidrug-resistant pathogens agent

EL-Moslamy (2018)

Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture

Streptomyces capillispiralis

Amylomyces rouxii Aspergillus clavatus Pestalotia sp. Penicillium sp. Aspergillus conicus

Phoenix dactylifera Azadirachta indica Syzygium cumini Centellaasiatica Avicennia marina

Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Antibacterial Antimicrobial Antibacterial activity

5–27 nm 10–25 nm 10–40 nm 100 nm 6–12 mm

Penicillium janthinellum

Suaeda monoica

Antibacterial activity

8–14 mm

Phomopsis sp.

Rhizophora mucronata Piper nigrum Phellodendron amurense Cannabis sativa Curcuma longa Rhizophora annamalayanna Phellodendron amurense Gloriosa superba Gloriosa superba Potentilla fulgens Curcuma longa Medicinal plants Potentilla fulgens Potentilla fulgens Potentilla fulgens

Antibacterial activity

10–16 mm

Antibacterial activity

100 nm

Antibacterial Antibacterial Anti-dermatophytic

25 nm 100 nm

Bordetella sp. Epicoccum nigrum Aspergillus fumigatus Pencillium sp Aspergillus terreus Epicoccum nigrum

Withania somnifera Catharanthusroeus

Musarrat et al. (2010) Verma et al. (2010) Raheman et al. (2011) Devi et al. (2012) Bharathidasan and Panneerselvam (2012) Bharathidasan and Panneerselvam (2012) Bharathidasan and Panneerselvam (2012) Thomas et al. (2012) (Qian et al., 2013) Bala and Arya (2013) Singh et al. (2013) Kalaiselvam (2013) Qian et al. (2013)

Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Antibacterial Antimicrobial

5–20 nm 5–10 nm 5.5
3.1 nm 25–30 nm 5–30 nm 3.5
3 nm 8.7
6 nm 7.7
4.3 nm

Devi et al. (2014) Devi et al. (2014) Devi and Joshi (2014) Singh et al. (2014) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Devi and Joshi (2015) Devi and Joshi (2015) Devi and Joshi (2015)

Antibacterial Antibacterial

12–20 nm 10–50 nm

Singh et al. (2015) Ramalingmam et al. (2015) Continued

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Alternaria solani Penicillium funiculosum Cryptosporiopsis ericae Penicillium sp. Guignardia mangiferae Aspergillus tamarii Aspergillus niger Penicllium ochrochloron Fusarium sp. Curvularia lunata

Antifungal

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology

Silver nanoparticle

Table 10.1 Continued

Pestaloptiopsis pauciseta Aspergillus niger Penicillium Penicillium

Phomopsis liquidambaris Phomopsis liquidambaris Nemania sp Bacillus cereus Bordetella sp Pantoea ananatis Aneurinibacillus migulanus

Applications

Nanoparticle size

Psidium guajava Centella asiatica Calophyllum apetalum Glycosmis mauritiana Centella asiatica Withania somnifera Raphanus sativus Withania somnifera Simarouba glauca Loranthus micranthus

Taxus baccata Garcinia xanthochymus Piper nigrum

Antimicrobial

10–50 nm

anti-inflammatory

Reference Vardhana and Kathiravan (2015) Netala et al. (2015) Chandrappa et al. (2016) Govindappa et al. (2016)

Antimicrobial Germination rate Antibacterial Antibacterial Antioxidant Antibacterial Antioxidant

3–40 nm 12–20 nm 4–30 nm 10–50 nm 41.9 nm 10–15 nm

Netala et al. (2016) Singh et al. (2016) Syed et al. (2016) Vijayan et al. (2016) Arya and Rani (2017) Neethu et al. (2018) Popli et al. (2018)

Antimicrobial

18.7 nm

Seetharaman et al. (2018)

Mosquitocidal

18.7 nm

Seetharaman et al. (2018)

Antimicrobial Antibacterial

5–70 nm 20–40 nm

Farsi and Farokhi (2018) Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012a)

Antibacterial Antimicrobial

100 nm 8.06–91.32 nm

Thomas et al. (2012) Monowar et al. (2018) Syed et al. (2016)

Mimosa pudica

Zinc oxide nanoparticles Sphingobacterium thalpophilum

Antimicrobial

Rajabairavi et al. (2017)

Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture

Aspergillus versicolor Fusarium Semitectum Alternaria sp. Fusarium solani Aspergillus niger Penicillium polonicum Cladosporium

