- Email: [email protected]
Energy delivery and utilization for rural development: Lessons from Northern Ghana
Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy for Sustainable Development
Energy delivery and utilization for rural development: Lessons from Northern Ghana Stephen Kankam a, Emmanuel K. Boon b,⁎ a b
Friends of the Nation, PO Box MC 11, Takoradi, Ghana Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Human Ecology Department, Laarbeeklaan 103, B-1090 Brussels Belgium
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 11 August 2009 Accepted 12 August 2009 Keywords: Education Energy policy Gender roles Job creation Rural development
a b s t r a c t This article explores the linkages between government energy policies and energy use for rural development. The article is based on surveys conducted in selected rural communities in Northern Ghana that are beneficiaries of several energy dissemination programs spearheaded by the government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and donors. Primary data were collected on energy use at the household and community levels using questionnaires and focus group discussions complemented by interviews of energy policy makers. Ghana's energy policy documents were reviewed to gain further insights into the policy process. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to treat and analyze the data obtained through household questionnaires, while the data generated from interviews and focus group discussions were subjected to content analysis. The results of the analysis indicate that while energy use contributes to improving conditions for education due to lighting services at the household and community levels, the patterns of energy use inhibit rural job creation, gender roles, and health care in the surveyed communities. The article concludes that the low contribution of energy toward rural development is to a large extent driven by an energy policy that inhibits the delivery and use of modern energy sources in rural Ghana. Consequently, achieving an energy future that has greater relevance to rural development in Ghana requires a mix of policy tools that enhances the delivery and use of modern energy systems in rural communities in the country. © 2009 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction There is consensus in both the scientific and development communities regarding the role of energy as a catalyst for development at the global, national, and local levels. For instance, at the global level, energy linkages have been established with all the targets of the millennium development goals (MDGs) (GNESD, 2007; Kapadia, 2004). To a large extent, this energy development nexus permeates to the local level (GNESD, 2007). In rural areas of developing countries, applications involving energy systems are commonplace in agriculture, household activities, and in the operation of small and micro enterprises (SMEs) (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2000). Undoubtedly, the type and quality of energy systems adopted and utilized at the household and community levels are inexorably linked with changes in rural living standards. Since access to modern energy services could facilitate the productivity of SMEs, boost agricultural production, and improve health conditions (Cabraal et al., 2005), the scope for improving rural living standards is increased if dissemination and utilization of modern energy systems dominate the rural energy scene. On the other hand, if rural energy systems continue to be characterized by
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 2 477 42 81. E-mail address: [email protected] (E.K. Boon).
excessive production and utilization of unprocessed biomass and inefficient energy options, the necessary conditions for social, economic, and ecological advancement in rural communities will remain constrained. Modern energy systems in this article refers to a broad range of energy options including fossil fuels such as kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), grid connected or off-grid electricity, and renewable energy technologies (RETs). In rural Ghana, the process of delivering and utilizing modern energy systems has been in existence for decades. This is evidenced by long-standing donor-driven initiatives that encourage dissemination and use of solar and biomass energy technologies, LPG, and kerosene in rural communities, as well as the commitment of successive governments toward continuous implementation of rural electrification programs using grid extension. These initiatives are driven by the need to enhance rural quality of life through the introduction of energy services that support improvement in health, education, employment, and sustenance of the natural environment (MoE, 2006). Moreover, the benefits associated with the use of modern energy systems have caught the attention of policy makers and development agents in recent times. A review of literature reveals that the technical aspects of development and deployment of energy systems in rural Ghana have gained much scholarly attention (see Abavana, 2000; Dernedde and Ahenkorah-Ofosu, 2002; Illiceto and Kappiah, 2000). Apparently,
0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2009 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2009.08.002
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
investigation of the contribution of the existing framework of energy supply and use, as well as the potential of alternative schemes of energy delivery toward rural development, has been neglected. Meanwhile, such information is indispensable to energy policy formulation processes (Mfune and Boon, 2007). This article therefore explores the dynamics of energy delivery and utilization in selected communities in rural Ghana and examines the extent to which energy use patterns contribute to enhancing or perhaps inhibiting the conditions necessary for attaining sustainable rural development. The article advances and tests the hypothesis that ‘relationships exist between energy policy choices, rural energy use patterns and energy contribution to the attainment of rural development.’ In order words, the article investigates the premise that if energy policies encourage greater deployment and use of modern energy systems, the requisite conditions for achieving rural sustainability will be enhanced. Institutional and policy factors influencing rural energy delivery and utilization section of the article reviews key institutional issues and policy trends that influence energy supply and utilization in rural Ghana. The data collection and analytical methods used are described in the Methods and Materials section. Results and discussion section discusses the findings and establishes the relationships between key energy policy choices and what pertains in the four surveyed communities. Concluding remarks are provided in the Conclusions section. Institutional and policy factors influencing rural energy delivery and utilization As in most developing countries, energy delivery and utilization in Ghana are influenced by institutions and policy mechanisms in the energy sector. Governmental and nongovernmental organizations are key to ensuring a sustainable supply of energy services to rural communities. However, state energy institutions have the sole mandate to implement policies that promote rural energy delivery and utilization. The role of institutions in energy delivery Currently, government agencies in Ghana are the major energy sector institutional actors. This is evident in their primary function of formulating policies that drive energy supply and utilization as well as their prominent role in the delivery of electricity services and distribution of petroleum products throughout the country (MoE, 2006). It is worthy to note that regarding the specifics of supplying energy to rural communities, the onus lies not only on public energy sector agencies but also on state institutions with mandates in sectors such as agriculture and forestry. For instance, through its Directorate for Engineering Services, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) has piloted the dissemination of irrigation water pumps driven by wind turbines. Also, several forest sector agencies are engaged in wood plantation programs in various parts of the country. In ensuring access to and utilization of rural energy services, the roles of research institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private sector actors complement the functions of state agencies. While the activities of research institutions have focused on the development of technologies for converting and utilizing renewable energy resources (MoE, 2006), some NGOs and private sector actors have been directly engaged in the dissemination of sustainable energy technologies in rural communities. Undoubtedly, the interplay of several institutions in the delivery of rural energy services presents opportunities not only for crosssectoral coordination of energy supply functions but also for greater interagency collaboration to facilitate the development of synergies during the implementation of rural energy programs. Mostly,
213
proponents of multisectoral approaches argue that, for rural energy delivery schemes to be effective, there is a need for enhanced collaboration between related sectors (Bates et al., 2003; Cabraal et al., 2005; Srivastava and Rehman, 2006). Policy responses to rural energy supply and utilization For the purposes of planning, Ghana's energy sector is divided into two broad areas: demand for energy and supply of energy. While the demand side comprises the household, commercial and service, agricultural and fisheries, transport and industrial sectors, and the implementation of energy efficiency and conservation measures, the supply-side sectors consist of electricity, petroleum, fuelwoods, and renewable energy (EC, 2006). In line with the scope of this article, the discussion in this part is limited to the household, electricity, and renewable energy sectors. Nevertheless, references are made to other subsectors in order to establish relevant linkages. Essentially, energy supply policies in Ghana encourage greater access to modern energy services. And in rural settings, justification for actions that seek to widen access to modern energy lie in the fact that access to adequate, reliable, and environmentally benign energy sources are disproportionately low. Mostly, measures that are advanced to bridge the energy access gap between rural and urban communities have relied on the extension of the existing electricity grid to the rural sector. However, most rural and some suburban communities in Ghana are located far away from the existing electricity distribution networks and they also have low load densities (Abavana, 2000). Therefore, the capital investments required for extending conventional grid electrification services to such communities are prohibitive and undoubtedly beyond the financial capacity of the government. Consequently, the emergence of policies that seek to facilitate private sector participation in the energy market reflects the difficulties that the government encounter in financing initiatives aimed at expanding access to electricity services (Ejekumhene, et al., 2001a). In many developing countries, energy policy decisions that encourage private sector entry into the energy market have evolved in tandem with broader energy sector reform (GNESD, 2004; Ketlogetswe et al., 2007). In Ghana, such reforms have given much policy and regulatory attention to the electricity sector. This is evident in the enactment of the Energy Commission Act 541 and the Public Utilities Regulatory Commission Act 538, which, respectively, guarantee unbundling of generation and transmission of electricity, and the establishment of a public Transmission Utility Company (TUC) to manage the national electricity grid (MoE, 2006). Although the restructuring of electricity sector institutions is a central part of Ghana's power sector reform, widening access to electricity has underlined the policies introduced as part of the reform process. As noted by Ejekumhene et al. (2001a), one of the key policy factors that informed the commencement of Ghana's power sector reform was ensuring a universal access to electricity by the year 2020. Nevertheless, the contribution of such reforms to ensuring widespread electricity access in rural communities is undoubtedly influenced by other policy mechanisms and regulatory measures that are introduced to catalyze the development of rural energy. In Ghana, subsidies are one of the policy mechanisms that have increasingly been adopted to leverage the supply and utilization of rural energy. Supply-side subsidies are applied to support network extension to communities and also facilitate connection at the household level. For instance, within the framework of the Self Help Electrification Programme (SHEP), government provides the requisite finances to extend electricity to rural communities with over 500 inhabitants but located within 20 km of an existing subtransmission line (Ejekumhene et al., 2001b). Generally, when measured against conventional energy options, the level of subsidies that government provides to support the supply of renewable energy in rural Ghana is low. However,
