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Engraved flint nodules from the Levantine middle Epipaleolithic: Neve David revisited
Quaternary International 464 (2018) 141e158
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Engraved flint nodules from the Levantine middle Epipaleolithic: Neve David revisited Daniel Kaufman*, Iris Groman-Yaroslavski, Reuven Yeshurun, Eli Crater-Gershtein, Dani Nadel Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 8 February 2017 Received in revised form 1 June 2017 Accepted 16 June 2017 Available online 27 June 2017
Engraved artifacts from pre-Natufian Levantine Epipaleolithic contexts are notable for their scarcity. This is so even though a number of implements have recently been added to the inventory. We present here an analysis of two engraved flint nodules recovered from the Geometric Kebaran site of Neve David (Mt. Carmel, Israel) incorporating use-wear studies and experiments on similar nodules from adjacent raw materials sources and provide online 3D models derived from photogrammetry. The engraved nodules were procured from two distinct flint outcrops in the site's immediate vicinity and were easy to engrave using the abundant flint flakes available at the site. We interpret one nodule as having two sets of decoration grooves, while in the other we see little evidenceeif at allefor decoration or symbolic aspects. We then discuss the finds within the context of engraved objects from preceding Kebaran, contemporaneous Geometric Kebaran and subsequent Natufian sites. The current Epipalaeolithic repertoire in the southern Levant demonstrates that Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran engraved stone objects are rare and usually comprise small stones, plaquettes and nodules. In contrast, engraved stone artifacts were recovered in virtually every Natufian site and include large engraved slabs, small items and even the shaft wall of a bedrock mortar, with a wider variety of patterns and symbols. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Epipaleolithic Levant Engraved nodules Flint outcrops Use-wear studies 3D models
1. Introduction The Levantine Epipaleolithic period lasted for more than 12,000 years, between the Last Glacial Maximum and the end of the Pleistocene (ca. 23,000e11,500 calBP). The early Epipaleolithic sites of the Kebaran culture (ca. 23,000e17,000 calBP) in the Mediterranean Levant exhibit a settlement pattern of nomadic huntergatherers that in certain cases may have occupied their base camps more permanently (e.g., Bar-Yosef, 1970; Kaufman, 1992; Nadel, 2002; Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris, 2011; Maher et al., 2012). Some mega-sites situated near water sources in the arid environment of East Jordan represent massive aggregation locales (Richter et al., 2013; Maher et al., 2016). During the Geometric Kebaran of the Middle Epipaleolithic phase (ca. 17,000e15,000 calBP) the general subsistence and settlement patterns of the previous period continued. It was only in the last phase, ca. 15,000e11,500 calBP, that the late Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Kaufman). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.037 1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
introduced novel or greatly intensified social and economic patterns that are usually related to increasing sedentism. Among the salient traits of the Natufian are stone-built structures, cemeteries, bedrock hewing, rich groundstone and bone industries, a broadspectrum subsistence and, importantly, a rich and diverse array of “art” items (e.g., Garrod, 1957; Belfer-Cohen, 1991; Bar-Yosef, 1998; Weinstein-Evron, 2009; Nadel et al., 2013; Yeshurun et al., 2014; Grosman et al., 2016). Thus, the Epipaleolithic period is pivotal in the cultural sequence witnessing the shift from huntingegathering to sedentary life ways and shortly after to the establishment of the first Neolithic villages. It also displays a relatively rich archaeological record enabling the examination of ecological and social trends in time and space. In terms of non-functional objects, commonly grouped by archaeologists as art objects or artistic manifestations, the pre-Natufian record is relatively poor. In particular, engraved/ incised stone objects are scarce (Fig. 1). These include a limestone pebble with ladder and crosshatching patterns from the Kebaran site of Urkan a-Rub IIA in the Jordan Valley (Fig. 2c; Hovers, 1990), a fragmented stone plaquette with a repetitive design of rectangles from Kharaneh IV (Maher et al., 2012), and an incised stone with a
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Fig. 1. Map showing locations of Epipalaeolithic sites referred to in the text. EQS: Ein Qashish South.
ladder motif from the Nebekian deposits at Madamagh rockshelter (Byrd and Reese, 2014). Noteworthy are three decorated limestone plaquettes from the Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran layers of Ein Qashish South: one with a ladder motif, one with the representation of a bird and one with a chevron pattern (Fig. 2aeb; Yaroshevich et al., 2016). A small chert nodule, ca. 3.5 cm long, recovered from the Geometric Kebaran occupation on the upper slope at Wadi Mataha, reveals evidence of incising, grooving, and
repeated smoothing to accentuate its natural form resembling perhaps a seated human form (Gregg et al., 2011). Engraved/incised bone implements are also scarce. For example, at Ohalo II a gazelle bone was found inside a human grave with sets of short parallel incisions all around it. Additionally, an object made of wood was found on a brush hut floor; it had the same dimensions, breakage pattern and incised sets all around it (Nadel et al., 2006: Fig. 18). There were several additional engraved point
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Fig. 2. Pre-Natufian incised stone objects. 1, 2) Ein Qashish South (after Yaroshevich et al., 2016); 3) Urkan a-Rub IIA (after Hovers, 1990).
fragments (Rabinovich and Nadel, 1994-5). An engraved awl fragment was found at Jiita II (Copeland and Hours, 1977) and an engraved bone fragment was found at Kharaneh IV (Maher et al., 2012). Complementing the limited repertoire of pre-Natufian engraved artifacts in the Levantine Epipaleolithic, the large Geometric Kebaran site of Neve David (Mt. Carmel, Israel) has yielded so far two engraved elongated flint nodules. The goals of the current
paper are to present the two engraved nodules addressing three aspects: a) preliminary characterization of the nearby flint outcrops and the availability of elongated nodules, b) identification of manufacture and utilization evidence, as can be reconstructed by high-resolution microscopic analysis and comparison to experiments on untreated nodules, and c) discussion of their context within the Levantine Epipaleolithic cultural sequence.
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2. Materials and methods 2.1. The site Neve David is situated at the foot of the western slope of Mt. Carmel on the north bank of Nahal Siah at its outlet to the coastal plain, inside the modern city of Haifa, Israel (Fig. 3). The site was first excavated over four seasons between 1984 and 1990 (Kaufman, 1987, 1989) and the new excavations commenced in 2014 (Yeshurun et al., 2015). The site is partially damaged by a road but it appears to have covered about 1500 m2, and the thickness of the Epipaleolithic deposits exceeds 1.5 m. Several round Holocene features were found at the top of the Geometric Kebaran layer. They vary in size and depth but are all filled with white matrix clearly distinct from the Geometric Kebaran red-brown clay, and most are lined with stones. Pottery shards were found in all of them, indicating that they should be assigned to the Chalcolithic e Iron Age periods. The in situ Epipaleolithic features include two short segments of stone walls from the 1980s excavation, as well as a stone pavement about 2.5 m across, a hearth and several small pits in the renewed excavations. Of note was the discovery of two human burials, one of which incorporated three ground stone tools (Kaufman and Ronen, 1987; Bocquentin et al., 2011). Radiocarbon dates on burnt animal bones yielded dates of 15,150e15,450 calBP (Oxa-892) and 16,820e16,090 calBP (Oxa-859) (Kaufman, 1988; calibrated dates from Bocquentin et al., 2011). The abundant faunal assemblage is dominated by mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) and Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) with low numbers of small game (Bar-Oz et al., 1999). The lithic assemblage is attributed to the Geometric Kebaran with its high frequencies of geometric microliths, particularly trapezes and rectangles. These form 8.5% of the tools in a recent sample of 2135 studied specimens (Yeshurun et al., 2015). Bladelet cores are common and the debitage types indicate local flint knapping, mostly for the manufacture of small bladelets. The first engraved pebble (Nodule I) was located in the southeast corner of the first excavation campaign of the site with no relation to either of the burials (Kaufman, 1999). Adhering to it was the red-brown sediment of the Geometric Kebaran layer as it derived from the upper few centimeters of these sediments. There
were some intrusive pottery fragments within these sediments. These, though, were very small (no larger than 10 mm) and no intrusions the size of the nodule were found. The second pebble (Nodule II) was found in 2015 embedded in the surface sediments of the site on an unexcavated baulk. We note, however, that elongated flint nodules are common in the local Epipaleolithic contexts, indicating that Nodule II was likely displaced from its original location, probably as a result of later activities. 2.2. The Nahal Siah flint outcrops The likely provenance of the engraved nodules are the flint outcrops on slopes above and to the east of the archaeological site, in Nahal Siah (Fig. 3). The Shamir Formation (Segev and Sass, 2009) with abundant flint nodules is exposed in two facies. The first is the closest to the site, so far identified on the slopes above the site and up to about 300e400 m to the east. The bedrock is hard limestone, exposed in several locations for lengths of up to 15 m, the rest covered by colluvium and vegetation (Fig. 4a). Large extraction debris piles containing flint nodules are observed on the slopes. The flint nodules are black or brown and the cortex is usually redyellow. The morphological range of the nodules is wide, including elongated narrow specimens (Fig. 4bee). Engraved Nodule I has the same cortex and flint color and likely was retrieved from this facies (see below). The second facies is white chalk, with black flint nodules and white cortex (Figs. 3, 5a-d). It is exposed along the upper section of the wadi, about 400e700 m from the site. The vast majority of the nodules are elongated (ca. 5e20 cm) and narrow, with a round cross-section usually between 1 cm and 5 cm in diameter. Small fossils of sea urchins are also present. The nodules are present in various orientations and many have their protruding end scarred (Fig. 5). Some of these scars seem like man-made flaked scars, although they must have been created randomly by stones rolling downslope and hitting the in situ nodules. Engraved Nodule II has the same cortex and flint color and likely was retrieved from here (see below). It should be noted that these two adjacent facies of flint outcrops are not unique to Nahal Siah. They are common along this area of western Mt. Carmel. Furthermore, a similar setting was documented along Nahal Ornit (5 km to the south). Here, some of
Fig. 3. Location of the Neve David site with estimated original size, the Nahal Siah channel and the locations of the two sampled flint outcrops.