Sources

236

Nanoparticles/ endophytes

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology

237

One of the endophytic bacteria Bacillus sp. has been reported by Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012b) as the producer of NPs. The endophytic strain was isolated from Garcinia xanthochymus, the size of NP ranges from 20 to 40 nm and is of spherical shape. Thomas et al. (2012) in his study demonstrated the endophytic bacteria Bordetella sp. isolated from Piper nigrum have the ability to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by extracellular method at room temperature. At a concentration of 40 μL/well, the biosynthesized AgNPs showed antibacterial activity against Salmonella paratyphi, Vibrio cholera, and Staphylococcus aureus which confirmed the potential of Bordetella sp. to manage pathogenic bacteria. Since ancient records, gold NPs were known for their numerous applications such as therapeutic, catalysis, drug delivery, treatment of cancer, etc. (Kavitha et al., 2013). Baker and Satish (2015) in his study reported one of the novel endophytic bacterium isolated from Annona squamosa synthesize gold-NPs confirmed with UV–visible spectrophotometer with maximum absorption at 560 nm. The biosynthesized gold NPs via broth dilution assay confirmed antibacterial activity against test pathogens S. aureus and Escherichia coli. Musarrat et al. (2010) have isolated Amylomyces rouxii endophytic filamentous fungus isolated from Phoenix dactylifera synthesized AgNPs. The AgNPs exhibited broad spectrum antimicrobial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as phytopathogenic fungi. Verma et al. (2010) reported the biosynthesis of AgNPs from an endophytic fungus Aspergillus clavatus. The AgNPs were spherical or hexagonal in shape and size ranges from 10 to 25 nm. Further, disc diffusion method showed inhibition of Candida albicans, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and E. coli. Raheman et al. (2011) revealed an endophytic fungus Pestalotia sp. isolated from leaves of Syzygium cumini (L) resulted in synthesis of extracellular AgNPs, which resulted in antibacterial formulations. The efficacy of antibiotics such as gentamycin and sulfamethizole was increased in combination with AgNPs. Devi et al. (2012) reported an endophytic fungus, Penicillium sp., isolated from the Centella asiatica synthesizes AgNPs and with size of 100 nm confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies. Against various human pathogens AgNPs exhibited an antimicrobial effect. Bala and Arya (2013) in his study described the AgNPs synthesized by A. fumigatus. By surface plasmon resonance as determined by UV–Vis spectra confirmed the formation of AgNPs with maximum absorbance peak at 450 nm. The AgNPs possess maximum zone of inhibition and potential antibacterial activity against E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus sp., and Staphylococcus albus. Sunkar and Nachiyar (2013) have described two endophytic fungus GX2 and ARA isolated from host Garcinia xanthochyumus and Aravae lanata biosynthesizes AgNPs showed an absorption peak at 420 nm by UV–VIS spectroscopy and exhibited maximum antimicrobial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Cryptosporiopsis ericae have been isolated from Potentilla fulgens L. produces AgNPs whose size ranges from 5.5
3.1 nm. Further the experimental findings revealed bactericidal/fungicidal activity of the AgNPs as bacterial cells treated with AgNPs resulted severe cell damage with being potential antimicrobial activity (Devi and Joshi, 2014). Penicillium sp. reported for the production of AgNPs and it resulted maximum zone of inhibition of 17 and 16 mm against E. coli and S. aureus at a concentration of 80 μL of AgNPs (Singh et al., 2014). The

238

Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture

endophytic fungus, Penicillium nodositatum produces AgNPs with absorbance peak at 420 nm studied by UV–Vis spectroscopy (Hullikere et al., 2014). In a study, Singh et al. (2015) reported Fusarium sp. synthesize AgNPs extracellulary. At 60 μL, concentration of AgNPs resulted maximum zone of inhibition against E. coli, S. typhi, and S. aureus. The synthesis of AgNPs was investigated by Ramalingmam et al. (2015) where one of the endophytic fungus Curvularia lunata isolated from leaves of Catharanthus roeus extracellulary biosynthesize AgNPs from silver nitrate solution. Further, the combination of antibiotics such as Ampicillin, Rifampicin, Chloramphenicol, Erythromycin, and Kanamycin with AgNPs possesses better antimicrobial effects. The erythromycin against E. coli, ampicillin against S. paratyphi, and erythromycin against B. subtilis with combination of AgNPs reported as for their highest antimicrobial potential. Singh et al. (2016) in his study also demonstrated Fusarium semitectum one of the endophytic fungus synthesizes AgNPs which is spherical in shape, size vary from 12 to 20 nm. Finally, the result concluded about 100 and 200 μL of AgNPs can boost germination of root and shoot. In another study, Arya and Rani (2017) illustrated endophytic fungus isolated from Simarouba glauca and on the basis of morphological characteristics identified as Aspergillus niger synthesis AgNPs with a size of 41.9 nm and revealed to possess significant antioxidant activity. In one of the research by Popli et al. (2018) in his study described the synthesis of AgNPs from the aqueous extract of endophytic fungi, Cladosporium species (CsAgNPs) isolated from Loranthus micranthus were illustrated for synthesis of AgNPs. At 438 nm, by UV–visible spectroscopy conformed the absorbance of AgNPs. The CsAgNPs demonstrated effective antioxidant activity as well as have radical-scavenging property. Nemania sp. were also reported for synthesizes of AgNPs, extracellularly. The size of AgNPs was 5–70 nm analyzed through transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. AgNPs showed antibacterial activity against B. subtilis (Farsi and Farokhi, 2018).

10.3

Applications of NP in phytopathology

10.3.1 Antimicrobial mechanisms of nano-metal toxicity Certain metals are well known to fulfill cellular functions in all organisms, the metals are further classified into two types essential and nonessential; when the essential metals are present in excess, they are lethal to all cells. At a very low concentration, some of the metals—for example, silver (Ag), mercury (Hg), and tellurium (Te)—are very toxic to most of the bacteria and are responsible for causing microbicidal effect (Harrison et al., 2004; Nies, 2000). About five different theories suggested the mechanism of action of metals: metals can lead to dysfunction of protein and loss of enzyme activity, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and exhaustion of antioxidants causes cellular damage, which further reported to impair functioning of membrane, some can interfere with nutrient assimilation, they can also be genotoxic (a deleterious effect on DNA and other cellular targets that control the integrity of genetic material) (Lemire et al., 2013). In some of the research mechanism of inhibitory action of silver,

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology

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metal on microbes was believed that bacterial DNA loses its capability of replication or the enzymes of bacteria that carry cell nutrients are damaged, and the cell membrane and cytoplasm are also weakened (Zeng et al., 2007). Some studies signify that, reaction of metallic silver with moisture or human fluids, results in the release of silver ions, which inhibit the replication of bacteria (Blaker et al., 2004). Neethu et al. (2018) demonstrated the mechanism of bactericidal effects of AgNPs isolated from marine endophytic fungus Penicillium polonicum against biofilm forming multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumanii.