214
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
indications from some developing countries are that where renewable energy options received equal levels of subsidies as conventional energy sources, their market penetration and subsequent adoption were relatively high (Martinot et al., 2002; Usher, 2007). Traditionally, utilization of rural energy options has been spurred through the implementation of programs that particularly target household energy use. Mostly, these programs seek to enable efficient utilization of biomass fuels and leverage a switch from the use of traditional biomass to cleaner alternatives through the provision of subsidies. For instance, the Kerosene Distribution Improvement (KDI) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) programs being rolled out in rural Ghana seek to, respectively, increase rural affordability of kerosene and encourage the adoption of LPG as the major cooking fuel at the household level (Togobo-Ahiataku, 2005). Yet, the implementation of these programs has not been devoid of challenges. The fact that the richer households are higher consumers of energy in Ghana increases the odds against better targeting of intended beneficiaries of subsidy schemes, who are mainly the rural poor. More so, given that the predominant pattern of energy use in the rural sector continues to be the adoption of multiple fuels (Davis, 1998; Masera et al., 2000), the objective of achieving fuel saving, energy efficiency, and reduced indoor air pollution through price subsidies for modern fuels may as well be stifled under these energy use conditions. Clearly, macrolevel policy decisions define and direct rural level energy delivery and use systems. Using empirical data, these linkages are depicted in the context of the four surveyed rural communities. Methods and materials The study location This study was conducted in four rural communities – Nwodua, Langa, Bognayili, and Changnayili – located within the Northern region of Ghana. These communities fall within the Guinea Savanna agroecological zone, characterized by a unimodal rainfall regime lasting 5–6 months and periods of drought, lasting up to 6–7 months in the year. The settlements are arranged in scattered and clustered patterns, with households constituting an average cluster of eight rooms. Agriculture is the mainstay of the inhabitants in the study communities with majority engaged in the cultivation of yam, rice, and groundnuts for the market as well as household consumption. Mostly, the women are engaged in agro-based income generating activities such as rice, groundnuts, and shea nuts processing. Nevertheless, cottage industries provide other source of livelihood opportunities, especially for inhabitants within the nonelectrified communities. The selection of these communities was motivated by their peculiar socioeconomic characteristics, which render these areas relevant for investigation. First, the communities are characterized by dependence on farm and nonfarm small and micro enterprises (SMEs) for socioeconomic development. Second, they are beneficiaries of long-standing modern energy dissemination programs and projects implemented by the government, NGOs, donors or through their cooperation. Notable among such initiatives are Household Energy Programme for Cooking (HEPC), Wood Fuel Plantation Programme (WPP), Ghana Multifunctional Platform Programme (GMPP), and projects disseminating solar photovoltaic systems. Finally, some of the communities selected for the investigation are beneficiaries of the program on rural electrification, which is being implemented by the government of Ghana (GoG). Data collection and analysis Data were collected from both secondary and primary sources. An extensive review of Ghana's energy policy documents, relevant books, journals, publications, reports, and case studies from Ghana and
elsewhere in the developing world provided the theoretical basis for designing the field instruments and analysis of the data. Primary data were collected through a triangulated approach that involved the use of structured questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs) at the household and community levels. Purposive sampling was used to select the four communities based on their characteristics mentioned in The study location section. The communities were stratified on the basis of electrified (Nwodua and Langa) and nonelectrified (Bognayili and Changnayili). Using simple random sampling techniques, a total of 120 heads of households, comprising 60 each from electrified and nonelectrified communities, were picked for questionnaire interviews. Survey questionnaires probed the level of contribution of household energy use patterns toward improving the conditions of education, job creation, gender roles, and health. In this way, energy delivery to and utilization in these communities were evaluated as contributing factors toward development, rather than replacements of development programs (Dieden et al., 2007). Underpinning these questions is the fact that depending on the patterns of energy utilization, rural energy systems may either enhance or inhibit these key aspects of rural development. Consequently, respondents were invited to rate on a 5-point scale, ranging from “negative” (1) to “very positive” (5), the level of contribution of household energy use. Two FGDs, each organized in an electrified (Nwodua) and unelectrifed (Changnayili) community, enabled the exploration of the dynamics of community level energy use patterns, especially for productive activities. Interviews of key policy makers were conducted to explore macrolevel decisions that have a bearing on rural energy delivery and utilization. Key policy issues that were investigated through the interviews were policy instruments and programs for promoting rural energy delivery and usage; extent of cross-sectoral collaboration for rural energy delivery; models for renewable energy delivery; and influence of power sector reform on rural energy access. The collected data were coded and inputted as nominal or ordinal data into the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS, version 11) and the results presented and illustrated using frequencies, percentages, and pie charts. Tests of statistical significance (Mann-Whitney U-test) were performed to investigate statistically significant differences between the levels of contribution of household energy use patterns toward education, gender roles, health conditions, and job creation in the electrified and nonelectrified households. Content analysis was conducted on data collected through FGDs and interviews. Results and discussion The results are presented in three parts. The first part characterizes energy use patterns in the surveyed communities at the household and community levels. These are disaggregated to depict energy use patterns in electrified and nonelectrified households. In the second part, the contribution of the adopted energy options to different aspects of rural development is presented. The final part discusses the results of interviews conducted on policy makers. Energy use patterns The results indicate multiple fuel use in most households in the surveyed communities. The majority (71%) of households in the nonelectrified communities reported use of traditional biomass stoves and kerosene lamps, while the remaining households (13% and 8%) reported dependence on two or more energy options. By contrast, only 8% of households in the nonelectrified communities reported use of only traditional biomass stoves (Fig. 1). Generally, these energy use patterns suggest that most households within the nonelectrified communities tend to utilize fuelwood and kerosene as major fuels. Within the electrified communities, the dominant (75%) combination of energy options at the household level are electricity,
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
215
fuelwood offers limited options for agro-processing; it mainly provides heat for rice parboiling. Furthermore, participants of FGDs in both communities indicated that women from nearby villages often trek to their communities to undertake agro-processing activities. This is because of the absence of electric-operated grinding mills or multifunctional platforms in such villages. It also became evident that inhabitants of nonelectrified and electrified communities obtain cooking services from similar energy options, that is, households in both communities tend to use fuelwood in applications involving improved cookstoves and traditional biomass stoves for cooking. Table 1 summarizes energy options and corresponding services at the household and community levels. Energy use and rural development Fig. 1. Household energy options utilized in two nonelectrified communities. Source: Field Data, 2007.
traditional biomass stoves, improved cookstoves, and kerosene lamps, while the remaining households depend on two or more energy options (Fig. 2). Comparing energy options utilized in electrified and nonelectrified households reveal a trend toward adoption of more than three energy options in electrified households. This trend suggests that for the electrified communities, electricity is mostly an additional energy option rather than a replacement for other commonly used fuel sources such as fuelwood and kerosene. Furthermore, 11% of households in the electrified communities that do not depend on electricity suggest that supply of electricity at the community level may not be sufficient to ensure its use at the household level. End uses of energy options in electrified and nonelectrified communities In investigating the end uses of adopted energy options, participants in focus group discussions (FGDs) were invited to identify the energy services derived from the major energy options adopted at the household and community levels. The major energy services reported include cooking, lighting, heating, and motive power for agro-processing activities. While solar home systems and kerosene lamps provide lighting services in the nonelectrified communities, electricity is the major energy option that provides lighting services in electrified communities. Also, the relatively few households (8%) that rely on solar home systems (Fig. 1) suggest that within nonelectrified communities, kerosene lamps provide a disproportionately high level of lighting services at the household level. Regarding energy options for agro-processing, most participants of the FGD organized in the nonelectrified community indicated that
As illustrated in Table 2, energy use in the surveyed communities contributes to improving educational activities. Ninety-eight percent and 87% of the respondents of the electrified and nonelectrified households, respectively, rated energy contribution to education as ‘very positive.’ Between electrified and nonelectrified households, the difference between energy contribution to improving conditions for education is statistically significant (Z = −2.437, n = 120, p b 0.05). As regards the contribution of the respondents' energy options reducing the time spent by women in performing domestic activities, 58% of the electrified and nonelectrified households rated the contribution of energy to be negative (Table 2). The difference between energy contribution to improving gender roles in electrified and nonelectrified households is not statistically significant (Z = −0.003, n = 120, p N 0.05). Furthermore, the adopted energy options inhibited job creation opportunities in the surveyed rural communities. In this regard, 68% and 57% of the respondents in electrified and nonelectrified households rated the contribution of their energy options as ‘negative’ (Table 2). The difference between energy contribution to job creation in the electrified and nonelectrified households is not statistically significant (Z = −1.298, n = 120, p N 0.05). Using exposure to indoor air pollution as an indicator of the health impact of adopted energy options, the results indicate that household energy options, particularly cooking fuels, do not Table 1 Energy options and services at the household and community levels. Energy options
Energy services Non-electrifed communities
Electrified communities
Household level
Community level
Household level
Community level
Solar home systems
Lighting Radio Television
Kerosene lamps Traditional biomass stove Improved cookstove Electricity
Lighting Cooking
Lighting Operation of megaphones in mosques Lighting Cooking
Cooking
Cooking Lighting
Lighting Motive power for processing groundnuts and shea nuts.