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Fig. 4. The hard limestone outcrop. a) General view looking north of the hard limestone exposures and extraction debris piles (one is marked by an arrow); b-d) elongated flint nodules in situ; e) flint nodules in an extraction debris pile.
the hard limestone debris piles were characterized and studied providing evidence for large scale prehistoric flint quarrying. However, elongated narrow nodules were not as common (Nadel et al., 2011). Analyses of the Neve David Geometric Kebaran flint assemblage (Shaul, 1999; Yeshurun et al., 2015) have shown that most cores and
debitage products were manufactured from the locally available raw materials, especially the nodules originating in the hard limestone. Some of the wider elongated nodules were commonly used as cores, while the narrow specimens, like the two engraved examples discussed below, were seemingly not suitable for the manufacture of bladelets.
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Fig. 5. The white chalk outcrop, with elongated flint nodules in situ. a,b) general views; c,d) natural breakage scars on protruding ends.
2.3. The engraved nodules Flint Nodule I is elongated, oval-flat in section and measures 90 18 10 mm (Kaufman, 1999, Fig. 6; Fig. 1 in Appendix A). Most of the nodule is covered by brown-red cortex. Scars exposing the brown flint under the cortex are visible at the top and upper left. Several stains of dark incrustations are present, mostly on the back. There are two separate areas with horizontal grooves that encircle the circumference of the nodule, perpendicular to the long axis of the nodule; they are located at equal distances from the two ends of the nodule. Elongated striations, parallel to the main axis are present along the left side. Flint Nodule II is elongated, round in section and measures 75 25 17 mm (Fig. 7; Fig. 2 in Appendix A). White cortex covers the object except for one end where a scar perpendicular to the main axis creates a flat surface, exposing black flint. The scar looks natural and it may have occurred while the nodule was still in situ (e.g., Fig. 5bed). The opposite end is round. Some of the nodule's surface was flattened by abrasion, especially the front where most of the striations and grooves are located. One natural depression about 2 cm long is present on the back side, near the middle. Deep grooves are present in three locations: the front of the nodule, inside the natural depression at the back of the nodule and at the bottom rounded end. 2.4. Photogrammetry and 3D modeling The 3D model of each studied nodule was calculated from digital photos using structure from motion algorithms in Agisoft Photoscan software. The photos were taken with two different cameras in different methods to enable capture of the whole flint nodule. Later, the photos were cropped and masked enabling the creation of a 3D model without extra noise from the environment.
The model for Flint Nodule I was created using 78 photos with a 16 megapixel Nikon D7000 SLR camera with a 105 mm, f/18 lens. The camera was statically stationed and the flint nodule was rotated ca. 57 cm away from the camera. The model covers an area of ca. 14.2 cm2 with object resolution of 0.0233 mm/pixel and reprojection error of ca. 0.72 pixel. Size calibration was done using scale bars between control points on a 2D scale divided into 1 mm squares. The average calibration error of the scale bars is ca. 0.005 mm. The model for Flint Nodule II was created using 150 photos taken with a 16 megapixel N910C smartphone camera with a 31 mm, f/2.2 lens. The camera moved around the object at an average distance of 12.2 cm. The model covers an area of ca. 14 cm2 with object resolution of 0.0267 mm/pixel and a re-projection error of ca. 0.75 pixel. Size calibration was done using scale bars between control points on a 2D scale divided into 1 mm squares. The average calibration error of the scale bars is ca. 0.015 mm. 2.5. Methods of the microscopic analysis and experimentation The cortex of the engraved flint nodules was the subject of microscopic analysis using the principles and terminology for the observed traces as employed in ground stone analysis (Adams et al., 2009; Dubreuil and Savage, 2014). The two-phase analysis protocol incorporated observations on the macro- and then on the microscale. However, the micro-scale analysis, using a metallurgical microscope (Leica DM 1750M) at magnification of 100-500, showed no relevant results. Therefore, our current study provides a functional reconstruction based on the macro-scale analysis using a stereo-microscope (Nikon SMZ 745T) at magnification of up to 50 to define the topography, texture and features on the surface of the nodules. Ten experiments were conducted with the aim of understanding the mode by which the features on the nodules were
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Fig. 6. Flint Nodule I and the location of enlarged photos (aei).
formed (Table 1). Natural flint nodules collected from the Nahal Siah outcrops were used in the experiments, and flint tools with plain and retouched edges were used for cutting, scraping, engraving and abrading the cortex on the nodules. We also used a porous basalt flake and abraders to work on the natural nodules (Fig. 8).
3. Results 3.1. Experiments with natural nodules The first step in the analysis was to conduct experimental work on the natural nodules (Fig. 9). Those from the chalky facies have a
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Fig. 7. Flint Nodule II and the locations of macrographs a-j shown in Figs. 12e14.
Table 1 Description of the replication experiments. No.
Piece used
Description of working edge
Task details
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Flint flake Porous basal flake Flint blade Porous basalt slab Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade
Upper plain sharp lateral Upper uneven lateral Upper retouched lateral Upper surface Upper plain sharp lateral Upper retouched lateral Upper retouched lateral Pointed distal sharp end Upper plain sharp lateral Pointed end
Bidirectional scraping (Fig. 8a) Bidirectional scraping (Fig. 8b) Bidirectional cutting Bidirectional abrasion (Fig. 8d) Bidirectional cutting (Fig. 8e) Bidirectional scraping Bidirectional engraving Repeated unidirectional engraving by long motions (Fig. 8c) Unidirectional cutting by short motions (Fig. 8f) Unidirectional engraving by short motions
white cortex crumbling into white powder while the nodules from the hard limestone facies have a brownish compact cortex. At higher magnification (40), the cortical surface of the two types of nodules appears as a rough surface with random pits (Fig. 9ced). A higher degree of compactness in the case of the brown cortex
nodule is evident. Scraping, cutting, engraving or abrading the cortex immediately removes the rough layer, exposing the harder and compact layer of the cortex. The grooves are cut through the outer cortex and reach an inner hard layer, which is lighter in color, as in the case of the archaeological pieces. The fact that the grooves
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Fig. 8. Examples of some of the experiments in working natural nodules, including a) bidirectional scraping along the long axis of the nodule using a plain sharp lateral edge of a flint blade; b) bidirectional scraping along the long axis of the nodule using a porous basalt flake; c) bidirectional engraving of long grooves along the long axis of the nodule using the pointed edge of a flint blade; d) bidirectional abrasion against a porous basal slab; e) bidirectional cutting of crossing grooves; f) unidirectional cutting of individual parallel grooves.
appear on this hard layer, which is more resistant to postdepositional processes, explains the good state of their preservation. The first apparent experimental result is that creating abraded grooved surfaces on the local flint cortex is a simple, easy and quick task. Experimental actions of a longer duration, such as repeated cutting or engraving, created distinct linear features, sometimes of varying morphologies, that are associated with a smoothed/ abraded surface (Fig. 9e). With increasing duration distinct features are erased exposing a flat abraded surface on the harder underlying cortex. Actions of shorter duration, on the other hand, like cutting a single cut or engraving a single groove, produce distinct isolated features (Fig. 9f) that can indicate the type of manipulation, leaving diagnostic wear patterns that can provide the basis for the functional interpretation. Our experimental program was thus aimed at reconstructing the mode by which those features were formed.
