Enhancing household energy consumption: How should it be done?

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 669–681

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Enhancing household energy consumption: How should it be done? a,⁎

b

MARK

c

N’Famory Camara , Deyi Xu , Emmanuel Binyet a b c

China University of Geosciences, Department of Economics/Management Science and Engineering, China China University of Geosciences, Department of Statistics, China National Tsing Hua University, Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, Taiwan

A R T I C L E I N F O

A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Sweden Energy efficiency Policy instrument Discourse Guinea-Conakry

Households have become one of the most crucial factors shaping the management of developments towards sustainability. However, for some nations, addressing such challenges appears to be too difficult. A lack of awareness and strong policies has led to the misuse of energy resources in Guinea. This provides us with grounds to assess the discourses on which the notion of efficiency is based on according to various actors who are attempting to affect household energy behaviour around the world. This study first attempts to improve household energy behaviour in Guinea-Conakry based on feedback from interest groups, authorities and energy companies. Our research is based on the results of a recently concluded pilot study conducted in Sweden. The outcomes of this pilot study will have some important implications in terms of enhancing household energy behaviours in Guinea-Conakry.

1. Introduction The Republic of Guinea is the source of major rivers in the West African region, including the Niger, Gambia and Senegal Rivers (Fig. 1). It is often identified as the “water-tower of West Africa”. Previously known as French Guinea, it is now called Guinea-Conakry. The Republic of Guinea had installed energy capacities of approximately 239 MW [1] until July 2015, and 9 hydro plants and 18 thermal power plants provided for an estimated population of 12.61 million inhabitants [2]. The July 2015 launch of the Kaleta Dam (240 MW) increased the total installed capacity to 479 MW [1]. Nonetheless, the country possesses an estimated hydropower potential of roughly 6000 MW [3]. The total hydropower potential of the continent (Africa-Fig. 2) is estimated as approximately 1750 terawatt-hours [4]. However, On June 12, 1992, Guinea became a member [5] of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Convention (UNFCCC) enacts two policy responses on climate change: the mitigation of climate change by reducing greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere and enhancing carbon sinks and the mitigation of effects of climate change [6]. Thus, reductions are to be realized through the use of measures that improve energy efficiency [7,8]. However, according to Jesse and Ribot [9], the failure of energy policies of African countries is attributable to the fact that these countries are solely concerned about supplies, and for many years they

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have overlooked the benefits of controls on household demand, particularly in regards to the regulation of domestic fuel consumption in Africa. They ignore the fact that households have been identified by researchers as an important target group for energy conservation. For example, households represent 25% of the total energy uptake in the US, 26% of that in Japan, 50% of that in Saudi Arabia [10], 39% of that in Sweden [11] and 40% of that in Guinea. For some nations, however, maintaining the drive to tackle challenges such as control features of household energy consumption appears too difficult. For instance, Guinea has only built 2 hydroelectric dams (Samankou and Garafiri) since UNFCCC 1992 [1] despite its population growth of 77% [12] from 1992 to 2013. In addition, generalized fraud and a lack of household awareness have left the electrical sector entirely defective. This shows that energy users have significant effects on demand side management (DSM) master plans that promote successful1 strategies. Energy demand refers to the energy needs of end users, while energy consumption refers to energy used in different sectors of the economy. Therefore, demand is what is actually offered, while consumption refers to the usage of what is accessible, and what is accessible contributes a lion’s share of climate and environmental degradation effects. On one hand, when what is accessible is insufficient (e.g., unaffordable tariffs or a lack of electricity), consumers may resort to more inefficient alternatives (e.g., wood, charcoal, or fraud). On the other hand, when what is accessible is sufficient (e.g., affordable

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Camara), [email protected] (D. Xu), [email protected] (E. Binyet). A successful overall strategy should aim to [140] (i) reduce the imbalance between energy demand and supply; (ii) encourage investment in energy infrastructure; (iii) diversify energy sources; (iv) control price fluctuations in energy vulnerability; and (v) encourage investment in research and development. 1