Multifunctional platform Fuelwood
Cooking heating
Batteries Diesel generators Fig. 2. Household energy options utilized in two electrified communities. Source: Field Data, 2007.
Source: Field Data, 2007.
Motive power for agro-processing Heat for rice parboiling Operation of solar charging center Lighting for community entertainment
216
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
Table 2 Contribution of energy options to socioeconomic development in electrified and nonelectrified householdsa. Benefits
Contribution to improving conditions for education Contribution to improving gender roles Contribution to the creation of job opportunities Reducing indoor air pollution
Electrified households (%)
P-valueb
Nonelectrified households (%)
Negative
Neutral
Slightly positive
Positive
Very positive
Negative
Neutral
Slightly positive
Positive
Very positive
–
2
–
–
98
10
–
–
3
87
b0.05
58
3
2
8
28
58
5
5
2
30
N0.05
68
2
–
3
27
57
2
2
3
37
N0.05
86
–
–
9
5
90
–
2
2
8
N0.05
Source: Field Data, 2007. a N comprises 120 respondents, of which 60 each were selected from electrified and nonelectrified households. b P-values are indicated for Mann Whitney U-test.
contribute to reducing indoor air pollution. Respectively, 86% and 90% of the electrified and nonelectrified households rated the contribution of their energy options as ‘negative’ in this regard (Table 2). The difference between the contribution of energy to reducing indoor air pollution in the electrified and that of nonelectrified households is not statistically significant (Z = −0.556, n = 120, p N 0.05). Relevant policy issues on rural energy development The key policy decisions that influence rural energy delivery and use as exposited by some policy makers are summarized in the next subsections. Cross-sector collaboration Regarding rural energy delivery, the existing level of collaboration between the energy sector and sectors such as agriculture and forestry is minimal. Policy makers interviewed suggest that collaboration between the energy sector and other sector ministries occur only during policy formulation processes where officials of other sectors are encouraged to input into the process. Energy subsidies Regarding subsidies for rural energy delivery and use, the conventional energy supply and use continue to benefit from the bulk of government's energy subsidies. Subsidies were indicated to be particularly important in residential electricity usage where consumers using 50 kWh and below are subsidized. Also, provision of inputs for grid extension as part of government's program on rural electrification was considered as a subsidy for rural electricity supply. Furthermore, the subsidy schemes are incorporated in the program on kerosene distribution in the rural sector. Nevertheless, the policy makers stressed that the government's overall policy is toward full cost recovery on energy supply. Power sector liberalization and private sector participation Concerning the impact of the ongoing power sector reform on rural energy delivery, policy makers foresee an increased penetration of renewable energy in the rural energy mix as one possible outcome of a completely liberalized power sector. The establishment of a transmission utility company (TUC) to manage the national electricity grid will pave the way for independent power producers (IPPs) to generate renewable energy and feed into the national grid. Furthermore, the liberalization of the power sector may encourage the development of the decentralized renewable energy potential in the rural areas through private sector participation in the energy market. The government does not intend to intervene in the traditional role of the private sector in producing and supplying, except to initiate and support appropriate regulatory mechanisms that will ensure sustainability. Furthermore, policy makers revealed that the delivery of solar photovoltaic systems will remain a private sector-led venture.
Discussion The linkages between the findings from the surveyed communities and what pertains at the policy level are discussed in this section. Since Ghana is at the early stage in the power sector reform process, lack of empirical data on reform impact on rural energy delivery precludes the establishment of plausible linkages in the surveyed communities. Nevertheless, the fact that a purely market-oriented approach to reform in most developing countries resulted in reduced access to electricity by rural communities (GNESD, 2004) is instructive enough from the policy perspective. For a sustainable rural energy future to be achieved, it is important that lessons are learned from developing countries that have undergone the reform learning curve. Consequently, Ghana's power sector reform process not only requires policies that encourage private sector entry into the energy market but also introduce regulations that support and enhance energy delivery to rural communities by prospective private sector players. Influence of public policy Generally, the observations from the surveyed communities are closely associated with the prevalent policy praxis in Ghana's energy sector. Increasingly, conventional energy systems using interconnected grid infrastructure receives major fiscal, regulatory, and technical incentives that facilitate their widespread supply. On the other hand, alternative sources of energy continue to witness less public policy support, and consequently, their dissemination is restricted to experiments and pilot schemes. However, encouraging the utilization of viable energy alternatives, particularly for rural development, requires the formulation of relevant policies backed by appropriate institutional frameworks as well as technological and financial incentives that facilitate widespread access to these energy systems (Hiremath et al., 2009). In the nonelectrified communities, the disproportionately low uptake of solar photovoltaic systems despite their dissemination through ongoing initiatives is indicative of a subsidy regime that not only distorts the energy market by increasing the relative cost of supplying and using renewable energy options but also discourages private sector participation in the energy market. Undoubtedly, the current policy objective of a private sector-led solar energy delivery is questionable and also the effectiveness of such a policy measure is doubtful, if conventional energy delivery and use continue to receive disproportionately high subsidies. Given that removal of subsidies on conventional energy systems may not be politically and socially expedient (Karekezi and Kimani, 2002), there is the need for deliberate policy choices that advance equal level of subsidies and other incentives for delivery and use of renewable energy options. In this way, a level playing field will trigger greater private participation in the energy market while stimulating competition between conventional and renewable energy options. Furthermore, the present subsidy regime is indicative of an overemphasized conventional grid extension to the neglect of other
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
alternatives that may offer least cost solutions. For instance, the ongoing government program on rural electrification does not include other non-grid-based options (Togobo-Ahiataku, 2001), although these may provide socially, financially, and environmentally optimal alternatives. Even where renewables such as solar home systems were deployed to and utilized in remote rural communities, the extension of grid electricity to such localities undermined the sustainability of such initiatives (Tokle and Danso, 2007). Consequently, encouraging the use of other cost competitive energy options such as solar photovoltaic systems for rural electrification will require deliberate policy measures that take into account the demarcation of geographical zones to be exclusively served through non-grid-based decentralized options. Inadequate collaboration undoubtedly also contributes to the prevailing trend where energy use does not contribute adequately to catalyzing development in the surveyed communities. For instance, despite the existence of several programs on agricultural development in the surveyed communities, none of the ongoing energy initiatives within the same areas are integrated into the agricultural programs. Yet, achieving greater impacts and sustainability of rural energy programs require approaches that enhance and complement the roles of other sectors and stakeholders. Therefore, there is the need to institutionalize approaches that seek to foster cross-sectoral collaboration, especially between agriculture, energy, and forestry sectors at the program level in rural communities. Energy dimensions of rural development In the surveyed communities, while household and community level energy use contributes markedly to improving the conditions for undertaking educational activities, the