10.3.2 Antifungal activity of NPs Mostly, Fungi along with bacteria act as the planet’s decomposers by breaking down organic material in nature. Whereas, many of them form healthy symbiotic relationships with plants. Some of the fungi develop parasitic relationships with plants causing rusts, leaf spot formation. The control of diseases in food crop is essential. Recently, various harmless integrated management methods (cultural, chemical, physical, and biological) to reduce the amount of disease to a tolerable level (threshold) in a manner that is economical, efficient, and environmentally safe and also pose fewer hazards to humans and animal. Kim et al. (1998) first reported silver metal as a powerful disinfectant inactivate the enzymatic system of microorganisms thereby disturbing the metabolic functioning of unicellular microorganisms. AgNPs may be less toxic to humans and animals than synthetic fungicides (Sondi and Salopek-Sondi, 2004). Many earlier studies have demonstrated the mycosynthesis of AgNPs (Bala and Arya, 2013; Devi and Joshi, 2012; Devi and Joshi, 2015). In the recent time, few articles were published on the antifungal activity of AgNPs (Table 10.2). AgNPs display strong antimicrobial activity against bacteria (Morones et al., 2005; Raheman et al., 2011). However, as from some research, the effects of Ag NPs against fungal pathogens have received only minor interest. Verma et al. (2010) reported that endophytic fungi A. clavatus synthesizing Ag NPs showed antimicrobial activity against C. albicans and Ag NPs proved to be utilized for the formulation of antifungal agent Qian et al. (2013) in his study found that Ag NPs isolated from an endophytic fungus Epicoccum nigrum demonstrated a broader antifungal spectrum than itraconazole and fluconazole. The biosynthesized Ag NPs illustrated substantial activity against the pathogenic fungi Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, Candida krusei, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium solani, Sporothrix schenckii, A. fumigatus, and C. albicans. From ancient times, silver have been chosen as a proficient antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anticancerous agents (Vaidyanathan et al., 2009). The ideal candidates for the synthesis of metal NPs are filamentous fungi due to their cultivate ability on a large scale and easy handling (Mukherjee et al., 2001). Devi and Joshi (2014) in his findings reported C. ericae PS4 an endophytic fungus isolated from ethno-medicinal plant P. fulgens L. synthesize AgNPs. The AgNPs in combination with antifungal agent fluconazole revealed AgNPs at concentrations of between 10 and 25 μM reduced the growth rates of the tested fungus. Netala et al. (2016) in his study reported synthesis of AgNPs by Aspergillus versicolor which

Nanoparticles/endophytes

240

Table 10.2 Details of different types of nanoparticles from endophytic microbes different potential applications Activity

Activity against

References

Streptomyces capillispiralis Streptomyces capillispiralis Streptomyces capillispiralis Streptomyces capillispiralis Streptomyces capillispiralis Actinomycetes

Antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial Antifungal Larvicidal Antibacterial

Aspergillus brasiliensis Bacillus dimenuta Bacillus subtilis Candida albicans Culex pipiens Escherichia coli

Streptomyces capillispiralis Actinomycetes

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Escherichia coli Klebsiella pneumoniae

Actinomycetes

Antibacterial

Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Streptomyces capillispiralis Actinomycetes

Larvicidal Antibacterial

Musca domistica Proteus mirabilis

Streptomyces capillispiralis Actinomycetes

Antibacterial Antibacterial

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella typhimurium

Streptomyces capillispiralis

Antibacterial

Staphylococcus aureus

Saad et al. (2018) Saad et al. (2018) Saad et al. (2018) Saad et al. (2018) Saad et al. (2018) Rasool and Hemalatha (2017) Saad et al. (2018) Rasool and Hemalatha (2017) Rasool and Hemalatha (2017) Saad et al. (2018) Rasool and Hemalatha (2017) Saad et al. (2018) Rasool and Hemalatha (2017) Saad et al. (2018)

Antifungal

Aspergillus niger

Joshi et al. (2017)

Antibacterial

Bacillus subtilis

Joshi et al. (2017)

Antibacterial

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Joshi et al. (2017)

Antibacterial

Staphylococcus aureus

Joshi et al. (2017)

Copper nanoparticles

Cladosporium cladosporioides Cladosporium cladosporioides Cladosporium cladosporioides Cladosporium cladosporioides

Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture

Gold nanoparticles

Silver nanoparticles 2,20 -diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl Acinetobacter baumanii African monkey kidney Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus fumigatus Bacillus subtilis Bacillus subtilis Breast cells Candida albicans Candida albicans Candida krusei Candida parapsilosis Candida tropicalis Cryptococcus neoformans Enterobacter aerogenes Epidermophyton floccosum Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Escherichia coli Fusarium solani H2O2 HeLa Human larynx carcinoma cell line (Hep-2) Human lung adenocarcinoma Human ovarian carcinoma Human prostate carcinoma cells IInd and IVth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti

Netala et al. (2016) Neethu et al. (2018) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Qian et al. (2013) Qian et al. (2013) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Farsi and Farokhi (2018) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Monowar et al. (2018) Qian et al. (2013) Qian et al. (2013) Qian et al. (2013) Qian et al. (2013) Qian et al. (2013) Singh et al. (2013) Kalaiselvam (2013) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Farsi and Farokhi (2018) Hemashekhar et al. (2017) Monowar et al. (2018) Muhsin and Hachim (2016) Singh et al. (2013) Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012a) Vijayan et al. (2016) Qian et al. (2013) Netala et al. (2016) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Muhsin and Hachim (2016) Netala et al. (2016) Netala et al. (2016) Netala et al. (2016) Seetharaman et al. (2018) Continued

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Antioxidant Antibacterial Cytotoxic Antifungal Antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial Cytotoxic Antifungal Antifungal Antifungal Antifungal Antifungal Antifungal Antibacterial Antidermatophytic Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antifungal Antioxidant Cytotoxic Antitumour Anticancer Anticancer Anticancer Larvicidal