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.060 Received 10 October 2016; Received in revised form 14 June 2017; Accepted 24 July 2017 1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Moreover, energy consumption behaviour has been identified as a source of demand that refers to the needs and preferences of individuals in terms of their energy use [15,16]. To illustrate, Stafford states that “buildings per se do not consume energy; rather people living and working in buildings use energy” [17]. Cramer et al. [18] similarly argue that “human attitudes, incomes and intentions do not directly consume electricity. Rather, they influence how the physical devices are operated”. These early statements support the notion that user behaviour is key to explaining energy consumption. From the above, it is evident that consumption gives some power to end users to pollute the environment. How do we control this power so that consumers efficiently use energy? One way involves influencing consumer behaviours. How can we influence their behaviours? A simple way involves examining the discourse that principles of efficiency are based on in consideration of the various actors who attempt to influence household energy behaviours around the world. According to Gyberg and Jenny [19], a discourse is a process through which terms (e.g., energy efficiency orientation) are defined. However, we believe that when the notion of efficiency is based on discourse, such discourse becomes part of our knowledge and thus becomes information. As information is derived from one’s knowledge, discourse is an accumulation of information. Nonetheless, knowledge and information are recognized as crucial to enhancing everyday consumer behaviours. There is evidence that utility companies and government agencies seeking to reduce household energy consumption levels must focus on empowering consumers with more information and knowledge on how to effect such change [20]. This shows us that bad habits (e.g., sedentary lifestyles and fraud) could be the result of a lack of knowledge and information. For this reason, it is important to understand how and when households use energy to deliver the right information to the target audience. This is crucial because when overloaded with information, people tend to adopt the solution that satisfies minimum requirements rather than choosing the best option [21]. Therefore, useless complications and sensory overcrowding should be avoided by framing messages in a clear format and by communicating short and simple messages that most consumers can rapidly and readily comprehend [22]. In line with growing anxieties surrounding climate change, efficiency has become increasingly more crucial. Within such a context, doing more with less is efficient4; therefore, doing less with more is inefficient. According to Castillo et al. [23], efficiency is defined herein as the actions that consume the lowest possible volume of assets in producing a definite volume of production. From the above, it is perhaps unsurprising that before July 2015, Guinea’s energy supply mix was as follows: 80% from biomass, 18% from hydrocarbons and only 2% from electricity [24] (Fig. 3). Electricity has become critical to human life and has allowed us to accomplish far more than that which evolutionary processes and nature had restricted us to. For this reason, the knowledge and information received by energy users should be very important. The specific objectives of the paper are (i) to examine the discourse that the notion of efficiency is based on by assessing several actors who are trying to influence household energy behaviour around the world, and especially in Sweden with regards to enhancing household energy behaviour in Guinea; (ii) to examine 24 years of energy consumption data for various sectors in Guinea to evaluate the

Fig. 1. Map of Guinea.

Fig. 2. Map of Africa.

electricity), consumers may abuse resources (e.g., high electricity bills). Regardless of what we do, it is evident that there is a need to control consumer behaviours with an invisible hand that orients consumers in the right direction. The behaviouristic approach, however, involves the examination of the output2 of objects and of the relations of this output to the input3 [13]. For instance, the use of fossil fuels (inputs) contributes to environmental (object) degradation (output) and climate (object) change (output). Accordingly, behaviour refers to any change in an entity relative to its surroundings [13]. Similarly, household energy behaviour can be defined as a household’s ability to cause any change (output) to its surroundings (object) by using energy as an input. For these reasons, consumption has become one of the most important tools or factors for encouraging sustainability [14].