contrary exists for gender roles, job creation, and health care. The significant contribution of adopted energy options toward improving conditions for education suggests that in the electrified communities, high-quality lighting services at the household and community levels do not only enable school children to read more but also facilitates the implementation of literacy programs for adults. The pronounced contribution of energy use toward improving conditions for education in the nonelectrified communities may be attributed to lighting services from photovoltaic (PV) systems installed in households as well as in public places such as the mosques. During focus group discussions, participants highlighted the role of community level installations of solar PV systems in facilitating adult educational programs. This finding is consistent with observations from several studies (see Cabraal, Barnes and Agarwal, 2005; Ellegard et al., 2004; Porcaro and Takada, 2005) that stress that access to modern energy services has a positive impact on education in the rural sector. Within the surveyed communities, the dominance of fuelwood and traditional biomass stoves for cooking as well as kerosene lamps for lighting may account for the inhibition of gender roles as well as increased exposure to indoor air pollution at the household level. While the use of liquid fuels and solar home systems, respectively, for cooking and lighting could significantly reduce the problems associated with indoor air pollution, reliance on labor-saving energy technologies present opportunities to free time spent by women on domestic activities for other productive ventures. Despite the fact that dissemination of improved cookstoves and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are ongoing within the surveyed communities, the complete adoption of these energy systems is challenged by the trend toward the use of multiple fuels at the household level. This calls for designing approaches, which not only take into account provision of subsidies to encourage widespread use of efficient cooking fuels in these communities but also institutionalize household level educational programs on the health impacts of traditional biomass use. Rural energy use has enormous potential to increase productivity of small and micro enterprises (SMEs) and create further opportunities for employment creation in rural areas. However, the inhibition of
217
job creation opportunities in the surveyed communities may be due to the fact that the present energy delivery system is not integrated with other existing development structures and programs. For instance, the rural electrification program focuses on extension of grid electricity without necessarily coupling it with other rural development schemes and supporting infrastructure, thereby limiting opportunities for generating the potential high benefits from electricity use. Conclusions Using data collected from beneficiary communities of several energy programs, this article shows that government policies drive energy delivery and use for rural development. An examination of energy use patterns in the electrified and nonelectrified communities indicates that households adopt multiple fuels and energy sources. Household energy use patterns in both types of communities are similar, except that grid electricity and solar home systems are respectively and exclusively used in electrified and nonelectrified households. However, the energy systems adopted in these communities contribute to improve the conditions for improved education but tend to have little impact on other aspects of rural development such as job creation, gender roles, and health improvement. Improvements in the conditions for improved education are triggered by the use of grid electricity in the electrified communities and reliance on solar photovoltaic systems installed at public centers in the nonelectrified communities. These provide lighting services mostly for school children's reading and adult literacy programs in the surveyed communities. On the other hand, the excessive dependence on fuelwood and traditional biomass stoves for cooking has not contributed toward gender empowerment but rather increased exposure of women and children to indoor air pollution at the household level. The absence of other rural infrastructure and markets that complement energy use for SMEs growth and development tends to negatively impact job creation opportunities. At the policy level, inappropriate subsidies and inadequate crosssector collaboration are key factors that inhibit modern energy delivery and use in the surveyed communities. Inasmuch as the ongoing power sector reform presents prospects for private sector participation in the energy market, the extent to which reform will enhance or inhibit rural energy delivery will undoubtedly depend on the policy instruments that are adopted as part of the process. Acknowledgments This research has been conducted with the financial support of the Flemish Inter-university Council (VLIR) of Belgium. The authors thank all organizations and individuals who have contributed in diverse ways toward the accomplishment of this research. Special thanks go to Messrs Joseph Essandoh Yeddu, Wisdom Togobo-Ahiataku, and Michael Opam for providing useful insights on the policy aspects of energy delivery and utilization in Northern Ghana. The helpful comments and suggestions provided by Dr. Gautam Dutt, editor of ESD, are also well acknowledged. References Abavana CG. Customer and supply choices available in the utility environment. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Power Systems Operation Planning, Accra, Ghana; 2000. Bates, J., Gunning, R., Stapleton, G., 2003. PV for rural electrification in developing countries: a guide to capacity building requirements, http://www.iea-pvps.org/ products/download/rep9_03.pdf [Accessed on 1st September, 2008]. Cabraal RA, Barnes DF, Agarwal SG. Productive uses of energy for rural development. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resources 2005;30:117–44. Davis M. Rural households energy consumption: the effects of access to electricity: evidence from South Africa. Energy Policy 1998;26(3):201–17.
218
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
Dernedde S, Ahenkorah-Ofosu AK. Mini Hydro Power in Ghana: Prospects and Challenges. Accra: Energy Foundation-Ghana; 2002. Dieden S, Chia-Chin C, Haslev-Hansen N, Hinostroza M, Mackenzie GA. Development and energy in Africa: literature survey report. DEA report # Risø 2.1. EU COOPENER Programme; 2007. Energy Commission (EC). Strategic National Energy Plan and Policy, 2005-2020. Accra: Energy Commission-Ghana; 2006. Ejekumhene, I., Amadu, M.B., Brew-Hammond, A., 2001a. Power sector reform in Ghana: the untold story, http://pdf.wri.org/ghana.pdf [Accessed on 14th October, 2008]. Ejekumhene I, Atakora SB, Konadu-Atta R, Brew-Hammond A. Implementation of renewable energy technologies. Opportunities and Barriers-Ghana Country Study. Denmark: UNEP Collaborating Center on Energy and Environment; 2001b. Ellegard A, Arvidson A, Nordstrom M, Kalumiana O, Mwanza C. Rural people pay for solar: experiences from the Zambia PV-ESCO project. Renew. Energy 2004;29: 1251–63. Global Network on Energy for Sustainable Development (GNESD). Energy access theme results: synthesis/compilation report. United Nations Environment Programme. Denmark: Roskilde; 2004. Global Network on Energy for Sustainable Development (GNESD). Reaching the millennium development goals and beyond: access to modern forms of energy as a prerequisite. United Nations Environment Programme. Denmark: Roskilde; 2007. Hiremath RB, Kumar B, Balachandra P, Ravindranath NH, Raghunandan BN. Decentralised renewable energy: scope, relevance and applications in the Indian context. Energy for Sustainable Development 2009;13:4-10. Illiceto F, Kappiah K. Technical and economic features of unconventional systems for rural electrification: applications in Ghana. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Power Systems Operation Planning, Accra, Ghana; 2000. Kapadia K. Productive Uses of Renewable Energy: A Review of Four Bank-GEF Projects. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2004. http://www.martinot.info/Kapadia_WB.pdf [Accessed on 18th August, 2008]. Karekezi S, Kimani J. Status of power sector reform in Africa: impact on the poor. Energy Policy 2002;30:923–45. Karekezi S, Kithyoma W. Renewable energy strategies for rural Africa: is a PV led renewable energy strategy the right approach for providing modern energy to the rural poor of sub-Saharan Africa? Energy Policy 2000;30:1071–86. Ketlogetswe C, Mothudi TH, Mothibi J. Effectiveness of Botswana's policy on rural electrification. Energy Policy 2007;35:1330–7. Martinot E, Chaurey A, Lew D, Moreira JR, Wamukonya N. Renewable energy markets in developing countries. Annu. Rev. EnergyEnviron. 2002;27:309–48.