There are several wear patterns that can indicate the motion and the type of tool used (Fig. 10). A sharp edge of a flint tool used to scrape along the long axis of the nodule (Fig. 8a) produced wide, elongated, flat surfaces (Fig. 10a). The tool, with its straight edge, slid over a shallow depression, hence no modification was observed within this depression. The same action, but this time using a basalt flake with an uneven edge (Fig. 8b), produced flat elongated surfaces combined with grooves and striations which slightly penetrate the natural depressions (Fig. 10b). This complex pattern reflects the uneven shape of the edge of the tool, which this time reached the lower areas of the depression with its protruding edges. Engraving using pointed edges of tools (Fig. 8c) produced distinct grooves (Fig. 10c), especially when compared to abrading against the wide surface of the basalt (Fig. 8d), where multiple shallow grooves and striations cover the entire worked surface,
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Fig. 9. Flint nodules collected from the two adjacent outcrops (Fig. 3) with macrographs showing their natural properties and selected examples of patterns observed on the experimental pieces: a) a nodule from the chalky facies with white cortex; b) a nodule from the hard limestone facies with brown cortex; c) macrograph of the rough texture and loose layer of the white cortex with random pits (40); d) macrograph of the rough texture and compact layer of the brown cortex with random shallow pits (40); e) grooves associated with a smooth flat surface produced by bidirectional scraping the nodule along the long axis using a retouched flint tool (10); f) isolated engravings produced by cutting single cuts using a sharp flint bladelet (10). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
leaving no natural untreated surfaces (Fig. 10d). Moreover, bidirectional engraving resulted in a more organized distribution of the grooves compared to unidirectional engraving; this indicates the instability of the unidirectional action resulting from an uneven application of force from time to time. In order to groove inside the shallow natural depressions it was necessary to use the tool separately inside the depression. This produced separated localized grooves within the depression, distributed according to the direction of the engraving (Fig. 10e), similar to the deep wide grooves observed on Nodule II at the front and at the back, inside the natural depression (Fig. 13a and b). Cutting the cortex with a sharp edge produced clean cuts that
reflect the shape, sharpness and thickness of the cutting edge. Single cuts using a plain sharp edge produced narrow V-shaped grooves (Fig. 9f), similar to those observed on most of the parts of Nodule I (Fig. 11). Bidirectional cutting produced wider cuts which have a general V-shaped cross-section. Within the deepest cuts, however, a main groove is observed running along the bottom of the groove, and additional shallower grooves are observed on the walls of the groove (Fig. 10f). The latter is similar to the crossing grooves observed at the rounded end of Nodule II (Figs. 13c and 14c). Most importantly, bidirectional cutting using a plain edge, produced clean cuts (Fig. 10g), but using a retouched edge produced a cut with one side clean and the other associated with shallower
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Fig. 10. Macrographs showing patterns observed on the experimental nodules. a) flat elongated surfaces shown by a white arrow produced by scraping using a sharp plain edge of a flint tool with the natural depression at the middle remaining unmodified (original mag. 10); b) grooves and striations associated with flat abraded surfaces produced by scraping with porous basalt flake with the white arrow showing the grooves slightly going into the natural depression at the middle (original mag. 10); c) distinct grooves produced by repeated engraving using a sharp pointed edge of a flint tool (original mag. 10); d) multiple shallow grooves and striations covering the entire surface produced by bidirectional abrasion against the porous basal slab (original mag. 10); e) detailed view inside a natural depression showing separated distinct grooves produced by unidirectional engraving with a sharp pointed edge of a flint tool (original mag. 10); f) groove with a V-shaped cross-section showing a main deep groove in the middle and shallower grooves on the wall of the groove produced by repeated cutting with a plain sharp flint tool (original mag. 40); g) groove produced by cutting with a plain sharp edge of a flint tool (original mag. 40); h) groove produced by cutting using a retouched edge with white arrow showing additional shallower grooves to the left produced by contact with the retouched surface (original mag. 40).
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Fig. 11. Flint Nodule I. a) the major horizontal engravings (1e6) and the location of macrographs b-e; b) horizontal engravings cutting the longitudinal engravings on the right side of the nodule, and thus the latter are earlier (original mag. 10); c) horizontal engravings cutting the longitudinal engravings (original mag. 10); d) the conjunction of the horizontal engravings at the back of the nodule (original mag. 20); e) longitudinal grooves with their width measurements, the deeper groove has a U-shaped cross-section (original mag. 20).
grooves near it (Fig. 10h). The shallower grooves at the side are produced through contact with the retouched face of the tool. The latter was not observed on Nodule I indicating that the cuts were done using unretouched tools.
3.2. Flint nodule I The natural surface of the cortex is evident over the entire surface of the nodule (Figs. 6 and 11a). No abrasion, smoothing or
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other treatment was detected on the cortical surface except for engravings at the upper part, lower part and along the right side. These engravings were cut into this surface; all are very shallow and mostly with a V-shaped cross-section indicating that they were formed using a sharp tool. These are similar to those produced in our cutting experiments, created in a single, firm motion (Fig. 9f). It seems that the horizontal engravings composing the lower and upper sets (Fig. 11a, lines 1e3, 4e6 respectively) are of a single cutting action each. Some of the deeper engravings on the right side have a U-shaped cross-section perhaps indicating the application of a higher load or repeated cutting along the same groove (Fig. 11e). There are three main engravings in each set at the upper and lower parts of the nodule. In the lower set, the three engravings are complete, continuous on the front, but not so on the back (Fig. 11a: 1e3). The three main engravings of the upper set are less continuous, probably as the result of not being made in a continuous motion. It is impossible to observe if the main engravings conjoin on the back of the nodule because the cortex was flaked off on the left side. It is also impossible to determine if the scars occurred after or before the grooving because the edges are slightly worn. Furthermore, short shallower engravings are present between the main grooves which may represent some kind of filling pattern (Fig. 6a). These also represent swift cutting by short localized actions. The long engravings along the right side of the nodule seem to be cut by the encircling grooves (Fig. 11b and c). This may indicate that the longitudinal striations were formed before them. These engravings are also clean and not associated with additional grooves as to be expected in the case of using a retouched tool; however it is possible that they were formed in a bidirectional motion as they overlap each other and the surface around them seems more abraded (Fig. 11e). In sum, the nodule exhibits an organized pattern, where two sets of encircling engravings were cut into the cortex after working on the right side. We have no use-wear indication of a specific function or hafting of the object, such as binding, holding, knapping or working. It seems that the engraved pattern was created using sharp tools such as small bladelets or thin flakes, a simple and swift endeavor. 3.3. Flint nodule II The natural surface is mostly present on the bottom round end of the nodule and on the right side exhibiting the rough original surface and the random shallow pits (Fig. 7 location a, 12a; note that the macrographs from the areas marked on Fig. 7 appear in Figs. 12e14). Mild treatment is evident on the narrower sides (Fig. 7 location b, 12b) and on the back of the nodule where the natural texture can still be detected (Fig. 12b). It was worked most intensively on its front where the natural texture is totally erased (Fig. 7 location c, 12c). This area is homogenous in texture, flat and smooth, exhibiting distinct mostly parallel shallow grooves running along the main axis of the nodule. Two distinct and separated deep grooves, situated obliquely to the shallow parallel grooves are present on the intensively worked surface at the front of the nodule (Figs. 7 and 13). They have a square cross-section with a flat bottom and both have one straight end (Fig. 7 location d, 13a). These are the deepest grooves observed on the nodule, but other deep, flat bottomed grooves are evident in other locations (Fig. 7 location e, 14a). The shallow parallel grooves around them and along the sides have a V-shaped cross section (Fig. 7 location f, 14b). Another pair of deep grooves is present inside a natural depression on the back of the nodule (Fig. 7 location g, 13b). They are associated with a white abraded surface with other shallow grooves and are much deeper than their surrounding
Fig. 12. Flint Nodule II. Macrographs showing the untreated surface compared to varying intensities of treatments. a) the rough natural surface exhibiting random shallow pits filled with sediment, see Fig. 7a; b) a surface with shallow grooves, the natural surface texture is visible indicating a mild treatment, see Fig. 7 location b; c) the heavily worked front of the nodule with a smooth flat surface associated with multiple shallow grooves and no remains of the natural surface texture, see Fig. 7 location c (all macrographs are at 6.7).
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Fig. 13. Macrographs showing the details of the deep grooves observed on Nodule II. a) the two deep grooves at the front of the nodule cutting through the flat surface with the shallower grooves, see Fig. 7 location d (original mag. 10); b) the deep grooves at the back of the nodule inside the natural depression associated with smooth striated surface marked by the white arrow, see Fig. 7 location g (original mag. 10); c) the crossing engravings at the round base of the nodule, see Fig. 7 location h (original mag. 6.7); d) the encircling deep engraving slightly below the crossing engravings, see Fig. 7 location j (original mag. 6.7).
marks. Both pairs are similar to each other in being deep, subparallel and with the same orientation. Considering the characteristics of the grooves and their distribution on the nodule, and compared to our experiments, it seems that the nodule was repeatedly engraved with the edge of a sharp (perhaps pointed) flint tool, because longitudinal grooves are mostly distinct. The repeated grooving also created a flat, smooth, white surface associated with the grooves. It is possible that the grooving was unidirectional because in our experiment we produced a similar pattern, especially inside the natural depression (Fig. 10e). The deeper grooves on the front and back seem to cut through the surface with the shallow grooves; however, our experiments showed that this might be the result of higher load on the tool particularly aimed at grooving inside the depression, more or less at the same time as the production of the shallow grooves. The crossing deep engravings close to the round bottom end of the nodule exhibit a different type of action. They are separated from the intensively abraded surface on the front, appearing on an untreated surface, in a different orientation e more or less perpendicular to the long axis of the nodule (Fig. 7 location h, 13c). As seen in our experiments (Figs. 8e and 10f), these engravings seem to be the result of contact with a sharp cutting tool that was repeatedly moved inside them as additional shallower grooves are on the walls of the main groove (Fig. 7 location i, 14c). They are close to another encircling engraving that might indicate a rotational cutting of the round end of the nodule (Fig. 7 location j, 13d). To sum up, Nodule II exhibits two sets of deep engravings at the middle of the front face and on the back inside a natural cavity. They are of similar characteristics, and it appears that their
locations are not random. Yet, based on our experiments we consider that this type of groove can be the result of engraving the nodule which, at some point, a higher load on the tool caused a deeper penetration into the cortex layer. The abraded and grooved surface associated with these grooves support a repeated action. The grooves produced on the experimental nodule are also with a flat bottom (Fig. 10c, e), they are associated with abraded surfaces and narrower grooves, and those inside the depression seem exceptionally distinct from the rest of the grooves. This supports a reconstruction that Flint Nodule II was engraved using a sharp tool for a few seconds, but the function of this nodule is still obscured as we found no traces that might indicate a specific use. The third set of markings near the round bottom clearly represents a separate frame. They are distinguished from all the rest of the features on the nodule representing a specific action, aimed at a different result, to create the crossing at the rounded end. Compared to the experimental pieces, it is evident that the grooves were formed by repeated cutting, unlike the rest of the engravings on the nodule. As for Flint Nodule I, we found no use-wear that might indicate a specific function. 4. Discussion Elongated narrow flint nodules are abundant at Neve David. So far we have found dozens, in various dimensions. None were retrieved from a context that may indicate their use. They were most probably brought to the site, like many other nodules and cores, from the nearby flint outcrops where they are still abundant and visible today (Figs. 4 and 5). Some of the wider elongated
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Fig. 14. Nodule II. The morphology, cross-section and width of grooves. a) the wide groove seen on the front of the nodule with a flat bottom, see Fig. 7 location e; b) shallow grooves characteristic of the intensively abraded surface at the front of the nodule with V-shape cross-section, see Fig. 7 location f; c) a close-up of one of the crossing grooves at the round bottom of the nodule showing the U-shaped crosssection of the main groove at the middle associated with shallow grooves seen on the wall, indicating the repeated action of cutting, see Fig. 7 location i (original mag. for all macrographs is 40).