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology

Pestalotiopsis microspora Penicillium polonicum Guignardia mangiferae Epicoccum nigrum Epicoccum nigrum Penicillium oxalicum Nemania sp. Guignardia mangiferae Pantoea ananatis Epicoccum nigrum Epicoccum nigrum Epicoccum nigrum Epicoccum nigrum Epicoccum nigrum Penicillium sp. Aspergillus terreus Penicillium oxalicum Nemania sp. Aspergillus niger Pantoea ananatis Papulaspora pallidula Penicillium sp. Bacillus cereus Fusarium oxysporum Epicoccum nigrum Pestalotiopsis microspora Guignardia mangiferae Papulaspora pallidula Pestalotiopsis microspora Pestalotiopsis microspora Pestalotiopsis microspora Phomopsis liquidambaris

Table 10.2 Continued Activity against

References

Phomopsis liquidambaris Aspergillus niger Penicillium sp. Bacillus cereus Fusarium oxysporum Pestalotiopsis microspora Papulaspora pallidula Penicillium oxalicum Nemania sp. Aspergillus niger Papulaspora pallidula Penicillium sp. Bacillus cereus Fusarium oxysporum Fusarium oxysporum Nemania sp. Papulaspora pallidula Pestalotia sp. Bacillus cereus Fusarium oxysporum Penicillium sp. Epicoccum nigrum Penicillium oxalicum Aspergillus niger Papulaspora pallidula Pestalotia sp. Bacillus cereus Fusarium oxysporum Nemania sp. Aspergillus terreus Aspergillus terreus

Larvicidal Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Anticancer Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Cytotoxic Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antibacterial Antidermatophytic Antidermatophytic

IInd and IVth instar larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus Klebsiella pneumonia Klebsiella pneumonia Klebsiella pneumonia Klebsiella pneumonia Mouse melanoma Proteus mirabilis Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa RBC lysis Salmonella typhi Salmonella typhi Salmonella typhi Salmonella typhi Salmonella typhi Salmonella typhimurium Sporothrix schenckii Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus sp. Trichophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton rubrum

Seetharaman et al. (2018) Hemashekhar et al. (2017) Singh et al. (2013) Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012a) Vijayan et al. (2016) Netala et al. (2016) Muhsin and Hachim (2016) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Farsi and Farokhi (2018) Hemashekhar et al. (2017) Muhsin and Hachim (2016) Singh et al. (2013) Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012a) Vijayan et al. (2016) Vijayan et al. (2016) Farsi and Farokhi (2018) Muhsin and Hachim (2016) Raheman et al. (2011) Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012a) Vijayan et al. (2016) Singh et al. (2013) Qian et al. (2013) Balakumaran et al. (2015) Hemashekhar et al. (2017) Muhsin and Hachim (2016) Raheman et al. (2011) Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012a) Vijayan et al. (2016) Farsi and Farokhi (2018) Kalaiselvam (2013) Kalaiselvam (2013)

Microbial Endophytes: Prospects for Sustainable Agriculture

Activity

242

Nanoparticles/endophytes

Endophytic microbes in nanotechnology

243

produces antifungal compounds against most pathogenic C. albicans and Candida nonalbicans. With the advancement in technology, the production of NPs becomes more economical. As compared to synthetic fungicides, AgNPs may be used moderately safely for controlling various phytopathogens. Nanosized silica-silver particles when applied in field conditions controlled the powdery mildew diseases of cucurbits (Park et al., 2006). Engineered NPs undergo certain transformation when released into the environment; and entered into the soil through different routes (Nowack et al., 2012).

10.3.3 Nanobiotechnology improving plant resistance Certain adverse environmental conditions (high temperature, low temperature, drought, etc.) and agents bacteria, fungus, insect, pest, nematodes, mycoplasma, viruses, and other pathogens are responsible for causing disease in plants and leads to economic loss (Alghuthaymi et al., 2015). Plant disease resistance protects plant from phytopathogens which involves the reduction of growth of pathogen on or in the plant. The resistance in plants acquired through (1) pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI), (2) genetic resistance, (3) plant breeding, (4) acquired resistance, (5) signal transduction, etc. (Punja, 2004). Nanobiotechnology offers a novel set of procedures involving the integration of vertically aligned carbon nanofiber (VACNF) elements and biochemical manipulation of cells using the nanofiber interface, which provide a technique for achieving a genetic modification. By genetic modification, viable cells are monitored and controlled at subcellular and molecular level (McKnight et al., 2003). Torney et al. (2007) in his study described the mesoporous silica NP, transfer DNA and chemicals into plant cells. Rai et al. (2012) in a review described gene transfer via NPs are comparatively new method and have the potential to directly transfer genetic material to the plant cells thus NPs act as transgenic vehicle for nucleic acids. For the betterment of agriculture NPs can be used, but before their application in plants, it is vital to recognize the interaction among the different types of NPs and plant species. One of the NPs TiO2 increases the dry weight, chlorophyll synthesis, and metabolisms in photosynthetic organisms. Due to the antimicrobial properties of ENPs, they also increase the strength and resistance of plants to stress (Navarro et al., 2008).

10.3.4 AgNPs as nanopesticides In the recent years, use of NPs in agriculture field has become more popular due to the unique physicochemical properties. A number of international organizations have been motivated on the research and development of nano-pesticides. The scientific publications and patents on NM have improved as they are used in protection of plant. Asian countries released most scientific articles whereas the United States and Germany have published the maximum number of patents (Gogos et al., 2012). Since the ancient times, silver has been known for its antimicrobial activity. In the recent time, special attention focused on AgNP for its effectiveness (Kim et al., 2008). As compared to commercial pesticides, nanopesticides have been found to have better efficiency (Kah and Hofmann, 2014).

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Fig. 10.2 Synthesis, application, routes of exposure, factors governing toxicology, and paradigm changes related to the AgNP production and use. Reproduced from Leo´n-Silva, S., Ferna´ndez-Luquen˜o, F., Lo´pez-Valdez, F., 2016. Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) in the environment: a review of potential risks on human and environmental health. Water Air Soil Pollut. 227, 306. doi:10.1007/s11270-016-3022-9 with permission of Springer.