Masera OR, Saatkamp BD, Kammen DM. From linear fuel switching to multiple cooking strategies: a critique and alternative to the energy ladder model. World Dev. 2000;8(12):2083–103. Mfune O, Boon EK. Promoting Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Development in Africa: Experiences of Zambia, Journal of Human Ecology. Delhi, India: Kamla-Raj Enterprises; 2007. Minstry of Energy (MoE). National Energy Policy-Draft final. Accra: Ministry of EnergyGhana; 2006. Porcaro J, Takada M, editors. Achieving the Millennium Development Goals: The Role of Energy Services: Case Studies from Brazil, Mali and Philippines. New York: United Nations Development Programme; 2005. Srivastava L, Rehman IH. Energy for sustainable development in India: linkages and strategic direction. Energy Policy 2006;34:643–54. Togobo-Ahiataku, W., 2001. Energy subsidies in Africa: results and recommendations from Durban workshop, http://www.iea.org/textbase/work/2001/UNEP/Africa. pdf [Accessed on 10th September, 2008]. Togobo-Ahiataku, W., 2005. The role of renewable energy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development in Africa: the Ghana experience in funding rural/ renewable energy through levies on fossil fuels and electricity. PfA Policy Dialogue Conference, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, http://www.hedon.info/docs/S3-3-TogoboPfA-Tanzania-0506.pdf [Accessed on 5th September 2008]. Tokle, S., Danso, E.Y., 2007. Joint evaluation of the GEF small grants programme: country programme case study-Ghana. Evaluation report prepared for the GEF and UNDP evaluation offices, http://www.gefweb.org/uploadedFiles/Publications_SGP_ Case_Study-Ghana.pdf [Accessed on 10th September, 2008]. Usher E. Financing the path to renewable energy enterprises. Renewable Energy for Development 2007;20(2):1-16. Stephen Kankam is a Project Coordinator of Friends of the Nation (FoN), a local notfor-profit organization in Ghana. He is also a research associate of the Accra-based International Centre for Enterprise and Sustainable Development (ICED)—a center of excellence for action research and capacity building in sub-Saharan Africa. Mr. Kankam holds a master's degree in Human Ecology from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. Emmanuel Kwesi Boon is a Professor of Human Ecology and Environmental Management at Human Ecology Department of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. He is also the founder and Chairman of the International Centre for Enterprise and Sustainable Development (ICED), an NGO based in Accra, Ghana.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy for Sustainable Development
Energy delivery and utilization for rural development: Lessons from Northern Ghana Stephen Kankam a, Emmanuel K. Boon b,⁎ a b
Friends of the Nation, PO Box MC 11, Takoradi, Ghana Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Human Ecology Department, Laarbeeklaan 103, B-1090 Brussels Belgium
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 11 August 2009 Accepted 12 August 2009 Keywords: Education Energy policy Gender roles Job creation Rural development
a b s t r a c t This article explores the linkages between government energy policies and energy use for rural development. The article is based on surveys conducted in selected rural communities in Northern Ghana that are beneficiaries of several energy dissemination programs spearheaded by the government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and donors. Primary data were collected on energy use at the household and community levels using questionnaires and focus group discussions complemented by interviews of energy policy makers. Ghana's energy policy documents were reviewed to gain further insights into the policy process. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to treat and analyze the data obtained through household questionnaires, while the data generated from interviews and focus group discussions were subjected to content analysis. The results of the analysis indicate that while energy use contributes to improving conditions for education due to lighting services at the household and community levels, the patterns of energy use inhibit rural job creation, gender roles, and health care in the surveyed communities. The article concludes that the low contribution of energy toward rural development is to a large extent driven by an energy policy that inhibits the delivery and use of modern energy sources in rural Ghana. Consequently, achieving an energy future that has greater relevance to rural development in Ghana requires a mix of policy tools that enhances the delivery and use of modern energy systems in rural communities in the country. © 2009 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction There is consensus in both the scientific and development communities regarding the role of energy as a catalyst for development at the global, national, and local levels. For instance, at the global level, energy linkages have been established with all the targets of the millennium development goals (MDGs) (GNESD, 2007; Kapadia, 2004). To a large extent, this energy development nexus permeates to the local level (GNESD, 2007). In rural areas of developing countries, applications involving energy systems are commonplace in agriculture, household activities, and in the operation of small and micro enterprises (SMEs) (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2000). Undoubtedly, the type and quality of energy systems adopted and utilized at the household and community levels are inexorably linked with changes in rural living standards. Since access to modern energy services could facilitate the productivity of SMEs, boost agricultural production, and improve health conditions (Cabraal et al., 2005), the scope for improving rural living standards is increased if dissemination and utilization of modern energy systems dominate the rural energy scene. On the other hand, if rural energy systems continue to be characterized by
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 2 477 42 81. E-mail address: [email protected] (E.K. Boon).
excessive production and utilization of unprocessed biomass and inefficient energy options, the necessary conditions for social, economic, and ecological advancement in rural communities will remain constrained. Modern energy systems in this article refers to a broad range of energy options including fossil fuels such as kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), grid connected or off-grid electricity, and renewable energy technologies (RETs). In rural Ghana, the process of delivering and utilizing modern energy systems has been in existence for decades. This is evidenced by long-standing donor-driven initiatives that encourage dissemination and use of solar and biomass energy technologies, LPG, and kerosene in rural communities, as well as the commitment of successive governments toward continuous implementation of rural electrification programs using grid extension. These initiatives are driven by the need to enhance rural quality of life through the introduction of energy services that support improvement in health, education, employment, and sustenance of the natural environment (MoE, 2006). Moreover, the benefits associated with the use of modern energy systems have caught the attention of policy makers and development agents in recent times. A review of literature reveals that the technical aspects of development and deployment of energy systems in rural Ghana have gained much scholarly attention (see Abavana, 2000; Dernedde and Ahenkorah-Ofosu, 2002; Illiceto and Kappiah, 2000). Apparently,
0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2009 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2009.08.002
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
investigation of the contribution of the existing framework of energy supply and use, as well as the potential of alternative schemes of energy delivery toward rural development, has been neglected. Meanwhile, such information is indispensable to energy policy formulation processes (Mfune and Boon, 2007). This article therefore explores the dynamics of energy delivery and utilization in selected communities in rural Ghana and examines the extent to which energy use patterns contribute to enhancing or perhaps inhibiting the conditions necessary for attaining sustainable rural development. The article advances and tests the hypothesis that ‘relationships exist between energy policy choices, rural energy use patterns and energy contribution to the attainment of rural development.’ In order words, the article investigates the premise that if energy policies encourage greater deployment and use of modern energy systems, the requisite conditions for achieving rural sustainability will be enhanced. Institutional and policy factors influencing rural energy delivery and utilization section of the article reviews key institutional issues and policy trends that influence energy supply and utilization in rural Ghana. The data collection and analytical methods used are described in the Methods and Materials section. Results and discussion section discusses the findings and establishes the relationships between key energy policy choices and what pertains in the four surveyed communities. Concluding remarks are provided in the Conclusions section. Institutional and policy factors influencing rural energy delivery and utilization As in most developing countries, energy delivery and utilization in Ghana are influenced by institutions and policy mechanisms in the energy sector. Governmental and nongovernmental organizations are key to ensuring a sustainable supply of energy services to rural communities. However, state energy institutions have the sole mandate to implement policies that promote rural energy delivery and utilization. The role of institutions in energy delivery Currently, government agencies in Ghana are the major energy sector institutional actors. This is evident in their primary function of formulating policies that drive energy supply and utilization as well as their prominent role in the delivery of electricity services and distribution of petroleum products throughout the country (MoE, 2006). It is worthy to note that regarding the specifics of supplying energy to rural communities, the onus lies not only on public energy sector agencies but also on state institutions with mandates in sectors such as agriculture and forestry. For instance, through its Directorate for Engineering Services, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) has piloted the dissemination of irrigation water pumps driven by wind turbines. Also, several forest sector agencies are engaged in wood plantation programs in various parts of the country. In ensuring access to and utilization of rural energy services, the roles of research institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private sector actors complement the functions of state agencies. While the activities of research institutions have focused on the development of technologies for converting and utilizing renewable energy resources (MoE, 2006), some NGOs and private sector actors have been directly engaged in the dissemination of sustainable energy technologies in rural communities. Undoubtedly, the interplay of several institutions in the delivery of rural energy services presents opportunities not only for crosssectoral coordination of energy supply functions but also for greater interagency collaboration to facilitate the development of synergies during the implementation of rural energy programs. Mostly,
213
proponents of multisectoral approaches argue that, for rural energy delivery schemes to be effective, there is a need for enhanced collaboration between related sectors (Bates et al., 2003; Cabraal et al., 2005; Srivastava and Rehman, 2006). Policy responses to rural energy supply and utilization For the purposes of planning, Ghana's energy sector is divided into two broad areas: demand for energy and supply of energy. While the demand side comprises the household, commercial and service, agricultural and fisheries, transport and industrial sectors, and the implementation of energy efficiency and conservation measures, the supply-side sectors consist of electricity, petroleum, fuelwoods, and renewable energy (EC, 2006). In line with the scope of this article, the discussion in this part is limited to the household, electricity, and renewable energy sectors. Nevertheless, references are made to other subsectors in order to establish relevant linkages. Essentially, energy supply policies in Ghana encourage greater access to modern energy services. And in rural settings, justification for actions that seek to widen access to modern energy lie in the fact that access to adequate, reliable, and environmentally benign energy sources are disproportionately low. Mostly, measures that are advanced to bridge the energy access gap between rural and urban communities have relied on the extension of the existing electricity grid to the rural sector. However, most rural and some suburban communities in Ghana are located far away from the existing electricity distribution networks and they also have low load densities (Abavana, 2000). Therefore, the capital investments required for extending conventional grid electrification services to such communities are prohibitive and undoubtedly beyond the financial capacity of the government. Consequently, the emergence of policies that seek to facilitate private sector participation in the energy market reflects the difficulties that the government encounter in financing initiatives aimed at expanding access to electricity services (Ejekumhene, et al., 2001a). In many developing countries, energy policy decisions that encourage private sector entry into the energy market have evolved in tandem with broader energy sector reform (GNESD, 2004; Ketlogetswe et al., 2007). In Ghana, such reforms have given much policy and regulatory attention to the electricity sector. This is evident in the enactment of the Energy Commission Act 541 and the Public Utilities Regulatory Commission Act 538, which, respectively, guarantee unbundling of generation and transmission of electricity, and the establishment of a public Transmission Utility Company (TUC) to manage the national electricity grid (MoE, 2006). Although the restructuring of electricity sector institutions is a central part of Ghana's power sector reform, widening access to electricity has underlined the policies introduced as part of the reform process. As noted by Ejekumhene et al. (2001a), one of the key policy factors that informed the commencement of Ghana's power sector reform was ensuring a universal access to electricity by the year 2020. Nevertheless, the contribution of such reforms to ensuring widespread electricity access in rural communities is undoubtedly influenced by other policy mechanisms and regulatory measures that are introduced to catalyze the development of rural energy. In Ghana, subsidies are one of the policy mechanisms that have increasingly been adopted to leverage the supply and utilization of rural energy. Supply-side subsidies are applied to support network extension to communities and also facilitate connection at the household level. For instance, within the framework of the Self Help Electrification Programme (SHEP), government provides the requisite finances to extend electricity to rural communities with over 500 inhabitants but located within 20 km of an existing subtransmission line (Ejekumhene et al., 2001b). Generally, when measured against conventional energy options, the level of subsidies that government provides to support the supply of renewable energy in rural Ghana is low. However,