4 Efficiency behaviours are recognized as one-time actions, such as buying new energyefficient technology and building modifications (e.g., replacing incandescent bulbs with new LEDs; installing fixtures like low-flow shower heads, insulation and solar panels; and upgrading old, inefficient appliances) [141]. For instance, suppose that you must cook a meal and that you have three options: 1. open fire; 2. new stove; and 3. secondhand stove. From these options, the second one is of course the efficient option because we could do more (e.g., cooking, eating, showering and sleeping) with less (15min + modest cost), while with the first option we could do less (e.g., cooking) with more (e.g., carbon dioxide emission, environmental and health degradation, one hour and little cost for now, which might increase in the future because of issues concerning particulate matter in smoke). From this example, we can see that efficiency is a rather complex idea with choices and decisions that require considerable knowledge and information.

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The output is defined as any change generated in the surroundings by the object. The input, inversely, is defined as any occurrence external to the object that changes this object in any way. 3

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on household energy efficiency. As a complement, we also conducted an online survey. The design of the 11-question survey was based on our hypothesis with content divided into two main sections: awareness of household energy use and basic individual information. Typically, the response rates of online surveys are relatively dismal. Responding to questionnaires is time-consuming; it is also difficult for respondents to send them back. As a result, on our first attempt, most respondents showed little interest. However, as many statisticians are familiar with survey execution, enlisting their help could improve the reliability and feedback rates of our survey. Therefore, one statistician was asked to help distribute questionnaires to 20 people. The question posed to evaluate household awareness in energy use was “Is there any website or social network that could inform a random Guinean on his/her energy use?” To respond this question, respondents were asked to provide one of two answers: 1-YES or 0-NO. To evaluate household knowledge on energy saving behaviour, we asked “Do you have any knowledge on ways to save or use energy efficiently? 1-Yes or 0-No. If yes, please elaborate”. We thus used both open and closed ended questions. Perhaps because the online survey was carried out with the help of a statistician, our response rate was very high (100%), meaning that all 20 people responded. In designing the sample, we wanted to gather empirical material with pertinent information related to the problem statement rather than achieve population representativeness. In this way, the results given by the 20 people sampled could be generalizable to all Guineans.

Fig. 3. Energy supply mix of Guinea before Kaleta.

potential for energy savings and (iii) to provide a holistic view of the benefits of controlling population energy needs that includes recommendations for local and future global policy. It is worth noting that assessing all discourses on which the notion of efficiency is based falls beyond the scope of this paper. We focus on information from authorities and from interest organizations and energy companies such as Local Agenda 21 (LA21), Energy On (E.ON) and Ectricité de Guinée (EDG). 2. Aims and method LA21 and E.ON are Sweden’s largest energy agencies. Swedish energy companies have for long been seeking ways to affect household energy use, and there is a strong belief in information campaigns and in the ability to make changes through learning [25]. In addition, since the oil crisis in the mid-1970s, information campaigns on energy saving behaviours addressing households have been used over a number of periods in Sweden [26]. This evidence substantiates our focus on Swedish energy companies and on their integrity- (i.e., openness, fairness, and concern for public interest) and competencebased trust systems (i.e., perceived expertise and experience). Furthermore, there is evidence that messages inspired from a highly reliable source (e.g., public service commission) may increase consumer demand for energy saving information [27]. As explaining human behaviour in all of its complexity is difficult, the adjustment of the Western administration concept to non-Western cultural conditions is often considered [28]. The Republic of Guinea is a West African developing country known as French Guinea in the past that is today called Guinea-Conakry. There is evidence that both developed and developing countries are facing the same struggle [29]. In addition, while we have our similarities, we have also our specificities. Thus, the best way to achieve success is to use our similarities to adjust our distinctions. This is important because several factors such as fraud and unpaid bills have led to a lack of provisions in Guinea [24]. These factors have contributed to an increase in biomass consumption and thus to an increase in deforestation and pollution. These factors are related to consumer behaviour, and such behaviours must be improved through the provision of knowledge and information. Such knowledge and information can be provided by different actors. For instance, Swedish energy actors have acquired much experience by influencing household energy use through information campaigns on various energy-savings behaviours (e.g., use of public transportation, washing clothes with full machines, and use low-energy bulbs) [25]. Therefore, the first objective of this article is to examine how these actors try to affect everyday life choices. Through these actors’ recommendations, we try to find ways to improve household energy behaviours in GuineaConakry. In addition, we examined 11 Guinean websites and energy companies such as EDG5 to identify any across household knowledge