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nodules were used as bladelet cores (Kaufman, 1999) and perhaps even tools as they have repetitive bladelet scars on one and sometimes even two ends. Among 19 elongated flint nodules that were studied here, only two were found to have incisions and grooves. The engravings are simple in the sense that there are no animal or human figures, or complex grids, ladders, etc. However, in both specimens they do represent intentional modifications in several sets (events) of engravings. Both specimens present specific patterns, encircling grooves and longitudinal grooves on Nodule I and grooving and crossing cuts on the rounded end on Nodule II. It is not clear what the function of these implements may have been. For Nodule I, it was suggested (Kaufman, 1999) that it was used as a percussor or retoucher which would have caused the small flake removals along the edge and on the upper extremity. The engravings apparently served no particular function and were likely decorative in nature. The pattern of the engravings indicates that it was done according to a pre-planned template. To date, no similar objects were recovered from Neve David and it may be that this nodule was the private property of a single individual. Nodule II may have been more utilitarian as the engravings don't form a specific pattern, except for the crossing grooves at the rounded bottom. In our experiments this type of grooving caused the smoothing of the edges of the tools we used. Thus, it is possible that the nodule functioned as an abrader on which sharp edges of flint tools were smoothed or blunted. Such flint tools could have been used for tasks on delicate materials such as fresh hide, where the intention is to scrape-off unneeded tissues without cutting the hide. Smooth blunted edges could have also be used for fiber production, where scraping-off the outer shell of the stems is done without cutting it. The earliest evidence, interpreted as twisted fibers used for basketry, was found at the site of Ohalo II (Nadel et al., 1994). Indirect evidence can be deduced from dental finds from the Natufian site of Ain Mallaha, northern Israel, which exhibited wear traces interpreted as being produced by plant processing for basketry or cordage (Bocquentin et al., 2005). It can be assumed that this activity was done at Neve David as well. Art items in general and incised nodules in particular are exceedingly rare in the pre-Natufian world, despite the fact that several large sites have been investigated with considerable excavation volumes. One of the closest parallels to the Neve David nodules is the incised chert nodule from Wadi Mataha, southern Jordan, displaying incisions on an abraded (prepared?) surface. In contrast with the Neve David case, the geological source of the Wadi Mataha nodule is unknown, as no similarly shaped nodules were encountered in the wadis at the vicinity of the site. The site is located in a sandstone lithology where chert does not occur; chert sources are either in stream channels or bedrock sources in a significant distance from the site (Gregg et al., 2011). In any case, it is interesting to point out that these Geometric Kebaran occurrences, located ca. 400 km apart in different environmental settings, share several cultural traits that include incised nodules and burials with broken groundstone vessels (Macdonald et al., 2016). The Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran engraved objects from Ein Qashish South (Yaroshevich et al., 2016) are a much closer example (geographically) to Neve David, but the complexity of the motifs and the raw materials selected for engraving appear to be very different. It is clear that not only are such objects rare in Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran sites, even in well-preserved and largely excavated sites, there are only a few instances of recurring motifs. The ladder and cross hatching patterns occur at Ein Qashish South (Yaroshevich et al., 2016) and Urkan a-Rub IIA (Hovers, 1990) and it is noteworthy that in both instances the engravings are on limestone plaquettes. The nodules from Neve David, then, are unique with regard to the patterns engraved on them.
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Fig. 15. Examples of Natufian engravings. 1e3) flint nodules from el-Wad Cave forming abstract representations of human anatomical features (after Weinstein-Evron and BelferCohen, 1993); 4) one of four decorated surfaces on an engraved limestone slab from Hayonim Cave (after Shaham and Belfer-Cohen, 2013); 5) engravings inside the shaft of bedrock mortar C-XVIII, Raqefet Cave (after Nadel and Rosenberg, 2016).
As already suggested (Kaufman, 1999; Yaroshevich et al., 2016), the patterns seen in the Geometric Kebaran engraved items and specifically those from Neve David may be interpreted in light of the much richer record of the Natufian. In many Early and Late Natufian sites in the Mediterranean “core area” engravings on
various types of stones, as well as bones, have been found. The engravings on stone are often simple or abstract (in the sense of not composing a clear image) but sometimes form elaborate designs and figures. Examples include numerous incised or grooved items from el-Wad (Garrod and Bate, 1937; Weinstein-Evron et al., 2007),
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including six flint nodules with incisions that abstractly form human anatomical features (Fig. 15: 1e3; Weinstein-Evron and BelferCohen, 1993); numerous modified stone items from the Early Natufian Wadi Hammeh 27 (Edwards, 2012); several carved or incised limestone items from Nahal Oren (Noy, 1991) and Eynan (Perrot, 1966; Valla et al., 2007); incised limestone slabs from Hayonim Cave (Fig. 15: 4; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 1999; Shaham and Belfer-Cohen, 2013), a domed “pestle” with incisions creating a meander from the terminal Ramonian (Early Natufian) site of Upper Besor 6 in the Negev Highlands (Goring-Morris, 1998); four incised pebbles and other items from the Early and Late Natufian of Wadi Mataha (Gregg et al., 2011) and several limestone objects decorated with geometric incisions from Nahal Ein Gev II (Grosman et al., 2016). Incisions on stone appear not only on “mobiliary art” items but on stationary features, such as the Hayonim Cave slabs and elaborate carvings on slabs within structures in Wadi Hammeh 27 (Edwards, 1991) as well as a set of incisions inside the shaft of a bedrock mortar at Raqefet Cave (Fig. 15: 5; Nadel and Rosenberg, 2016). The engraved nodules of Neve David were procured from two distinct flint outcrops in the immediate vicinity of the site and were easily engraved using the abundant flint flakes available at the site. We cannot say with certainty that any symbolic meaning can be attributed to either of the nodules and note that not all engravings must be viewed as symbolic. However, our continuing investigations of this large and complex site, together with the multidisciplinary methodology presented here may reveal additional data that will assist in future interpretations. Acknowledgements We thank A. Belfer-Cohen, E. Hovers, D. Shaham, M. WeinsteinEvron and A. Yaroshevich for kindly providing original figures of engraved items from their excavations. We also thank Nurit Shtober-Zisu for her help regarding geomorphological aspects. Anat Regev-Gisis prepared the plates. The renewed excavations and analysis of finds at Neve David are supported by the Irene Levi-Sala Care Foundation and the Israel Science Foundation grant no. 804/ 2016. The material published here corresponds to IAA License G-5/ 2015. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.037. References Adams, J.L., Delgado, S., Dubreuil, L., Hamon, C., Plisson, H., Risch, R., 2009. Functional analysis of macro-lithic artefacts: a focus on working surfaces. In: Sternke, F., Eigeland, L., Costa, L.J. (Eds.), Non-flint Raw Material Use in Prehistory: Old Prejudices and New Directions. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 43e66. Bar-Oz, G., Dayan, T., Kaufman, D., 1999. The Epipaleolithic faunal sequence in Israel: a view from Neve David. J. Archaeol. Sci. 26, 76e82. Bar-Yosef, O., 1970. The Epipaleolithic Cultures of Palestine. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Unpublished Ph. D dissertation). Bar-Yosef, O., 1998. The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evol. Anthropol. 6, 159e177. Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A., 1999. Encoding information: unique natufian objects from Hayonim Cave, western galilee, Israel. Antiquity 73, 402e410. Belfer-Cohen, A., 1991. The natufian in the levant. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 20, 167e186. Belfer-Cohen, A., Goring-Morris, A.N., 2011. Becoming farmers. Curr. Anthropol. 52, S209eS220. Bocquentin, F., Crevecouer, L., Arensburg, B., Kaufman, D., Ronen, A., 2011. Le homes barien ge ome trique de Neve David, Mont Carmel (Israe €l). Bull. me moires du Ke de la Soc. d’anthropologie de Paris 23, 38e51. cialise Bocquentin, F., Sellier, P., Murail, P., 2005. Abrasion dentaire et travail spe €l). Comptes Rendus Palevol 4, dans la population natoufienne de Mallaha (Israe 351e357.