214
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
indications from some developing countries are that where renewable energy options received equal levels of subsidies as conventional energy sources, their market penetration and subsequent adoption were relatively high (Martinot et al., 2002; Usher, 2007). Traditionally, utilization of rural energy options has been spurred through the implementation of programs that particularly target household energy use. Mostly, these programs seek to enable efficient utilization of biomass fuels and leverage a switch from the use of traditional biomass to cleaner alternatives through the provision of subsidies. For instance, the Kerosene Distribution Improvement (KDI) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) programs being rolled out in rural Ghana seek to, respectively, increase rural affordability of kerosene and encourage the adoption of LPG as the major cooking fuel at the household level (Togobo-Ahiataku, 2005). Yet, the implementation of these programs has not been devoid of challenges. The fact that the richer households are higher consumers of energy in Ghana increases the odds against better targeting of intended beneficiaries of subsidy schemes, who are mainly the rural poor. More so, given that the predominant pattern of energy use in the rural sector continues to be the adoption of multiple fuels (Davis, 1998; Masera et al., 2000), the objective of achieving fuel saving, energy efficiency, and reduced indoor air pollution through price subsidies for modern fuels may as well be stifled under these energy use conditions. Clearly, macrolevel policy decisions define and direct rural level energy delivery and use systems. Using empirical data, these linkages are depicted in the context of the four surveyed rural communities. Methods and materials The study location This study was conducted in four rural communities – Nwodua, Langa, Bognayili, and Changnayili – located within the Northern region of Ghana. These communities fall within the Guinea Savanna agroecological zone, characterized by a unimodal rainfall regime lasting 5–6 months and periods of drought, lasting up to 6–7 months in the year. The settlements are arranged in scattered and clustered patterns, with households constituting an average cluster of eight rooms. Agriculture is the mainstay of the inhabitants in the study communities with majority engaged in the cultivation of yam, rice, and groundnuts for the market as well as household consumption. Mostly, the women are engaged in agro-based income generating activities such as rice, groundnuts, and shea nuts processing. Nevertheless, cottage industries provide other source of livelihood opportunities, especially for inhabitants within the nonelectrified communities. The selection of these communities was motivated by their peculiar socioeconomic characteristics, which render these areas relevant for investigation. First, the communities are characterized by dependence on farm and nonfarm small and micro enterprises (SMEs) for socioeconomic development. Second, they are beneficiaries of long-standing modern energy dissemination programs and projects implemented by the government, NGOs, donors or through their cooperation. Notable among such initiatives are Household Energy Programme for Cooking (HEPC), Wood Fuel Plantation Programme (WPP), Ghana Multifunctional Platform Programme (GMPP), and projects disseminating solar photovoltaic systems. Finally, some of the communities selected for the investigation are beneficiaries of the program on rural electrification, which is being implemented by the government of Ghana (GoG). Data collection and analysis Data were collected from both secondary and primary sources. An extensive review of Ghana's energy policy documents, relevant books, journals, publications, reports, and case studies from Ghana and
elsewhere in the developing world provided the theoretical basis for designing the field instruments and analysis of the data. Primary data were collected through a triangulated approach that involved the use of structured questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs) at the household and community levels. Purposive sampling was used to select the four communities based on their characteristics mentioned in The study location section. The communities were stratified on the basis of electrified (Nwodua and Langa) and nonelectrified (Bognayili and Changnayili). Using simple random sampling techniques, a total of 120 heads of households, comprising 60 each from electrified and nonelectrified communities, were picked for questionnaire interviews. Survey questionnaires probed the level of contribution of household energy use patterns toward improving the conditions of education, job creation, gender roles, and health. In this way, energy delivery to and utilization in these communities were evaluated as contributing factors toward development, rather than replacements of development programs (Dieden et al., 2007). Underpinning these questions is the fact that depending on the patterns of energy utilization, rural energy systems may either enhance or inhibit these key aspects of rural development. Consequently, respondents were invited to rate on a 5-point scale, ranging from “negative” (1) to “very positive” (5), the level of contribution of household energy use. Two FGDs, each organized in an electrified (Nwodua) and unelectrifed (Changnayili) community, enabled the exploration of the dynamics of community level energy use patterns, especially for productive activities. Interviews of key policy makers were conducted to explore macrolevel decisions that have a bearing on rural energy delivery and utilization. Key policy issues that were investigated through the interviews were policy instruments and programs for promoting rural energy delivery and usage; extent of cross-sectoral collaboration for rural energy delivery; models for renewable energy delivery; and influence of power sector reform on rural energy access. The collected data were coded and inputted as nominal or ordinal data into the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS, version 11) and the results presented and illustrated using frequencies, percentages, and pie charts. Tests of statistical significance (Mann-Whitney U-test) were performed to investigate statistically significant differences between the levels of contribution of household energy use patterns toward education, gender roles, health conditions, and job creation in the electrified and nonelectrified households. Content analysis was conducted on data collected through FGDs and interviews. Results and discussion The results are presented in three parts. The first part characterizes energy use patterns in the surveyed communities at the household and community levels. These are disaggregated to depict energy use patterns in electrified and nonelectrified households. In the second part, the contribution of the adopted energy options to different aspects of rural development is presented. The final part discusses the results of interviews conducted on policy makers. Energy use patterns The results indicate multiple fuel use in most households in the surveyed communities. The majority (71%) of households in the nonelectrified communities reported use of traditional biomass stoves and kerosene lamps, while the remaining households (13% and 8%) reported dependence on two or more energy options. By contrast, only 8% of households in the nonelectrified communities reported use of only traditional biomass stoves (Fig. 1). Generally, these energy use patterns suggest that most households within the nonelectrified communities tend to utilize fuelwood and kerosene as major fuels. Within the electrified communities, the dominant (75%) combination of energy options at the household level are electricity,
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
215
fuelwood offers limited options for agro-processing; it mainly provides heat for rice parboiling. Furthermore, participants of FGDs in both communities indicated that women from nearby villages often trek to their communities to undertake agro-processing activities. This is because of the absence of electric-operated grinding mills or multifunctional platforms in such villages. It also became evident that inhabitants of nonelectrified and electrified communities obtain cooking services from similar energy options, that is, households in both communities tend to use fuelwood in applications involving improved cookstoves and traditional biomass stoves for cooking. Table 1 summarizes energy options and corresponding services at the household and community levels. Energy use and rural development Fig. 1. Household energy options utilized in two nonelectrified communities. Source: Field Data, 2007.
traditional biomass stoves, improved cookstoves, and kerosene lamps, while the remaining households depend on two or more energy options (Fig. 2). Comparing energy options utilized in electrified and nonelectrified households reveal a trend toward adoption of more than three energy options in electrified households. This trend suggests that for the electrified communities, electricity is mostly an additional energy option rather than a replacement for other commonly used fuel sources such as fuelwood and kerosene. Furthermore, 11% of households in the electrified communities that do not depend on electricity suggest that supply of electricity at the community level may not be sufficient to ensure its use at the household level. End uses of energy options in electrified and nonelectrified communities In investigating the end uses of adopted energy options, participants in focus group discussions (FGDs) were invited to identify the energy services derived from the major energy options adopted at the household and community levels. The major energy services reported include cooking, lighting, heating, and motive power for agro-processing activities. While solar home systems and kerosene lamps provide lighting services in the nonelectrified communities, electricity is the major energy option that provides lighting services in electrified communities. Also, the relatively few households (8%) that rely on solar home systems (Fig. 1) suggest that within nonelectrified communities, kerosene lamps provide a disproportionately high level of lighting services at the household level. Regarding energy options for agro-processing, most participants of the FGD organized in the nonelectrified community indicated that
As illustrated in Table 2, energy use in the surveyed communities contributes to improving educational activities. Ninety-eight percent and 87% of the respondents of the electrified and nonelectrified households, respectively, rated energy contribution to education as ‘very positive.’ Between electrified and nonelectrified households, the difference between energy contribution to improving conditions for education is statistically significant (Z = −2.437, n = 120, p b 0.05). As regards the contribution of the respondents' energy options reducing the time spent by women in performing domestic activities, 58% of the electrified and nonelectrified households rated the contribution of energy to be negative (Table 2). The difference between energy contribution to improving gender roles in electrified and nonelectrified households is not statistically significant (Z = −0.003, n = 120, p N 0.05). Furthermore, the adopted energy options inhibited job creation opportunities in the surveyed rural communities. In this regard, 68% and 57% of the respondents in electrified and nonelectrified households rated the contribution of their energy options as ‘negative’ (Table 2). The difference between energy contribution to job creation in the electrified and nonelectrified households is not statistically significant (Z = −1.298, n = 120, p N 0.05). Using exposure to indoor air pollution as an indicator of the health impact of adopted energy options, the results indicate that household energy options, particularly cooking fuels, do not Table 1 Energy options and services at the household and community levels. Energy options
Energy services Non-electrifed communities
Electrified communities
Household level
Community level
Household level
Community level
Solar home systems
Lighting Radio Television
Kerosene lamps Traditional biomass stove Improved cookstove Electricity
Lighting Cooking
Lighting Operation of megaphones in mosques Lighting Cooking
Cooking
Cooking Lighting
Lighting Motive power for processing groundnuts and shea nuts.