Nanotechnology finds its application in food production ranges from food processing, food preservation and packaging, etc. In the market, only some of the pesticides containing nano-sized or nano-formulated agrochemicals were available (Fig. 10.2). Nanopesticides help to control the diseases caused to agricultural crops and forestry (Bouwmeester et al., 2009). Park et al. (2006) described the efficiency of nanosized silica-silver in the control of pathogenic fungi. At concentration of 0.3 ppm of nanosized silica-silver sprayed on infected pumpkin leaves and after 3 days powdery mildews of pumpkins disappeared. NPs remarkably inhibited the hyphal growth of pathogenic fungi as the control of fungal diseases is very essential economically. In an investigation by Jo et al. (2009) reported the potential of nanopesticides for the control of phytopathogens.

10.3.5 Toxicity of AgNPs After biotechnology, nanotechnology has made its imprints for innovative research. Plant diseases can be managed through, safer and environment friendly option by formulation of NPs. The higher concentration of NPs poses bigger risk to living

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organisms when released to the ecosystem (Banik and Sharma, 2011). The impact of NM on plants and microbes present in the soil has been broadly examined (Antisari et al., 2011). Yeon et al. (2012) studied the effect of ZnO NPs on the soil-plant interactive system. The system might help in reducing the toxic effects of ZnO NPs on the rhizobacteria population. Lin and Xing (2007) analyzed the phytotoxicity effect of five types of NPs (multiwalled carbon nanotube, aluminum, alumina, zinc, and zinc oxide) on seed germination and root development. Lin and Xing (2008) analyzed the upward translocation of ZnO NPs. In the presence of ZnO NPs, biomass of ryegrass drastically decreased. Under ZnO NPs treatments translocation factor of Zn from root to shoot remained very low. Further, limited reports emphasize positive or no unfavorable effects of NPs on higher plants. Hong et al. (2005) studied the effects of nanoTiO2 on the photochemical reaction of chloroplasts of Spinacia oleracea. The final findings evidenced that the nano-TiO2 treatments induced an increase of the Hill reaction and of the activity of chloroplasts. Racuciu and Creanga (2007) examined the effect of magnetic NPs layered with tetramethylammonium hydroxide on the growth of Zea mays. The ferrofluid solution in low concentration had a stimulating effect on the growth of Z. mays while the higher concentrations of aqueous ferrofluid solution had an inhibitory effect. Lee et al. (2012) in his study analyzed the adverse effect of AgNPs on the important crop, Phaseolus radiatus and Sorghum bicolor.

10.4

Pharmacological applications

Nanotechnology is rapidly evolving an important field of science due to its rising usage in different fields electronics and medicine (Boisselier and Astruc, 2009; Sandhu et al., 2017). Particularly, the field has infinite potential in biomedical applications, as our own biological system is basically a complex of nanomachines. NPs are smaller in size and they have high surface area to volume ratio, due to which they possess amazing physicochemical properties. Owing to such properties, NPs are gaining a greater attention in diverse sectors including catalysis, chemical sensing and imaging, electronics and photonics, information storage, drug delivery and biological labeling, environmental remediation and ultimately leading to their high commercial value (Prabhu and Poulose, 2012). There are different methods for synthesizing NPs but due to cost effective and eco-friendly nature, biological method for synthesis is taking advantage over chemical and physical synthesis (Hemashekhar et al., 2017; Veerasamy et al., 2011). Thus, for the synthesis of the NPs, microbes including bacteria, fungi, and yeasts are nowadays exploited (Ibrahim, 2015; Ingale and Chaudhari, 2013; Kathiresan et al., 2009). Furthermore, fungi are considered to be ideal candidates for the synthesis of metal NPs (Das et al., 2014). Due to their antimicrobial properties, NPs find applications in agriculture, health, medicine, and nutrition (Borase et al., 2015) (Kathiravan et al., 2015; Khalil et al., 2019). AgNPs are known for being used for treating certain medical problems because of being their broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity against a diverse range of bacteria and fungi

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(Prabhu and Poulose, 2012). Thus, the diversity of fungi on the earth is greatly attracting the attention of the scientists for the synthesis of NPs particularly AgNPs (Netala et al., 2016). Diverse fungal extracts have already been used for the synthesis of AgNPs including Alternaria alternata (Gajbhiye et al., 2009), Alternaria solani (Devi et al., 2014), A. rouxii (Musarrat et al., 2010), A. niger ( Jaidev and Narasimha, 2010), Aspergillus terreus (Li et al., 2011), A. versicolor (Netala et al., 2016), Coriolus versicolor (Sanghi and Verma, 2009), Fusarium oxysporum (Ahmad et al., 2003), F. solani (El-Rafie et al., 2012), Humicola sp. (Syed et al., 2013), Penicillium funiculosum (Devi et al., 2014), Phaenerochaete chrysosporium (Vigneshwaran et al., 2006), Puccinia graminis (Kirthi et al., 2012), Schizophyllum radiatum (Metuku et al., 2014), and Trichoderma viridae (Fayaz et al., 2009). Actinomycetes (Rasool and Hemalatha, 2017; Saad et al., 2018) and bacteria including Rhodopseudomonas capsulate (He et al., 2007), S. aureus (Nanda and Saravanan, 2009), Brevibacterium casei (Kalishwaralal et al., 2010), Bacillus subtilis (Kirthi et al., 2011), P. aeruginosa (Kumar and Mamidyala, 2011), Aeromonas hydrophila ( Jayaseelan et al., 2012), Microbacterium resistens (Wang et al., 2016), and Pantoea ananatis (Monowar et al., 2018) have been also used for synthesis of NPs. For about 2000 years, the medical characteristics of silver have been well known. Since the 19th century, compounds prepared containing silver were utilized for many antimicrobial applications. Nowadays, in fact more focus is given for exploring potent biosynthesized NPs from fungi using nanobiotechnology approach for cancer therapy (Amiji, 2006; Muhsin and Hachim, 2016; Verma et al., 2017). Microbes have been not only utilized to synthesize silver and gold NPs but also for NPs of other metals including cadmium (Ahmad et al., 2003; Vijayan et al., 2016), platinum (Konishi et al., 2007; Rai et al., 2009), titanium (Bansal et al., 2006), and zirconium (Bansal et al., 2004, 2007). This section will describe the pharmacological applications of NPs with reference to endophytic microbes.