3. Theoretical framework A growing relevance of discourse analysis in social science has resulted from increasing awareness of the importance of discussions, definitions, audiences and explanations for social and policy analysis, also referred to as ‘the argumentative round’ [30,31]. The application of discourse analysis to political disciplines has been valued by several scholars [32,33]. According to Hajer [32], “discourse refers to a specific collection of ideas, concepts, and categorizations that is produced, reproduced, and transformed among a certain set of patrons and through which meanings are given to physical and social realities”. However, as stated above, we define this as a form of knowledge, as it becomes part of our knowledge set, and we define ideas as information, as they become the focus. Information can also be good or bad, but altogether information constitutes knowledge. Knowledge is in turn acquired through education; therefore, education is fundamental to maintaining efficient energy use. Processes of modernization and development in traditional society demand that people become educated so that the concepts are approved of and followed [34]. Rather, the education of households and their involvement in policy are vital aspects of successful policies for reducing energy use. Disseminating information to households on current energy usage helps introduce concepts of energy conservation without requiring households to purchase more efficient appliances [35,36]. In fact, energy-saving behaviours have generally been separated into two main groups: habitual actions (e.g., direct mitigation and settlement behaviours; changes in habits) and purchasing activities (e.g., efficient technology) [37,38]. Purchasing assets limit energy use through spending on efficient technologies without a change in lifestyle [19]. For instance, in regards to the Swedish building sector, the commission intends to encourage factories and purchasers to consume less energy through more economical technology use and behaviours [39]. The situation in Guinea is different. There is evidence that in Guinea’s building sector, high electricity bills are attributable to several factors such as [1] poor user habits, a lack of thermal regulation in buildings, a lack of energy labelling, and gaps in standard equipment selection. This shows that the Republic of Guinea employs no energy information system. Consistent with this, appliance labelling is the first stage of product policy design, making it possible to identify varying levels of efficiency [40]. A label is only effective when it is clear, trusted and accessible at

5 Electricity of Guinea (EDG) is responsible for managing the assets and all rights and obligations involving the operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, renewal and development of structures and production equipment, as well as transmission and distribution of electric energy in the Guinean territory.

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first focus. Thus, our intent is to follow “goals” as they are constructed by advising actors [19–49]. According to Foucault [50], discourse is a system through which several possible alternate meanings and explanations are excluded and not actualized within specific context. As explained above, a discourse is a collection of information. While information can be efficient or inefficient, all information has meaning. Such meanings are constructed in accurate ways based on historical and social continuity [51]. This continuity generates certain “rules” and “results” of truth [52,53]. This truth is derived from knowledge and information. How knowledge and information are structured and their contents determine which issues are excluded and included. Therefore, we focus on measures used on different websites and in information meetings to improve household energy behaviour in Guinea.