Multifunctional platform Fuelwood
Cooking heating
Batteries Diesel generators Fig. 2. Household energy options utilized in two electrified communities. Source: Field Data, 2007.
Source: Field Data, 2007.
Motive power for agro-processing Heat for rice parboiling Operation of solar charging center Lighting for community entertainment
216
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
Table 2 Contribution of energy options to socioeconomic development in electrified and nonelectrified householdsa. Benefits
Contribution to improving conditions for education Contribution to improving gender roles Contribution to the creation of job opportunities Reducing indoor air pollution
Electrified households (%)
P-valueb
Nonelectrified households (%)
Negative
Neutral
Slightly positive
Positive
Very positive
Negative
Neutral
Slightly positive
Positive
Very positive
–
2
–
–
98
10
–
–
3
87
b0.05
58
3
2
8
28
58
5
5
2
30
N0.05
68
2
–
3
27
57
2
2
3
37
N0.05
86
–
–
9
5
90
–
2
2
8
N0.05
Source: Field Data, 2007. a N comprises 120 respondents, of which 60 each were selected from electrified and nonelectrified households. b P-values are indicated for Mann Whitney U-test.
contribute to reducing indoor air pollution. Respectively, 86% and 90% of the electrified and nonelectrified households rated the contribution of their energy options as ‘negative’ in this regard (Table 2). The difference between the contribution of energy to reducing indoor air pollution in the electrified and that of nonelectrified households is not statistically significant (Z = −0.556, n = 120, p N 0.05). Relevant policy issues on rural energy development The key policy decisions that influence rural energy delivery and use as exposited by some policy makers are summarized in the next subsections. Cross-sector collaboration Regarding rural energy delivery, the existing level of collaboration between the energy sector and sectors such as agriculture and forestry is minimal. Policy makers interviewed suggest that collaboration between the energy sector and other sector ministries occur only during policy formulation processes where officials of other sectors are encouraged to input into the process. Energy subsidies Regarding subsidies for rural energy delivery and use, the conventional energy supply and use continue to benefit from the bulk of government's energy subsidies. Subsidies were indicated to be particularly important in residential electricity usage where consumers using 50 kWh and below are subsidized. Also, provision of inputs for grid extension as part of government's program on rural electrification was considered as a subsidy for rural electricity supply. Furthermore, the subsidy schemes are incorporated in the program on kerosene distribution in the rural sector. Nevertheless, the policy makers stressed that the government's overall policy is toward full cost recovery on energy supply. Power sector liberalization and private sector participation Concerning the impact of the ongoing power sector reform on rural energy delivery, policy makers foresee an increased penetration of renewable energy in the rural energy mix as one possible outcome of a completely liberalized power sector. The establishment of a transmission utility company (TUC) to manage the national electricity grid will pave the way for independent power producers (IPPs) to generate renewable energy and feed into the national grid. Furthermore, the liberalization of the power sector may encourage the development of the decentralized renewable energy potential in the rural areas through private sector participation in the energy market. The government does not intend to intervene in the traditional role of the private sector in producing and supplying, except to initiate and support appropriate regulatory mechanisms that will ensure sustainability. Furthermore, policy makers revealed that the delivery of solar photovoltaic systems will remain a private sector-led venture.
Discussion The linkages between the findings from the surveyed communities and what pertains at the policy level are discussed in this section. Since Ghana is at the early stage in the power sector reform process, lack of empirical data on reform impact on rural energy delivery precludes the establishment of plausible linkages in the surveyed communities. Nevertheless, the fact that a purely market-oriented approach to reform in most developing countries resulted in reduced access to electricity by rural communities (GNESD, 2004) is instructive enough from the policy perspective. For a sustainable rural energy future to be achieved, it is important that lessons are learned from developing countries that have undergone the reform learning curve. Consequently, Ghana's power sector reform process not only requires policies that encourage private sector entry into the energy market but also introduce regulations that support and enhance energy delivery to rural communities by prospective private sector players. Influence of public policy Generally, the observations from the surveyed communities are closely associated with the prevalent policy praxis in Ghana's energy sector. Increasingly, conventional energy systems using interconnected grid infrastructure receives major fiscal, regulatory, and technical incentives that facilitate their widespread supply. On the other hand, alternative sources of energy continue to witness less public policy support, and consequently, their dissemination is restricted to experiments and pilot schemes. However, encouraging the utilization of viable energy alternatives, particularly for rural development, requires the formulation of relevant policies backed by appropriate institutional frameworks as well as technological and financial incentives that facilitate widespread access to these energy systems (Hiremath et al., 2009). In the nonelectrified communities, the disproportionately low uptake of solar photovoltaic systems despite their dissemination through ongoing initiatives is indicative of a subsidy regime that not only distorts the energy market by increasing the relative cost of supplying and using renewable energy options but also discourages private sector participation in the energy market. Undoubtedly, the current policy objective of a private sector-led solar energy delivery is questionable and also the effectiveness of such a policy measure is doubtful, if conventional energy delivery and use continue to receive disproportionately high subsidies. Given that removal of subsidies on conventional energy systems may not be politically and socially expedient (Karekezi and Kimani, 2002), there is the need for deliberate policy choices that advance equal level of subsidies and other incentives for delivery and use of renewable energy options. In this way, a level playing field will trigger greater private participation in the energy market while stimulating competition between conventional and renewable energy options. Furthermore, the present subsidy regime is indicative of an overemphasized conventional grid extension to the neglect of other
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
alternatives that may offer least cost solutions. For instance, the ongoing government program on rural electrification does not include other non-grid-based options (Togobo-Ahiataku, 2001), although these may provide socially, financially, and environmentally optimal alternatives. Even where renewables such as solar home systems were deployed to and utilized in remote rural communities, the extension of grid electricity to such localities undermined the sustainability of such initiatives (Tokle and Danso, 2007). Consequently, encouraging the use of other cost competitive energy options such as solar photovoltaic systems for rural electrification will require deliberate policy measures that take into account the demarcation of geographical zones to be exclusively served through non-grid-based decentralized options. Inadequate collaboration undoubtedly also contributes to the prevailing trend where energy use does not contribute adequately to catalyzing development in the surveyed communities. For instance, despite the existence of several programs on agricultural development in the surveyed communities, none of the ongoing energy initiatives within the same areas are integrated into the agricultural programs. Yet, achieving greater impacts and sustainability of rural energy programs require approaches that enhance and complement the roles of other sectors and stakeholders. Therefore, there is the need to institutionalize approaches that seek to foster cross-sectoral collaboration, especially between agriculture, energy, and forestry sectors at the program level in rural communities. Energy dimensions of rural development In the surveyed communities, while household and community level energy use contributes markedly to improving the conditions for undertaking educational activities, the contrary exists for gender roles, job creation, and health care. The significant contribution of adopted energy options toward improving conditions for education suggests that in the electrified communities, high-quality lighting services at the household and community levels do not only enable school children to read more but also facilitates the implementation of literacy programs for adults. The pronounced contribution of energy use toward improving conditions for education in the nonelectrified communities may be attributed to lighting services from photovoltaic (PV) systems installed in households as well as in public places such as the mosques. During focus group discussions, participants highlighted the role of community level installations of solar PV systems in facilitating adult educational programs. This finding is consistent with observations from several studies (see Cabraal, Barnes and Agarwal, 2005; Ellegard et al., 2004; Porcaro and Takada, 2005) that stress that access to modern energy services has a positive impact on education in the rural sector. Within the surveyed communities, the dominance of fuelwood and traditional biomass stoves for cooking as well as kerosene lamps for lighting may account for the inhibition of gender roles as well as increased exposure to indoor air pollution at the household level. While the use of liquid fuels and solar home systems, respectively, for cooking and lighting could significantly reduce the problems associated with indoor air pollution, reliance on labor-saving energy technologies present opportunities to free time spent by women on domestic activities for other productive ventures. Despite the fact that dissemination of improved cookstoves and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are ongoing within the surveyed communities, the complete adoption of these energy systems is challenged by the trend toward the use of multiple fuels at the household level. This calls for designing approaches, which not only take into account provision of subsidies to encourage widespread use of efficient cooking fuels in these communities but also institutionalize household level educational programs on the health impacts of traditional biomass use. Rural energy use has enormous potential to increase productivity of small and micro enterprises (SMEs) and create further opportunities for employment creation in rural areas. However, the inhibition of