10.4.1 Antimicrobial activity The use of NPs is greatly on increase to target bacteria as a substitute to antibiotics. It is well known that a large number of antibiotic-resistant mechanisms are not appropriate for NPs. NPs without being penetrating into the bacterial cell can make their direct contact with bacterial cell. This ultimately increase the expectation that NPs would be less prone to develop antibiotic resistance in bacteria (Neethu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017). Thus, a greater attention is paid to develop new NPs-based materials exhibiting antimicrobial activity. Bhattacharjee et al. (2017) synthesized AgNPs from endophytic fungus, Penicillium oxalicum and evaluated their antibacterial potential against S. aureus (MTCC96), P. aeruginosa (MTCC-424), E. coli (MTCC-40), and B. subtilis (MTCC-619) by disc diffusion method. The study demonstrated that AgNPs showed significant zone of inhibition against all the four bacterial strains. The study of Hemashekhar et al. showed the antibacterial activity of AgNPs against E. coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus that were synthesized from A. niger. Joshi et al. (2017) synthesized gold NPs from Cladosporium cladosporioides and reported its

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antimicrobial activity against fungal and bacterial pathogens including A. niger (MTCC 281), B. subtilis (MTCC 441), E. coli (MTCC 118), P. aeruginosa (MTCC 424), and S. aureus (MTCC 7443). Rasool and Hemalatha (2017) synthesized copper NPs from marine endophytic actinomycetes and investigated their antibacterial activity against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, etc. and methicillin-resistant S. aureus by wellplate method. The study concluded that copper NPs gave respectable amount of result. Monowar et al. (2018) synthesized AgNPs from endophytic bacteria P. ananatis and evaluated their antimicrobial potential against pathogenic strains including B. cereus (ATCC 10876), C. albicans (ATCC 10231), E. coli (ATCC 10536), P. aeruginosa (ATCC 10145), S. aureus subsp. aureus (ATCC 11632) as well as multidrug-resistant strains including Enterococcus faecium (ATCC 700221), E. coli (NCTC 13351), S. aureus (ATCC 33592), and Streptococcus pneumoniae (ATCC 700677). The study concluded that AgNPs synthesized from P. ananatis can be more promising antimicrobial agents against a range of pathogenic and multidrug-resistant microbes, including C. albicans (ATCC 10231) and E. coli (ATCC 10536) than the conventional antibiotics. Neethu et al. (2018) thoroughly studied the antibacterial efficiency of AgNPs on basis of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and killing kinetic assay synthesized by P. polonicum against biofilm forming, multidrug-resistant A. baumanii. The study concluded the NPs to be a good antibacterial agent. Farsi and Farokhi (2018) synthesized AgNPs from endophytic fungus Nemania sp. isolated from Taxus baccata and studied their antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtillis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, and Staphylococcus sp., using agar well diffusion assay method. These NPs showed antibacterial activity with highest zone of inhibition against B. subtillis.

10.4.2 Anticancer activity Cancer is one of the foremost cause of deaths globally. In Tamil Nadu, about 25.5% of females suffer by cancer (Balakumaran et al., 2015). Some of the drugs in fact have been known for causing toxicity in normal human cells (Krishnaraj et al., 2014; Yeruva et al., 2008). It is of utmost significance of development of new therapeutic agents against breast and cervical cancers. In the recent time, there is still lesser data available for studying the cytotoxic effects of mycosynthesized AgNPs against human breast and cervical cancer cell lines (Kaler et al., 2013; Manivasagan et al., 2013). Among all the naturally available biological resources, fungi are well known to be highly proficient for the production of NPs. A number of factors make fungi suitable for the production of NPs (Narayanan and Sakthivel, 2010; Saikkonen, 2007; Singh et al., 2014), fungal mycelia can bear up strict environments in bioreactors, furthermore their handling and fabrication is easy in downstream processing (Zhao et al., 2018). Exploring endophytes for the synthesis of metal NPs could be another novel tool as there are limited reports on utilization of endophytes for the synthesis of NPs for their use as anticancer agents. Balakumaran et al. (2015) synthesized AgNPs from Guignardia mangiferae and showed their cytotoxic activity against normal African monkey kidney (vero), HeLa (cervical), and MCF-7 (breast) cells. Muhsin and Hachim (2016) synthesized AgNPs from endophytic fungus, Papulaspora

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pallidula and reported antitumor activity of biosynthesized NPs against human larynx carcinoma cell line (Hep-2) at concentration of 3.13 μg/μL as well as its antibacterial activity. Netala et al. (2016) synthesized AgNPs from endophytic fungus, Pestalotiopsis microspora and studied their antioxidant as well as anticancer properties. The study showed that biosynthesized AgNPs exhibited considerable cytotoxic effects against mouse melanoma, human ovarian carcinoma, human lung adenocarcinoma, and human prostate carcinoma cells.