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Byrd, F., Reese, D., 2014. The late Pleistocene occupation of Madamagh rockshelter, southern Jordan: new data and perspectives on an old excavation. In: Finlayson, B., Makarewicz, C. (Eds.), Settlements, Survey and Stone. Ex orient, Berlin, pp. 37e52. Copeland, L., Hours, F., 1977. Engraved and plain bone tools from Jiita (Lebanon) and their early kebaran context. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 43, 295e301. Dubreuil, L., Savage, D., 2014. Ground stones: a synthesis of the use-wear approach. J. Archaeol. Sci. 48, 139e153. Edwards, P., 1991. Wadi Hamma 27: an Early Natufian site in Pella, Jordan. In: BarYosef, O., Valla, F. (Eds.), The Natufian Culture in the Levant. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 123e148. Edwards, P.C., 2012. Visual representations in stone and bone. In: Edwards, P.C. (Ed.), Wadi Hammeh 27, an Early Natufian Settlement at Pella in Jordan. Brill, Leiden, pp. 287e320. Garrod, D.A.E., 1957. 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Engraved flint nodules from the Levantine middle Epipaleolithic: Neve David revisited Daniel Kaufman*, Iris Groman-Yaroslavski, Reuven Yeshurun, Eli Crater-Gershtein, Dani Nadel Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 8 February 2017 Received in revised form 1 June 2017 Accepted 16 June 2017 Available online 27 June 2017
Engraved artifacts from pre-Natufian Levantine Epipaleolithic contexts are notable for their scarcity. This is so even though a number of implements have recently been added to the inventory. We present here an analysis of two engraved flint nodules recovered from the Geometric Kebaran site of Neve David (Mt. Carmel, Israel) incorporating use-wear studies and experiments on similar nodules from adjacent raw materials sources and provide online 3D models derived from photogrammetry. The engraved nodules were procured from two distinct flint outcrops in the site's immediate vicinity and were easy to engrave using the abundant flint flakes available at the site. We interpret one nodule as having two sets of decoration grooves, while in the other we see little evidenceeif at allefor decoration or symbolic aspects. We then discuss the finds within the context of engraved objects from preceding Kebaran, contemporaneous Geometric Kebaran and subsequent Natufian sites. The current Epipalaeolithic repertoire in the southern Levant demonstrates that Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran engraved stone objects are rare and usually comprise small stones, plaquettes and nodules. In contrast, engraved stone artifacts were recovered in virtually every Natufian site and include large engraved slabs, small items and even the shaft wall of a bedrock mortar, with a wider variety of patterns and symbols. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Epipaleolithic Levant Engraved nodules Flint outcrops Use-wear studies 3D models
1. Introduction The Levantine Epipaleolithic period lasted for more than 12,000 years, between the Last Glacial Maximum and the end of the Pleistocene (ca. 23,000e11,500 calBP). The early Epipaleolithic sites of the Kebaran culture (ca. 23,000e17,000 calBP) in the Mediterranean Levant exhibit a settlement pattern of nomadic huntergatherers that in certain cases may have occupied their base camps more permanently (e.g., Bar-Yosef, 1970; Kaufman, 1992; Nadel, 2002; Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris, 2011; Maher et al., 2012). Some mega-sites situated near water sources in the arid environment of East Jordan represent massive aggregation locales (Richter et al., 2013; Maher et al., 2016). During the Geometric Kebaran of the Middle Epipaleolithic phase (ca. 17,000e15,000 calBP) the general subsistence and settlement patterns of the previous period continued. It was only in the last phase, ca. 15,000e11,500 calBP, that the late Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Kaufman). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.037 1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
introduced novel or greatly intensified social and economic patterns that are usually related to increasing sedentism. Among the salient traits of the Natufian are stone-built structures, cemeteries, bedrock hewing, rich groundstone and bone industries, a broadspectrum subsistence and, importantly, a rich and diverse array of “art” items (e.g., Garrod, 1957; Belfer-Cohen, 1991; Bar-Yosef, 1998; Weinstein-Evron, 2009; Nadel et al., 2013; Yeshurun et al., 2014; Grosman et al., 2016). Thus, the Epipaleolithic period is pivotal in the cultural sequence witnessing the shift from huntingegathering to sedentary life ways and shortly after to the establishment of the first Neolithic villages. It also displays a relatively rich archaeological record enabling the examination of ecological and social trends in time and space. In terms of non-functional objects, commonly grouped by archaeologists as art objects or artistic manifestations, the pre-Natufian record is relatively poor. In particular, engraved/ incised stone objects are scarce (Fig. 1). These include a limestone pebble with ladder and crosshatching patterns from the Kebaran site of Urkan a-Rub IIA in the Jordan Valley (Fig. 2c; Hovers, 1990), a fragmented stone plaquette with a repetitive design of rectangles from Kharaneh IV (Maher et al., 2012), and an incised stone with a
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Fig. 1. Map showing locations of Epipalaeolithic sites referred to in the text. EQS: Ein Qashish South.
ladder motif from the Nebekian deposits at Madamagh rockshelter (Byrd and Reese, 2014). Noteworthy are three decorated limestone plaquettes from the Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran layers of Ein Qashish South: one with a ladder motif, one with the representation of a bird and one with a chevron pattern (Fig. 2aeb; Yaroshevich et al., 2016). A small chert nodule, ca. 3.5 cm long, recovered from the Geometric Kebaran occupation on the upper slope at Wadi Mataha, reveals evidence of incising, grooving, and
repeated smoothing to accentuate its natural form resembling perhaps a seated human form (Gregg et al., 2011). Engraved/incised bone implements are also scarce. For example, at Ohalo II a gazelle bone was found inside a human grave with sets of short parallel incisions all around it. Additionally, an object made of wood was found on a brush hut floor; it had the same dimensions, breakage pattern and incised sets all around it (Nadel et al., 2006: Fig. 18). There were several additional engraved point
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Fig. 2. Pre-Natufian incised stone objects. 1, 2) Ein Qashish South (after Yaroshevich et al., 2016); 3) Urkan a-Rub IIA (after Hovers, 1990).
fragments (Rabinovich and Nadel, 1994-5). An engraved awl fragment was found at Jiita II (Copeland and Hours, 1977) and an engraved bone fragment was found at Kharaneh IV (Maher et al., 2012). Complementing the limited repertoire of pre-Natufian engraved artifacts in the Levantine Epipaleolithic, the large Geometric Kebaran site of Neve David (Mt. Carmel, Israel) has yielded so far two engraved elongated flint nodules. The goals of the current
paper are to present the two engraved nodules addressing three aspects: a) preliminary characterization of the nearby flint outcrops and the availability of elongated nodules, b) identification of manufacture and utilization evidence, as can be reconstructed by high-resolution microscopic analysis and comparison to experiments on untreated nodules, and c) discussion of their context within the Levantine Epipaleolithic cultural sequence.
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2. Materials and methods 2.1. The site Neve David is situated at the foot of the western slope of Mt. Carmel on the north bank of Nahal Siah at its outlet to the coastal plain, inside the modern city of Haifa, Israel (Fig. 3). The site was first excavated over four seasons between 1984 and 1990 (Kaufman, 1987, 1989) and the new excavations commenced in 2014 (Yeshurun et al., 2015). The site is partially damaged by a road but it appears to have covered about 1500 m2, and the thickness of the Epipaleolithic deposits exceeds 1.5 m. Several round Holocene features were found at the top of the Geometric Kebaran layer. They vary in size and depth but are all filled with white matrix clearly distinct from the Geometric Kebaran red-brown clay, and most are lined with stones. Pottery shards were found in all of them, indicating that they should be assigned to the Chalcolithic e Iron Age periods. The in situ Epipaleolithic features include two short segments of stone walls from the 1980s excavation, as well as a stone pavement about 2.5 m across, a hearth and several small pits in the renewed excavations. Of note was the discovery of two human burials, one of which incorporated three ground stone tools (Kaufman and Ronen, 1987; Bocquentin et al., 2011). Radiocarbon dates on burnt animal bones yielded dates of 15,150e15,450 calBP (Oxa-892) and 16,820e16,090 calBP (Oxa-859) (Kaufman, 1988; calibrated dates from Bocquentin et al., 2011). The abundant faunal assemblage is dominated by mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) and Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) with low numbers of small game (Bar-Oz et al., 1999). The lithic assemblage is attributed to the Geometric Kebaran with its high frequencies of geometric microliths, particularly trapezes and rectangles. These form 8.5% of the tools in a recent sample of 2135 studied specimens (Yeshurun et al., 2015). Bladelet cores are common and the debitage types indicate local flint knapping, mostly for the manufacture of small bladelets. The first engraved pebble (Nodule I) was located in the southeast corner of the first excavation campaign of the site with no relation to either of the burials (Kaufman, 1999). Adhering to it was the red-brown sediment of the Geometric Kebaran layer as it derived from the upper few centimeters of these sediments. There
were some intrusive pottery fragments within these sediments. These, though, were very small (no larger than 10 mm) and no intrusions the size of the nodule were found. The second pebble (Nodule II) was found in 2015 embedded in the surface sediments of the site on an unexcavated baulk. We note, however, that elongated flint nodules are common in the local Epipaleolithic contexts, indicating that Nodule II was likely displaced from its original location, probably as a result of later activities. 2.2. The Nahal Siah flint outcrops The likely provenance of the engraved nodules are the flint outcrops on slopes above and to the east of the archaeological site, in Nahal Siah (Fig. 3). The Shamir Formation (Segev and Sass, 2009) with abundant flint nodules is exposed in two facies. The first is the closest to the site, so far identified on the slopes above the site and up to about 300e400 m to the east. The bedrock is hard limestone, exposed in several locations for lengths of up to 15 m, the rest covered by colluvium and vegetation (Fig. 4a). Large extraction debris piles containing flint nodules are observed on the slopes. The flint nodules are black or brown and the cortex is usually redyellow. The morphological range of the nodules is wide, including elongated narrow specimens (Fig. 4bee). Engraved Nodule I has the same cortex and flint color and likely was retrieved from this facies (see below). The second facies is white chalk, with black flint nodules and white cortex (Figs. 3, 5a-d). It is exposed along the upper section of the wadi, about 400e700 m from the site. The vast majority of the nodules are elongated (ca. 5e20 cm) and narrow, with a round cross-section usually between 1 cm and 5 cm in diameter. Small fossils of sea urchins are also present. The nodules are present in various orientations and many have their protruding end scarred (Fig. 5). Some of these scars seem like man-made flaked scars, although they must have been created randomly by stones rolling downslope and hitting the in situ nodules. Engraved Nodule II has the same cortex and flint color and likely was retrieved from here (see below). It should be noted that these two adjacent facies of flint outcrops are not unique to Nahal Siah. They are common along this area of western Mt. Carmel. Furthermore, a similar setting was documented along Nahal Ornit (5 km to the south). Here, some of
Fig. 3. Location of the Neve David site with estimated original size, the Nahal Siah channel and the locations of the two sampled flint outcrops.