the point of sale on every asset. However, studies have shown that technological improvements have attracted much more attention than behaviours related to the struggle towards more efficient ways of living [41]. Similarly, in 2011, the government of Guinea invested millions of dollars in the construction of two hydroelectric dams (Kaleta Dam and Souapiti Dam), while attention to consumer energy behaviours has received almost no attention. In addition, as stated above, we studied several Guinean websites to identify any indications of an awareness of energy use in Guinea, but we could not find any information on energy issues. Consistent with this is, through our online survey, when asked whether they knew of any online information systems on energy use, our 20 respondents answered “NO”. This demonstrates that policymakers in Guinea are only concerned about supplies and completely overlook people’s lifestyles. There is evidence that people’s lifestyles6 and decisions impact their energy use habits due to both cultural and social variables [40]. Research has also shown that an increase in household energy use has attributed to technological development, economic growth, demographic factors, institutional factors and cultural developments. These factors are often referred to as TEDIC factors [42]. This shows that people’s lifestyles and cultural7 practices considerably affect consumer energy use. Thus, the government of Guinea should not merely focus on the provision of electricity as an end in and of itself, as there is a need to establish effective and comprehensive policies that consider forms of energy used by the poor for lighting, cooking, productive assets and transport [43]. There is evidence that it is feasible to decrease energy usage through information projects [44]. For instance, information policies have been the main policy tools used in attempting to lower Swedish citizens’ energy use [45]. Unfortunately, Guinea does not employ any energy information system. However, studies have shown that environmental information on climate change and customized household energy-saving advice is not always effective without support from relatives and popular networks and supportive government policies [46]. Information can direct consumers to the right course of action by offering insights into the consequences of their behaviour. According to Annamaria [47], low literacy and a lack of information affect the ability to save energy. For this reason, when information programmes are in progress, it is crucial to reflect on what goals one wishes to achieve through such instruction (e.g., information). The dissemination of information on energy efficiency can be carried out in a several ways (e.g., through seminars, demonstrations, exhibitions, conferences, reports, education, newsletters, and technology competitions) [44]. In fact, electricity bills are used as direct instruction instruments, as many utilities have succeeded in extending them as sources of information for customers. Every policy instrument used to promote a behavioural change draws a link between at least two persons. The content of a defined measure serves as communication from the addresser to the addressee or from the sender to the receiver. This can involve two individuals or a relation between authorities and industries. It is almost always the partner who receives information who makes decisions on whether to change his or her behaviour or not [27]. The receiver, e.g., an industry, household or private individual, thus becomes crucial as a decision maker. The sender must struggle to debate on actions and must inspire and motivate the receiver to accept the arguments posed and to devise strategies to improve levels of technological efficiency and/or change organizational behaviours. The sender-receiver model is, however, heavily criticized for its simplification of knowledge and learning processes [48]. When constructing general information for websites or for dissemination in general meetings, actors must find general instruments that several people can benefit from. How this information is constructed by various actors with this limitation is our

4. Discourses on energy efficiency in Guinea-Conakry Efficiency is defined herein as the actions that generate the highest outputs for a definite set of resources [23]. In this paper, we focus on energy efficiency discourses. Furthermore, we identify other discourses as well. In addition to efficiency, a Swedish LA21 study found what they refer to as critical discourses [19]. This discourse focuses on moral problems related to Western lifestyles. Even when there are tracks of such discourses, the efficiency discourse is the most dominant. As noted above, we studied the most vacant Guinean websites and energy companies such as EDG and conducted online interviews, but we did not find any information or knowledge designed to render consumer energy behaviours more efficient. To improve consumer behaviours, we must address their moral problems, and adequate information is thus required. These latter facts vividly demonstrate the failure of African energy policy. This failure is attributable to factors such as negligence and a lack of motivation, which in turn maintains what we identify as “Abstract Policy”. In this way, developing countries fail twice, first in regards to the work, time and expenses dedicated to establishing such policies and second given that such policies are often forgotten, thus resulting in a loss of values. Values refer to a broader and more general set of attitudes [54]. Therefore, it is perhaps unsurprising that many developing countries overlook the fact that small changes can bring about big changes. For instance, Guinea is aware that generalized fraud has led to a lack of provisions in Guinea, yet the government continues to invest millions of dollars in the construction of dams, while underlying problems (end users) are completely overlooked. This shows that most developing countries are working while turning a blind eye and that they do not know what they are doing. Such conditions can lead to rebound effects [55]. In addition, in a sender-receiver context, it is evident that feedback from receivers is completely neglected by most developing countries. Feedback is crucial for both senders and receivers in the sense that it provides detailed information on receiver energy uses, increases receiver knowledge on how much energy they use overall or through the use of different appliances and allows senders to understand receiver energy behaviours and to thus provide the right advice on better energy apparatuses [56]. In this way, smart metres can play a crucial role in the delivery of detailed information [57]. From the above, it is clear that it is crucial to provide impartial and locally adapted instruction and guidance on matters of energy, technology, and consumer advice. In Laves and Wengers’ [48] words, it is important to “…focus on perceivable comprehension involving the whole person rather than “receiving” a body of truthful science about the world”. However, as efficiency involves doing more with less, the improvement of a developing country such as Guinea based on the experiences of a developed country such as Sweden is not unreasonable, as the concept of efficiency is closely linked to the ability for human beings to control their nature, to make calculated decisions defined from “truths” and to the notion that problems can be solved by improving technologies [19]. Our pilot study has revealed the following categories from materials.