10.4.3 Larvicidal activity Worldwide, a variety of approaches have been developed for decreasing the prevalence of various vectors which are responsible for chikungunya fever, dengue shock syndrome, Japanese encephalitis, lymphatic filariasis, malaria, and yellow fever (Ali et al., 1995; Salunkhe et al., 2011). In the Indian scenario, almost the whole country is endemic to the mosquito-borne diseases due to the presence of favorable ecological conditions. Mosquitoes are known to transmit a numerous diseases (Dhanasekaran and Thangaraj, 2013). Different insecticides, larvicides are used to control insectborne diseases but repeated use of synthetic insecticides, larvicides has led to rise of insecticide resistance fostered environment and concerns of human health (Hayes and Laws, 1991). All these have led to the development of alternate strategies among which biological control is one of the best approach although slow but can be long term, cost effective, not dangerous to living organisms as well as ecosystems (Ramanathan et al., 2002). Nowadays, microbial synthesized NPs are also gaining attention in this field. In fact, larvicidal activity of NPs synthesized from Agaricus bisporus, A. niger, Bacillus thuringiensis, Cochliobolus lunatus, E. coli, Pencillium sp., Pseudomonas mandelii, Streptomyces sp., and Vibrio sp. (Banu et al., 2014; Dhanasekaran and Thangaraj, 2013; Marimuthu et al., 2013; Salunkhe et al., 2011) has been known. But there are limited reports on larvicidal activity of NPs synthesized from endophytic microbes. Indeed, AgNPs particularly have been revealed to be good insecticide for the management of mosquito vectors these days (Patil et al., 2012). Seetharaman et al. (2018) evaluated the antibacterial and larvicidal activity of AgNPs by endophytic fungus, Phomopsis liquidambaris. The study showed that the biosynthesized NPs arrested the growth of second and fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus in a dose-dependent method. Saad et al. (2018) synthesized copper NPs from endophytic actinomycete Streptomyces capillispiralis (Ca-1) and showed their larvicidal activity against Musca domistica and Culex pipiens.

10.4.4 Anti-inflammatory activity Inflammation is known to be a protective response actually considered as a mechanisms of innate immunity for elimination of the early cause of cell injury, clear out necrotic cells and damaged cells, and initiate the process of tissue repair (Karin and Clevers, 2016). But sometimes inflammation is also detrimental for instance the attack on body’s own tissue. Furthermore, inflammation possesses a close

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association with enormous array of human diseases such as atherosclerosis, cancers, Crohn’s disease, erythematosus, ischemic heart disease, pneumonia, and rheumatoid arthritis (Grivennikov et al., 2010). Inflammation is known to play a vital function in the development of these disorder ( Jin et al., 2018). Thus, targeting inflammation could be one of the solutions for diagnosing and treating such diseases. In this regard, NPs particularly biosynthesized ones could be a novel tool. Govindappa et al. (2016) showed the anti-inflammatory activity of endophytic fungi, Penicillium sp. synthesized AgNPs.

10.4.5 Antibiofilm activity The emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms is increasing day by day. Extensive use of antibiotics against infection caused by bacteria and fungi, further developed resistance within microorganisms which are capable of forming biofilms on medical devices (Penesyan et al., 2015; Cremonini et al., 2018). The formal definition of biofilm actually includes the adherence of the microorganisms, either to a surface or to each other; a change in gene expression resulting in a different phenotype from the planktonic state and an extracellular matrix composed of host components and secreted bacterial products (Gristina, 1987; Trautner and Darouiche, 2004; Denstedt et al., 1998). On the other hand, biofilm outcome with chronic, persistent infections that are of utmost difficulty to get rid of with antimicrobial therapy (Lyte et al., 2003; Trautner and Darouiche, 2004). The formation of biofilm greatly increases the survival of bacteria in adverse conditions like desiccation, starvation, etc. furthermore, protecting them from the host immune system and antibiotic treatment (Banerjee et al., 2019). It is very well known that bacteria forming biofilms are up to 1000-fold more tolerant to antibiotics than planktonic cell (Soleimani et al., 2015). In 2007, the Center for Disease Control stated that around 1.7 million hospital-acquired infections were due to biofilm bacteria that lead to a severe economic loss of $11 billion in the United States alone (R€omling et al., 2014). Adding up more, the infections associated with biofilm are responsible for over a half-million deaths annually and the treatment cost is estimated to be around $94 billion (Wolcott et al., 2010). Biofilm-related infections are caused by bacteria on medical devices such as urinary catheters, prosthetic joints, and heart valves. Further, the infections of Enterococcus sp., P. aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus sp. are very common in patients with cystic fibrosis and wound infections (R€ omling et al., 2014).. Unfortunately, standard methods are not available to deal with biofilm-related infections and there is an urgent need to develop novel products so that such severe infections could be treated. Currently, nanotechnology is providing promising strategies to achieve the aim of eradicating bacterial biofilm infections. Recent developments in nanotechnology have assured to prevent drug-resistant biofilm infections. In some studies, NP-coated surfaces have been found to act as biofilm inhibiting agents (Taylor and Webster, 2011). Due to their small size, NPs can easily penetrate cell walls of microbes as well as biofilm layer, ultimately leading to irreversible damage to cell membranes and DNA. Thus, nanotechnology opens new doors for struggling with the growing concern of biofilm infections.

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AgNPs have been shown to inhibit the formation of biofilms by strains of methicillin-resistant S. aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (Ansari et al., 2015), zinc oxide NPs have been demonstrated to be effective in inhibiting the biofilm formed by B. subtilis, E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis (Lee et al., 2014), further titanium oxide NPs have been revealed to show antifungal biofilm activities on biomedical devices, chiefly against C. albicans (Haghighi et al., 2013). In fact, Ahiwale et al. (2017) synthesized gold NPs using bacteriophage and the NPs inhibited about 80% of the biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa. A study of Sabu et al. (2017) showed that the extract prepared from endophytic Nocardiopsis sp. showed antibiofilm activity against clinical isolates. But future studies are required with endophytic microbes for synthesizing NPs and utilizing them against biofilms. The study of Rajivgandhi et al. (2018) showed the antibiofilm activity of zinc oxide nanosheets synthesized using marine endophytic actinomycetes Nocardiopsis sp. against multidrug-resistant strains of Proteus mirabilis and E. coli.