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Fig. 4. The hard limestone outcrop. a) General view looking north of the hard limestone exposures and extraction debris piles (one is marked by an arrow); b-d) elongated flint nodules in situ; e) flint nodules in an extraction debris pile.
the hard limestone debris piles were characterized and studied providing evidence for large scale prehistoric flint quarrying. However, elongated narrow nodules were not as common (Nadel et al., 2011). Analyses of the Neve David Geometric Kebaran flint assemblage (Shaul, 1999; Yeshurun et al., 2015) have shown that most cores and
debitage products were manufactured from the locally available raw materials, especially the nodules originating in the hard limestone. Some of the wider elongated nodules were commonly used as cores, while the narrow specimens, like the two engraved examples discussed below, were seemingly not suitable for the manufacture of bladelets.
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Fig. 5. The white chalk outcrop, with elongated flint nodules in situ. a,b) general views; c,d) natural breakage scars on protruding ends.
2.3. The engraved nodules Flint Nodule I is elongated, oval-flat in section and measures 90 18 10 mm (Kaufman, 1999, Fig. 6; Fig. 1 in Appendix A). Most of the nodule is covered by brown-red cortex. Scars exposing the brown flint under the cortex are visible at the top and upper left. Several stains of dark incrustations are present, mostly on the back. There are two separate areas with horizontal grooves that encircle the circumference of the nodule, perpendicular to the long axis of the nodule; they are located at equal distances from the two ends of the nodule. Elongated striations, parallel to the main axis are present along the left side. Flint Nodule II is elongated, round in section and measures 75 25 17 mm (Fig. 7; Fig. 2 in Appendix A). White cortex covers the object except for one end where a scar perpendicular to the main axis creates a flat surface, exposing black flint. The scar looks natural and it may have occurred while the nodule was still in situ (e.g., Fig. 5bed). The opposite end is round. Some of the nodule's surface was flattened by abrasion, especially the front where most of the striations and grooves are located. One natural depression about 2 cm long is present on the back side, near the middle. Deep grooves are present in three locations: the front of the nodule, inside the natural depression at the back of the nodule and at the bottom rounded end. 2.4. Photogrammetry and 3D modeling The 3D model of each studied nodule was calculated from digital photos using structure from motion algorithms in Agisoft Photoscan software. The photos were taken with two different cameras in different methods to enable capture of the whole flint nodule. Later, the photos were cropped and masked enabling the creation of a 3D model without extra noise from the environment.
The model for Flint Nodule I was created using 78 photos with a 16 megapixel Nikon D7000 SLR camera with a 105 mm, f/18 lens. The camera was statically stationed and the flint nodule was rotated ca. 57 cm away from the camera. The model covers an area of ca. 14.2 cm2 with object resolution of 0.0233 mm/pixel and reprojection error of ca. 0.72 pixel. Size calibration was done using scale bars between control points on a 2D scale divided into 1 mm squares. The average calibration error of the scale bars is ca. 0.005 mm. The model for Flint Nodule II was created using 150 photos taken with a 16 megapixel N910C smartphone camera with a 31 mm, f/2.2 lens. The camera moved around the object at an average distance of 12.2 cm. The model covers an area of ca. 14 cm2 with object resolution of 0.0267 mm/pixel and a re-projection error of ca. 0.75 pixel. Size calibration was done using scale bars between control points on a 2D scale divided into 1 mm squares. The average calibration error of the scale bars is ca. 0.015 mm. 2.5. Methods of the microscopic analysis and experimentation The cortex of the engraved flint nodules was the subject of microscopic analysis using the principles and terminology for the observed traces as employed in ground stone analysis (Adams et al., 2009; Dubreuil and Savage, 2014). The two-phase analysis protocol incorporated observations on the macro- and then on the microscale. However, the micro-scale analysis, using a metallurgical microscope (Leica DM 1750M) at magnification of 100-500, showed no relevant results. Therefore, our current study provides a functional reconstruction based on the macro-scale analysis using a stereo-microscope (Nikon SMZ 745T) at magnification of up to 50 to define the topography, texture and features on the surface of the nodules. Ten experiments were conducted with the aim of understanding the mode by which the features on the nodules were
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Fig. 6. Flint Nodule I and the location of enlarged photos (aei).
formed (Table 1). Natural flint nodules collected from the Nahal Siah outcrops were used in the experiments, and flint tools with plain and retouched edges were used for cutting, scraping, engraving and abrading the cortex on the nodules. We also used a porous basalt flake and abraders to work on the natural nodules (Fig. 8).
3. Results 3.1. Experiments with natural nodules The first step in the analysis was to conduct experimental work on the natural nodules (Fig. 9). Those from the chalky facies have a
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Fig. 7. Flint Nodule II and the locations of macrographs a-j shown in Figs. 12e14.
Table 1 Description of the replication experiments. No.
Piece used
Description of working edge
Task details
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Flint flake Porous basal flake Flint blade Porous basalt slab Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade Flint blade
Upper plain sharp lateral Upper uneven lateral Upper retouched lateral Upper surface Upper plain sharp lateral Upper retouched lateral Upper retouched lateral Pointed distal sharp end Upper plain sharp lateral Pointed end
Bidirectional scraping (Fig. 8a) Bidirectional scraping (Fig. 8b) Bidirectional cutting Bidirectional abrasion (Fig. 8d) Bidirectional cutting (Fig. 8e) Bidirectional scraping Bidirectional engraving Repeated unidirectional engraving by long motions (Fig. 8c) Unidirectional cutting by short motions (Fig. 8f) Unidirectional engraving by short motions
white cortex crumbling into white powder while the nodules from the hard limestone facies have a brownish compact cortex. At higher magnification (40), the cortical surface of the two types of nodules appears as a rough surface with random pits (Fig. 9ced). A higher degree of compactness in the case of the brown cortex
nodule is evident. Scraping, cutting, engraving or abrading the cortex immediately removes the rough layer, exposing the harder and compact layer of the cortex. The grooves are cut through the outer cortex and reach an inner hard layer, which is lighter in color, as in the case of the archaeological pieces. The fact that the grooves
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Fig. 8. Examples of some of the experiments in working natural nodules, including a) bidirectional scraping along the long axis of the nodule using a plain sharp lateral edge of a flint blade; b) bidirectional scraping along the long axis of the nodule using a porous basalt flake; c) bidirectional engraving of long grooves along the long axis of the nodule using the pointed edge of a flint blade; d) bidirectional abrasion against a porous basal slab; e) bidirectional cutting of crossing grooves; f) unidirectional cutting of individual parallel grooves.
appear on this hard layer, which is more resistant to postdepositional processes, explains the good state of their preservation. The first apparent experimental result is that creating abraded grooved surfaces on the local flint cortex is a simple, easy and quick task. Experimental actions of a longer duration, such as repeated cutting or engraving, created distinct linear features, sometimes of varying morphologies, that are associated with a smoothed/ abraded surface (Fig. 9e). With increasing duration distinct features are erased exposing a flat abraded surface on the harder underlying cortex. Actions of shorter duration, on the other hand, like cutting a single cut or engraving a single groove, produce distinct isolated features (Fig. 9f) that can indicate the type of manipulation, leaving diagnostic wear patterns that can provide the basis for the functional interpretation. Our experimental program was thus aimed at reconstructing the mode by which those features were formed.