6 Lifestyle is regarded as “typical modes of existence that are fulfilled by persons and groups via socially authorized and culturally comprehensible pattern of action” [142]. 7 “Culture” here represents the variety of values, beliefs, knowledge, practice, technology and other cultural determinants that exist within any given society.

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that for every step, respondent knowledge levels should increase, in turn increasing the likelihood that consumers will turn possible actions into concrete actions. Through our online survey, we also found that after the completion of the Kaleta Dam, the government of Guinea delivered an awareness campaign through national television and radio stations. The message delivered encouraged individuals to use electricity rationally, to avoid engaging in fraudulent behaviours and to pay their bills honestly. However, the campaign only lasted for 1 month, which is a very short time given the conditions of Guinea’s energy sector. It is worth noting that energy consulting for the public can be done several ways (e.g., through announcements, local exhibitions, newspaper articles, demonstrations, directly via telephone, direct information to consumers or websites). Regarding websites, we examined the most frequented Guinean websites8 but did not find any that broadcasted information on consumer energy behaviours or the use of more energy-efficient appliances. However, in the Swedish material, some information focused on economic and environmental concerns (e.g., “There is no denying the fact energy use affects us and the environment, but were you aware that for every Kwh we do not use, we save a discharge of one kilo of carbon dioxide? If you lower your energy use, not only can you affect the economy positively, but you can also better the environment (www.karlsman. se)”). From this example, it is evident that when information programmes are performed, it is crucial to clarify one’s goals. www. guinea-consulting.com could broadcast the following message: “There is no denying that indoor pollution is harmful for your health, but did you know that a 20% improvement in energy efficiency would spur a 10% drop in consumption [64]. By applying smart and efficient ways to use energy, you could save money, lives and the environment”. While such messaging can strengthen an organization, it is unfortunately overlooked in most developing countries. This highlights the fact that people from developing countries believe that Westerners are overly concerned about minor issues such as climate change, while those from developing countries are preoccupied with more pressing issues such as a lack of electricity, health issues or unemployment levels. However, developing countries overlook the fact that most major issues stem from smaller issues. For instance, there is evidence that due to a lack of strong policies, generalized fraud9 in Guinea has led to under provision, resulting in a lack of electricity and thus an increase in insecurity. Is insecurity not a more pressing issue than good policy? Furthermore, insecurity (big issue) results from a lack of policy (small issue). For instance, addressing climate change (small issue) through access to modern fuels could eliminate all of the major issues described above (insecurity, a lack of electricity, high levels of biomass uptake, deforestation, health problems, illiteracy and unemployment). Thus, most big issues emanate from small issues. Therefore, a bottom-up approach could be used to solve problems at the source. Strong and united government measures are required to achieve this goal, and namely through an increase in funding from public and private sources; policies that promote the use of cleaner and more efficient fuels; the provision of affordable cooking technologies; sufficient supplies and comprehensive development strategies [43]. According to the examined material examined, several websites presented different goals but used almost the same discourse. In sum, developing countries, and Guinea-Conakry in particular, must understand that the most difficult task involves establishing policy systems, as once systems are in place, only routine updates are required.