10.5

Future therapeutic applications

Biosynthesized NM are gaining huge attention in the recent years in diverse areas of biological science because of their unique characteristics such as chemical and ecofriendly nature (Gouda et al., 2019). Nanotechnology offers a great platform for modifying and developing novel properties of metal, which further shows potential use in various fields of science such as in agronomy, antimicrobial agents, biomedical diagnostics, bioimaging, markers, drug delivery vehicles for the cure of various diseases probes, and sensors (Singh et al., 2016; Tripathi et al., 2015, 2017). Hence, microbes as a source of synthesizing NPs are being focused nowadays by the researchers because microbes are capable of adapting and grows under extreme conditions (Pantidos and Horsfall, 2014). Furthermore, endophytic microbes produce biologically important substances that are of great importance in modern agriculture, anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, immunosuppressant, medicine, etc. (Popli et al., 2018). But, endophytic microbes have not been yet fully explored for the biosynthesis of NPs and very scanty data are available. So, there is huge diversity of endophytic microbes which has to be explored and utilized for the synthesis of NPs for different applications.

10.5.1 Antiviral agents Today, the world is greatly facing the different life-threatening diseases caused by different viruses, for example, the chickenpox, common cold, hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus, infectious mononucleosis, influenza, and viral encephalitis (Gaikwad et al., 2013). A lot of efforts has been ongoing from last few decades, for the development of medicines and vaccines against various viral infection (Domingo, 2010; Tauxe, 2002) and in fact remarkable from last many years medicines so developed are not able to prevent all viral disease. Thus, it becomes very important to design new antiviral agents which can exhibit activity against a wide range of viruses.

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Furthermore, the major focus of the researchers to develop such processes which are high eco-friendly instead of synthetic protocols (Ramya et al., 2015). Consequently, researchers are greatly focusing on utilizing NPs as antiviral agents being synthesized from microbes. NPs particularly AgNPs have been known to show antiviral activity against HIV-1 (Lara et al., 2010), hepatitis B virus (Lu et al., 2008), etc. Furthermore, there are few reports on biosynthesized NPs from bacteria and fungi which have shown antiviral activities. Narasimha et al. (2012) showed antiviral activity of AgNPs synthesized from Aspergillus sp. against bacteriophage viral strain. Narasimha (2012) demonstrated that AgNPs synthesized from fungal strain A. niger at 8–12 ppm totally inhibited the viral growth in host bacterial strain, E. coli. Gaikwad et al. (2013) revealed mycosynthesized AgNPs against herpes simplex virus and human parainfluenza virus type 3. Ramya et al. (2015) showed the antiviral activity of Streptomyces minutiscleroticus synthesized selenium NPs against Dengue virus. Hence, the interaction between biosynthesized NPs and viruses is becoming a great field of research. Adding more, reports antiviral activities of biosynthesized NPs by endophytic microbes are very rare. So, efforts can be made and endophytic microbes can be targeted in future for synthesis of NPs and utilizing them as antiviral agents will surely be prove a novel tool for the treatment of viral infections.

10.5.2 Wound healing activity The ultimate aim of any burn therapy is to attain healing of wound and epithelization immediately so as to avoid infection (Kaler et al., 2014). Wound healing progress through an overlapping pattern of events which includes coagulation, inflammation, proliferation, and matrix and tissue remodeling (Tian et al., 2007). Different medications are used for wound healing including antiseptics, topical antibiotics, granulation tissue suppressing agents, enzymes, topical herbal therapeutics, etc. (Gunasekaran et al., 2011). Each medication has its own advantages and disadvantages such as some antiseptics have been found to be cytotoxic in vitro to both microorganisms and the host’s cells (White et al., 2006). Further, the major disadvantage of using antibiotics is the loss of their effectiveness against bacterial resistance (Lipsky and Hoey, 2009) and occurrence of contact allergy is another drawback (White et al., 2006). Nanotechnology especially biosynthesized NPs by microbes could be exploited in this field for wound healing further developing better dressings for wounds. Tiwari et al. (2014) showed the wound healing activity of copper NPs synthesized by P. aeruginosa. Kaler et al. (2014) revealed that Saccharomyces boulardii synthesized AgNPs-based nanosilver gel showed superior wound healing efficiency in comparison to marketed formulations and silver ions. Endophytic microbes can be exploited in this field for synthesizing NPs with wound healing activity.

10.6

Conclusion and future directions

The biosynthesis of NPs by microbes regarded as potential biofactories is one of the eco-friendly and cost-effective approach. During the past, NPs were produced by only physical and chemical methods, which lead to generation of certain hazardous

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by-product causing serious threat to environment. In the present time, endophytic microbes, both bacteria and fungi are known for their ability to synthesize various bioactive compounds as well certain NPs. Size-dependent properties of NPs make them to have attractive applications in various fields such as biomedical, agriculture, etc. AgNPs are well known for their ability to have antifungal and bactericidal effects. In preventing the spoilage of food, nanoclays and nanofilms are mostly used as barrier materials. The continuous usage of fertilizers causes many serious threats to human beings, animals as well as fertility of soil and when percolates from soil into water causes serious threat to aquatic life. The development of nanopesticides proved to be less harmful to the environment in management of various diseases. The process of synthesis of NPs from endophytic microbes emerged as an exciting field of nanotechnology. In the future, NPs provide a new hope in formulation of nano-drugs, nanoweapon against various phytopathogens. Further, in order to have better control over maintaining the shape and size of NPs, a precise molecular mechanism behind biosynthesis by endophytic microbes needs to focused more.

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Department of Biotechnology, Akal College of Agriculture, Eternal University, Baru Sahib and HP Governments, Environments, Science and Technology, Shimla funded project “Development of Microbial Consortium as Bio-inoculants for Drought and Low Temperature Growing Crops for Organic Farming in Himachal Pradesh” for providing the facilities and financial support, to undertake the investigations. There are no conflicts of interest.

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Further reading Leo´n-Silva, S., Ferna´ndez-Luquen˜o, F., Lo´pez-Valdez, F., 2016. Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) in the environment: a review of potential risks on human and environmental health. Water Air Soil Pollut. 227306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-3022-9.