There are several wear patterns that can indicate the motion and the type of tool used (Fig. 10). A sharp edge of a flint tool used to scrape along the long axis of the nodule (Fig. 8a) produced wide, elongated, flat surfaces (Fig. 10a). The tool, with its straight edge, slid over a shallow depression, hence no modification was observed within this depression. The same action, but this time using a basalt flake with an uneven edge (Fig. 8b), produced flat elongated surfaces combined with grooves and striations which slightly penetrate the natural depressions (Fig. 10b). This complex pattern reflects the uneven shape of the edge of the tool, which this time reached the lower areas of the depression with its protruding edges. Engraving using pointed edges of tools (Fig. 8c) produced distinct grooves (Fig. 10c), especially when compared to abrading against the wide surface of the basalt (Fig. 8d), where multiple shallow grooves and striations cover the entire worked surface,
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Fig. 9. Flint nodules collected from the two adjacent outcrops (Fig. 3) with macrographs showing their natural properties and selected examples of patterns observed on the experimental pieces: a) a nodule from the chalky facies with white cortex; b) a nodule from the hard limestone facies with brown cortex; c) macrograph of the rough texture and loose layer of the white cortex with random pits (40); d) macrograph of the rough texture and compact layer of the brown cortex with random shallow pits (40); e) grooves associated with a smooth flat surface produced by bidirectional scraping the nodule along the long axis using a retouched flint tool (10); f) isolated engravings produced by cutting single cuts using a sharp flint bladelet (10). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
leaving no natural untreated surfaces (Fig. 10d). Moreover, bidirectional engraving resulted in a more organized distribution of the grooves compared to unidirectional engraving; this indicates the instability of the unidirectional action resulting from an uneven application of force from time to time. In order to groove inside the shallow natural depressions it was necessary to use the tool separately inside the depression. This produced separated localized grooves within the depression, distributed according to the direction of the engraving (Fig. 10e), similar to the deep wide grooves observed on Nodule II at the front and at the back, inside the natural depression (Fig. 13a and b). Cutting the cortex with a sharp edge produced clean cuts that
reflect the shape, sharpness and thickness of the cutting edge. Single cuts using a plain sharp edge produced narrow V-shaped grooves (Fig. 9f), similar to those observed on most of the parts of Nodule I (Fig. 11). Bidirectional cutting produced wider cuts which have a general V-shaped cross-section. Within the deepest cuts, however, a main groove is observed running along the bottom of the groove, and additional shallower grooves are observed on the walls of the groove (Fig. 10f). The latter is similar to the crossing grooves observed at the rounded end of Nodule II (Figs. 13c and 14c). Most importantly, bidirectional cutting using a plain edge, produced clean cuts (Fig. 10g), but using a retouched edge produced a cut with one side clean and the other associated with shallower
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Fig. 10. Macrographs showing patterns observed on the experimental nodules. a) flat elongated surfaces shown by a white arrow produced by scraping using a sharp plain edge of a flint tool with the natural depression at the middle remaining unmodified (original mag. 10); b) grooves and striations associated with flat abraded surfaces produced by scraping with porous basalt flake with the white arrow showing the grooves slightly going into the natural depression at the middle (original mag. 10); c) distinct grooves produced by repeated engraving using a sharp pointed edge of a flint tool (original mag. 10); d) multiple shallow grooves and striations covering the entire surface produced by bidirectional abrasion against the porous basal slab (original mag. 10); e) detailed view inside a natural depression showing separated distinct grooves produced by unidirectional engraving with a sharp pointed edge of a flint tool (original mag. 10); f) groove with a V-shaped cross-section showing a main deep groove in the middle and shallower grooves on the wall of the groove produced by repeated cutting with a plain sharp flint tool (original mag. 40); g) groove produced by cutting with a plain sharp edge of a flint tool (original mag. 40); h) groove produced by cutting using a retouched edge with white arrow showing additional shallower grooves to the left produced by contact with the retouched surface (original mag. 40).
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Fig. 11. Flint Nodule I. a) the major horizontal engravings (1e6) and the location of macrographs b-e; b) horizontal engravings cutting the longitudinal engravings on the right side of the nodule, and thus the latter are earlier (original mag. 10); c) horizontal engravings cutting the longitudinal engravings (original mag. 10); d) the conjunction of the horizontal engravings at the back of the nodule (original mag. 20); e) longitudinal grooves with their width measurements, the deeper groove has a U-shaped cross-section (original mag. 20).
grooves near it (Fig. 10h). The shallower grooves at the side are produced through contact with the retouched face of the tool. The latter was not observed on Nodule I indicating that the cuts were done using unretouched tools.
3.2. Flint nodule I The natural surface of the cortex is evident over the entire surface of the nodule (Figs. 6 and 11a). No abrasion, smoothing or
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other treatment was detected on the cortical surface except for engravings at the upper part, lower part and along the right side. These engravings were cut into this surface; all are very shallow and mostly with a V-shaped cross-section indicating that they were formed using a sharp tool. These are similar to those produced in our cutting experiments, created in a single, firm motion (Fig. 9f). It seems that the horizontal engravings composing the lower and upper sets (Fig. 11a, lines 1e3, 4e6 respectively) are of a single cutting action each. Some of the deeper engravings on the right side have a U-shaped cross-section perhaps indicating the application of a higher load or repeated cutting along the same groove (Fig. 11e). There are three main engravings in each set at the upper and lower parts of the nodule. In the lower set, the three engravings are complete, continuous on the front, but not so on the back (Fig. 11a: 1e3). The three main engravings of the upper set are less continuous, probably as the result of not being made in a continuous motion. It is impossible to observe if the main engravings conjoin on the back of the nodule because the cortex was flaked off on the left side. It is also impossible to determine if the scars occurred after or before the grooving because the edges are slightly worn. Furthermore, short shallower engravings are present between the main grooves which may represent some kind of filling pattern (Fig. 6a). These also represent swift cutting by short localized actions. The long engravings along the right side of the nodule seem to be cut by the encircling grooves (Fig. 11b and c). This may indicate that the longitudinal striations were formed before them. These engravings are also clean and not associated with additional grooves as to be expected in the case of using a retouched tool; however it is possible that they were formed in a bidirectional motion as they overlap each other and the surface around them seems more abraded (Fig. 11e). In sum, the nodule exhibits an organized pattern, where two sets of encircling engravings were cut into the cortex after working on the right side. We have no use-wear indication of a specific function or hafting of the object, such as binding, holding, knapping or working. It seems that the engraved pattern was created using sharp tools such as small bladelets or thin flakes, a simple and swift endeavor. 3.3. Flint nodule II The natural surface is mostly present on the bottom round end of the nodule and on the right side exhibiting the rough original surface and the random shallow pits (Fig. 7 location a, 12a; note that the macrographs from the areas marked on Fig. 7 appear in Figs. 12e14). Mild treatment is evident on the narrower sides (Fig. 7 location b, 12b) and on the back of the nodule where the natural texture can still be detected (Fig. 12b). It was worked most intensively on its front where the natural texture is totally erased (Fig. 7 location c, 12c). This area is homogenous in texture, flat and smooth, exhibiting distinct mostly parallel shallow grooves running along the main axis of the nodule. Two distinct and separated deep grooves, situated obliquely to the shallow parallel grooves are present on the intensively worked surface at the front of the nodule (Figs. 7 and 13). They have a square cross-section with a flat bottom and both have one straight end (Fig. 7 location d, 13a). These are the deepest grooves observed on the nodule, but other deep, flat bottomed grooves are evident in other locations (Fig. 7 location e, 14a). The shallow parallel grooves around them and along the sides have a V-shaped cross section (Fig. 7 location f, 14b). Another pair of deep grooves is present inside a natural depression on the back of the nodule (Fig. 7 location g, 13b). They are associated with a white abraded surface with other shallow grooves and are much deeper than their surrounding
Fig. 12. Flint Nodule II. Macrographs showing the untreated surface compared to varying intensities of treatments. a) the rough natural surface exhibiting random shallow pits filled with sediment, see Fig. 7a; b) a surface with shallow grooves, the natural surface texture is visible indicating a mild treatment, see Fig. 7 location b; c) the heavily worked front of the nodule with a smooth flat surface associated with multiple shallow grooves and no remains of the natural surface texture, see Fig. 7 location c (all macrographs are at 6.7).
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Fig. 13. Macrographs showing the details of the deep grooves observed on Nodule II. a) the two deep grooves at the front of the nodule cutting through the flat surface with the shallower grooves, see Fig. 7 location d (original mag. 10); b) the deep grooves at the back of the nodule inside the natural depression associated with smooth striated surface marked by the white arrow, see Fig. 7 location g (original mag. 10); c) the crossing engravings at the round base of the nodule, see Fig. 7 location h (original mag. 6.7); d) the encircling deep engraving slightly below the crossing engravings, see Fig. 7 location j (original mag. 6.7).
marks. Both pairs are similar to each other in being deep, subparallel and with the same orientation. Considering the characteristics of the grooves and their distribution on the nodule, and compared to our experiments, it seems that the nodule was repeatedly engraved with the edge of a sharp (perhaps pointed) flint tool, because longitudinal grooves are mostly distinct. The repeated grooving also created a flat, smooth, white surface associated with the grooves. It is possible that the grooving was unidirectional because in our experiment we produced a similar pattern, especially inside the natural depression (Fig. 10e). The deeper grooves on the front and back seem to cut through the surface with the shallow grooves; however, our experiments showed that this might be the result of higher load on the tool particularly aimed at grooving inside the depression, more or less at the same time as the production of the shallow grooves. The crossing deep engravings close to the round bottom end of the nodule exhibit a different type of action. They are separated from the intensively abraded surface on the front, appearing on an untreated surface, in a different orientation e more or less perpendicular to the long axis of the nodule (Fig. 7 location h, 13c). As seen in our experiments (Figs. 8e and 10f), these engravings seem to be the result of contact with a sharp cutting tool that was repeatedly moved inside them as additional shallower grooves are on the walls of the main groove (Fig. 7 location i, 14c). They are close to another encircling engraving that might indicate a rotational cutting of the round end of the nodule (Fig. 7 location j, 13d). To sum up, Nodule II exhibits two sets of deep engravings at the middle of the front face and on the back inside a natural cavity. They are of similar characteristics, and it appears that their
locations are not random. Yet, based on our experiments we consider that this type of groove can be the result of engraving the nodule which, at some point, a higher load on the tool caused a deeper penetration into the cortex layer. The abraded and grooved surface associated with these grooves support a repeated action. The grooves produced on the experimental nodule are also with a flat bottom (Fig. 10c, e), they are associated with abraded surfaces and narrower grooves, and those inside the depression seem exceptionally distinct from the rest of the grooves. This supports a reconstruction that Flint Nodule II was engraved using a sharp tool for a few seconds, but the function of this nodule is still obscured as we found no traces that might indicate a specific use. The third set of markings near the round bottom clearly represents a separate frame. They are distinguished from all the rest of the features on the nodule representing a specific action, aimed at a different result, to create the crossing at the rounded end. Compared to the experimental pieces, it is evident that the grooves were formed by repeated cutting, unlike the rest of the engravings on the nodule. As for Flint Nodule I, we found no use-wear that might indicate a specific function. 4. Discussion Elongated narrow flint nodules are abundant at Neve David. So far we have found dozens, in various dimensions. None were retrieved from a context that may indicate their use. They were most probably brought to the site, like many other nodules and cores, from the nearby flint outcrops where they are still abundant and visible today (Figs. 4 and 5). Some of the wider elongated
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Fig. 14. Nodule II. The morphology, cross-section and width of grooves. a) the wide groove seen on the front of the nodule with a flat bottom, see Fig. 7 location e; b) shallow grooves characteristic of the intensively abraded surface at the front of the nodule with V-shape cross-section, see Fig. 7 location f; c) a close-up of one of the crossing grooves at the round bottom of the nodule showing the U-shaped crosssection of the main groove at the middle associated with shallow grooves seen on the wall, indicating the repeated action of cutting, see Fig. 7 location i (original mag. for all macrographs is 40).