217
job creation opportunities in the surveyed communities may be due to the fact that the present energy delivery system is not integrated with other existing development structures and programs. For instance, the rural electrification program focuses on extension of grid electricity without necessarily coupling it with other rural development schemes and supporting infrastructure, thereby limiting opportunities for generating the potential high benefits from electricity use. Conclusions Using data collected from beneficiary communities of several energy programs, this article shows that government policies drive energy delivery and use for rural development. An examination of energy use patterns in the electrified and nonelectrified communities indicates that households adopt multiple fuels and energy sources. Household energy use patterns in both types of communities are similar, except that grid electricity and solar home systems are respectively and exclusively used in electrified and nonelectrified households. However, the energy systems adopted in these communities contribute to improve the conditions for improved education but tend to have little impact on other aspects of rural development such as job creation, gender roles, and health improvement. Improvements in the conditions for improved education are triggered by the use of grid electricity in the electrified communities and reliance on solar photovoltaic systems installed at public centers in the nonelectrified communities. These provide lighting services mostly for school children's reading and adult literacy programs in the surveyed communities. On the other hand, the excessive dependence on fuelwood and traditional biomass stoves for cooking has not contributed toward gender empowerment but rather increased exposure of women and children to indoor air pollution at the household level. The absence of other rural infrastructure and markets that complement energy use for SMEs growth and development tends to negatively impact job creation opportunities. At the policy level, inappropriate subsidies and inadequate crosssector collaboration are key factors that inhibit modern energy delivery and use in the surveyed communities. Inasmuch as the ongoing power sector reform presents prospects for private sector participation in the energy market, the extent to which reform will enhance or inhibit rural energy delivery will undoubtedly depend on the policy instruments that are adopted as part of the process. Acknowledgments This research has been conducted with the financial support of the Flemish Inter-university Council (VLIR) of Belgium. The authors thank all organizations and individuals who have contributed in diverse ways toward the accomplishment of this research. Special thanks go to Messrs Joseph Essandoh Yeddu, Wisdom Togobo-Ahiataku, and Michael Opam for providing useful insights on the policy aspects of energy delivery and utilization in Northern Ghana. The helpful comments and suggestions provided by Dr. Gautam Dutt, editor of ESD, are also well acknowledged. References Abavana CG. Customer and supply choices available in the utility environment. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Power Systems Operation Planning, Accra, Ghana; 2000. Bates, J., Gunning, R., Stapleton, G., 2003. PV for rural electrification in developing countries: a guide to capacity building requirements, http://www.iea-pvps.org/ products/download/rep9_03.pdf [Accessed on 1st September, 2008]. Cabraal RA, Barnes DF, Agarwal SG. Productive uses of energy for rural development. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resources 2005;30:117–44. Davis M. Rural households energy consumption: the effects of access to electricity: evidence from South Africa. Energy Policy 1998;26(3):201–17.
218
S. Kankam, E.K. Boon / Energy for Sustainable Development 13 (2009) 212–218
Dernedde S, Ahenkorah-Ofosu AK. Mini Hydro Power in Ghana: Prospects and Challenges. Accra: Energy Foundation-Ghana; 2002. Dieden S, Chia-Chin C, Haslev-Hansen N, Hinostroza M, Mackenzie GA. Development and energy in Africa: literature survey report. DEA report # Risø 2.1. EU COOPENER Programme; 2007. Energy Commission (EC). Strategic National Energy Plan and Policy, 2005-2020. Accra: Energy Commission-Ghana; 2006. Ejekumhene, I., Amadu, M.B., Brew-Hammond, A., 2001a. Power sector reform in Ghana: the untold story, http://pdf.wri.org/ghana.pdf [Accessed on 14th October, 2008]. Ejekumhene I, Atakora SB, Konadu-Atta R, Brew-Hammond A. Implementation of renewable energy technologies. Opportunities and Barriers-Ghana Country Study. Denmark: UNEP Collaborating Center on Energy and Environment; 2001b. Ellegard A, Arvidson A, Nordstrom M, Kalumiana O, Mwanza C. Rural people pay for solar: experiences from the Zambia PV-ESCO project. Renew. Energy 2004;29: 1251–63. Global Network on Energy for Sustainable Development (GNESD). Energy access theme results: synthesis/compilation report. United Nations Environment Programme. Denmark: Roskilde; 2004. Global Network on Energy for Sustainable Development (GNESD). Reaching the millennium development goals and beyond: access to modern forms of energy as a prerequisite. United Nations Environment Programme. Denmark: Roskilde; 2007. Hiremath RB, Kumar B, Balachandra P, Ravindranath NH, Raghunandan BN. Decentralised renewable energy: scope, relevance and applications in the Indian context. Energy for Sustainable Development 2009;13:4-10. Illiceto F, Kappiah K. Technical and economic features of unconventional systems for rural electrification: applications in Ghana. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Power Systems Operation Planning, Accra, Ghana; 2000. Kapadia K. Productive Uses of Renewable Energy: A Review of Four Bank-GEF Projects. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2004. http://www.martinot.info/Kapadia_WB.pdf [Accessed on 18th August, 2008]. Karekezi S, Kimani J. Status of power sector reform in Africa: impact on the poor. Energy Policy 2002;30:923–45. Karekezi S, Kithyoma W. Renewable energy strategies for rural Africa: is a PV led renewable energy strategy the right approach for providing modern energy to the rural poor of sub-Saharan Africa? Energy Policy 2000;30:1071–86. Ketlogetswe C, Mothudi TH, Mothibi J. Effectiveness of Botswana's policy on rural electrification. Energy Policy 2007;35:1330–7. Martinot E, Chaurey A, Lew D, Moreira JR, Wamukonya N. Renewable energy markets in developing countries. Annu. Rev. EnergyEnviron. 2002;27:309–48.
Masera OR, Saatkamp BD, Kammen DM. From linear fuel switching to multiple cooking strategies: a critique and alternative to the energy ladder model. World Dev. 2000;8(12):2083–103. Mfune O, Boon EK. Promoting Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Development in Africa: Experiences of Zambia, Journal of Human Ecology. Delhi, India: Kamla-Raj Enterprises; 2007. Minstry of Energy (MoE). National Energy Policy-Draft final. Accra: Ministry of EnergyGhana; 2006. Porcaro J, Takada M, editors. Achieving the Millennium Development Goals: The Role of Energy Services: Case Studies from Brazil, Mali and Philippines. New York: United Nations Development Programme; 2005. Srivastava L, Rehman IH. Energy for sustainable development in India: linkages and strategic direction. Energy Policy 2006;34:643–54. Togobo-Ahiataku, W., 2001. Energy subsidies in Africa: results and recommendations from Durban workshop, http://www.iea.org/textbase/work/2001/UNEP/Africa. pdf [Accessed on 10th September, 2008]. Togobo-Ahiataku, W., 2005. The role of renewable energy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development in Africa: the Ghana experience in funding rural/ renewable energy through levies on fossil fuels and electricity. PfA Policy Dialogue Conference, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, http://www.hedon.info/docs/S3-3-TogoboPfA-Tanzania-0506.pdf [Accessed on 5th September 2008]. Tokle, S., Danso, E.Y., 2007. Joint evaluation of the GEF small grants programme: country programme case study-Ghana. Evaluation report prepared for the GEF and UNDP evaluation offices, http://www.gefweb.org/uploadedFiles/Publications_SGP_ Case_Study-Ghana.pdf [Accessed on 10th September, 2008]. Usher E. Financing the path to renewable energy enterprises. Renewable Energy for Development 2007;20(2):1-16. Stephen Kankam is a Project Coordinator of Friends of the Nation (FoN), a local notfor-profit organization in Ghana. He is also a research associate of the Accra-based International Centre for Enterprise and Sustainable Development (ICED)—a center of excellence for action research and capacity building in sub-Saharan Africa. Mr. Kankam holds a master's degree in Human Ecology from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. Emmanuel Kwesi Boon is a Professor of Human Ecology and Environmental Management at Human Ecology Department of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. He is also the founder and Chairman of the International Centre for Enterprise and Sustainable Development (ICED), an NGO based in Accra, Ghana.