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nodules were used as bladelet cores (Kaufman, 1999) and perhaps even tools as they have repetitive bladelet scars on one and sometimes even two ends. Among 19 elongated flint nodules that were studied here, only two were found to have incisions and grooves. The engravings are simple in the sense that there are no animal or human figures, or complex grids, ladders, etc. However, in both specimens they do represent intentional modifications in several sets (events) of engravings. Both specimens present specific patterns, encircling grooves and longitudinal grooves on Nodule I and grooving and crossing cuts on the rounded end on Nodule II. It is not clear what the function of these implements may have been. For Nodule I, it was suggested (Kaufman, 1999) that it was used as a percussor or retoucher which would have caused the small flake removals along the edge and on the upper extremity. The engravings apparently served no particular function and were likely decorative in nature. The pattern of the engravings indicates that it was done according to a pre-planned template. To date, no similar objects were recovered from Neve David and it may be that this nodule was the private property of a single individual. Nodule II may have been more utilitarian as the engravings don't form a specific pattern, except for the crossing grooves at the rounded bottom. In our experiments this type of grooving caused the smoothing of the edges of the tools we used. Thus, it is possible that the nodule functioned as an abrader on which sharp edges of flint tools were smoothed or blunted. Such flint tools could have been used for tasks on delicate materials such as fresh hide, where the intention is to scrape-off unneeded tissues without cutting the hide. Smooth blunted edges could have also be used for fiber production, where scraping-off the outer shell of the stems is done without cutting it. The earliest evidence, interpreted as twisted fibers used for basketry, was found at the site of Ohalo II (Nadel et al., 1994). Indirect evidence can be deduced from dental finds from the Natufian site of Ain Mallaha, northern Israel, which exhibited wear traces interpreted as being produced by plant processing for basketry or cordage (Bocquentin et al., 2005). It can be assumed that this activity was done at Neve David as well. Art items in general and incised nodules in particular are exceedingly rare in the pre-Natufian world, despite the fact that several large sites have been investigated with considerable excavation volumes. One of the closest parallels to the Neve David nodules is the incised chert nodule from Wadi Mataha, southern Jordan, displaying incisions on an abraded (prepared?) surface. In contrast with the Neve David case, the geological source of the Wadi Mataha nodule is unknown, as no similarly shaped nodules were encountered in the wadis at the vicinity of the site. The site is located in a sandstone lithology where chert does not occur; chert sources are either in stream channels or bedrock sources in a significant distance from the site (Gregg et al., 2011). In any case, it is interesting to point out that these Geometric Kebaran occurrences, located ca. 400 km apart in different environmental settings, share several cultural traits that include incised nodules and burials with broken groundstone vessels (Macdonald et al., 2016). The Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran engraved objects from Ein Qashish South (Yaroshevich et al., 2016) are a much closer example (geographically) to Neve David, but the complexity of the motifs and the raw materials selected for engraving appear to be very different. It is clear that not only are such objects rare in Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran sites, even in well-preserved and largely excavated sites, there are only a few instances of recurring motifs. The ladder and cross hatching patterns occur at Ein Qashish South (Yaroshevich et al., 2016) and Urkan a-Rub IIA (Hovers, 1990) and it is noteworthy that in both instances the engravings are on limestone plaquettes. The nodules from Neve David, then, are unique with regard to the patterns engraved on them.
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Fig. 15. Examples of Natufian engravings. 1e3) flint nodules from el-Wad Cave forming abstract representations of human anatomical features (after Weinstein-Evron and BelferCohen, 1993); 4) one of four decorated surfaces on an engraved limestone slab from Hayonim Cave (after Shaham and Belfer-Cohen, 2013); 5) engravings inside the shaft of bedrock mortar C-XVIII, Raqefet Cave (after Nadel and Rosenberg, 2016).
As already suggested (Kaufman, 1999; Yaroshevich et al., 2016), the patterns seen in the Geometric Kebaran engraved items and specifically those from Neve David may be interpreted in light of the much richer record of the Natufian. In many Early and Late Natufian sites in the Mediterranean “core area” engravings on
various types of stones, as well as bones, have been found. The engravings on stone are often simple or abstract (in the sense of not composing a clear image) but sometimes form elaborate designs and figures. Examples include numerous incised or grooved items from el-Wad (Garrod and Bate, 1937; Weinstein-Evron et al., 2007),
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including six flint nodules with incisions that abstractly form human anatomical features (Fig. 15: 1e3; Weinstein-Evron and BelferCohen, 1993); numerous modified stone items from the Early Natufian Wadi Hammeh 27 (Edwards, 2012); several carved or incised limestone items from Nahal Oren (Noy, 1991) and Eynan (Perrot, 1966; Valla et al., 2007); incised limestone slabs from Hayonim Cave (Fig. 15: 4; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 1999; Shaham and Belfer-Cohen, 2013), a domed “pestle” with incisions creating a meander from the terminal Ramonian (Early Natufian) site of Upper Besor 6 in the Negev Highlands (Goring-Morris, 1998); four incised pebbles and other items from the Early and Late Natufian of Wadi Mataha (Gregg et al., 2011) and several limestone objects decorated with geometric incisions from Nahal Ein Gev II (Grosman et al., 2016). Incisions on stone appear not only on “mobiliary art” items but on stationary features, such as the Hayonim Cave slabs and elaborate carvings on slabs within structures in Wadi Hammeh 27 (Edwards, 1991) as well as a set of incisions inside the shaft of a bedrock mortar at Raqefet Cave (Fig. 15: 5; Nadel and Rosenberg, 2016). The engraved nodules of Neve David were procured from two distinct flint outcrops in the immediate vicinity of the site and were easily engraved using the abundant flint flakes available at the site. We cannot say with certainty that any symbolic meaning can be attributed to either of the nodules and note that not all engravings must be viewed as symbolic. However, our continuing investigations of this large and complex site, together with the multidisciplinary methodology presented here may reveal additional data that will assist in future interpretations. Acknowledgements We thank A. Belfer-Cohen, E. Hovers, D. Shaham, M. WeinsteinEvron and A. Yaroshevich for kindly providing original figures of engraved items from their excavations. We also thank Nurit Shtober-Zisu for her help regarding geomorphological aspects. Anat Regev-Gisis prepared the plates. The renewed excavations and analysis of finds at Neve David are supported by the Irene Levi-Sala Care Foundation and the Israel Science Foundation grant no. 804/ 2016. The material published here corresponds to IAA License G-5/ 2015. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.037. References Adams, J.L., Delgado, S., Dubreuil, L., Hamon, C., Plisson, H., Risch, R., 2009. Functional analysis of macro-lithic artefacts: a focus on working surfaces. In: Sternke, F., Eigeland, L., Costa, L.J. (Eds.), Non-flint Raw Material Use in Prehistory: Old Prejudices and New Directions. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 43e66. Bar-Oz, G., Dayan, T., Kaufman, D., 1999. The Epipaleolithic faunal sequence in Israel: a view from Neve David. J. Archaeol. Sci. 26, 76e82. Bar-Yosef, O., 1970. The Epipaleolithic Cultures of Palestine. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Unpublished Ph. D dissertation). Bar-Yosef, O., 1998. The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evol. Anthropol. 6, 159e177. Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A., 1999. Encoding information: unique natufian objects from Hayonim Cave, western galilee, Israel. Antiquity 73, 402e410. Belfer-Cohen, A., 1991. The natufian in the levant. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 20, 167e186. Belfer-Cohen, A., Goring-Morris, A.N., 2011. Becoming farmers. Curr. Anthropol. 52, S209eS220. Bocquentin, F., Crevecouer, L., Arensburg, B., Kaufman, D., Ronen, A., 2011. Le homes barien ge ome trique de Neve David, Mont Carmel (Israe €l). Bull. me moires du Ke de la Soc. d’anthropologie de Paris 23, 38e51. cialise Bocquentin, F., Sellier, P., Murail, P., 2005. Abrasion dentaire et travail spe €l). Comptes Rendus Palevol 4, dans la population natoufienne de Mallaha (Israe 351e357.
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