4.1. Individual choices How do individuals choose what to select from? Rather, how do individuals identify possible solutions to a problem when they are not limited to choosing from a set of alternatives provided? Unfortunately, this question has not been explored at length in the ruling and decision-making literature compared to the study of individual choices from given options. Gettys and colleagues have explored some topics in this area [58–60]. However, according to Swedish information material, it is argued that consumers must govern their own choices and that through these choices energy systems can improve (www.fortum.se, www.energicentrum.se, www. eon.se, www.greenpeace.org). For example, the Fortum energy company states: “Everyone wins with smarter energy use. You lower your costs, and Fortum will have satisfied consumers. In addition, together we will participate in a better environment today - and for coming generations. It is not about cutting off your comfort, but about utilizing electricity in a smart way - plus having money left over for other things (www.fortum.se)”. This message focuses on how people determine what to choose from (e.g., smarter energy use) and people’s choices for given alternatives (e.g., better environment). However, suppose that Guinea’s energy company EDG were to manage a consulting website for consumers (e.g., www.guinea-consulting.com) where one could find all necessary information on Guinean energy issues, and assume that this website broadcasts weekly or monthly messages such as the following: “Everybody knows of the dangers of biomass uptake and of a lack of electricity. This is why we are constructing new dams (Kaleta and Souapiti). However, we cannot do this without you changing your lifestyle by paying electricity bills honestly and not stealing electricity. For more information, please visit our website at www.guinea-consulting.com”. Such messages could inspire considerable changes. It is always difficult to reach absolute results and to "find solid signs that individual factors are playing an important role”. However, Gregory and Harrigan [61] showed that information and education in addition to other demandside management (DSM) measures increase energy efficiency levels and that it is feasible to achieve change over a longer period. This means that the longer a trial period is, the more lasting its effects are. Unfortunately, through our investigations, we found that (EDG) does not maintain a web page through which its broadcasts such messages to its consumers. Another large energy company in Sweden, E.ON, lists a similar message as that of Fortum on its site: “E.ON wishes to help you decrease your electricity bills. There are several things you can do without causing a reduction in comfort and small and smart measures that you can take that are great for your pocket and the environment. We can advise you on your energy use (www.eon.se)”. Both E.ON and Fortum mention that it is not about “lowering your comfort”. This is crucial, as it is known that the comfort or discomfort (e.g., air quality, noise protection, and thermal comfort) that residents feel when engaging in certain forms of electricity-saving behaviour has a significant influence on their future energy saving behaviours [62]. Nevertheless, to satisfy comfort needs, occupants must use technologies that impact building energy performance [63]. However, from the above, Swedish energy company information appears to be well structured, even though it is quite similar. Similarly, imagine again if Guinea ‘www.guinea-consulting.com’ were to broadcast a similar message such as the following: “Did you know that indoor air pollution from the use of solid fuels is the cause of 1.5 million early deaths per year [43]? Yes, dear citizens, it is true! There is evidence for this, and we must therefore be smart about our energy use to protect our children and the environment. We can answer any of your questions at www.guinea-consulting.com”. A short message like this could be of great benefit. In addition, there is evidence that an increase in consumer knowledge could encourage consumers to be more energy efficient and that when consumers are reminded of such issues constantly, negative effects could decrease [44]. This means

8 Guineenews; aminata.com; africaguinee.com; guineeconakry.info; guinéematin.com; guinéeactu.com; guinéepressinfo.com; aminata.com; guinée58; bouba.com; gouvernement.gov.gn. 9 There is evidence that electricity losses were estimated to be 35% of the supply in 1984, 22.5% of the supply in 1999 and 32.6% in 2000 [24].

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argument, even when wages are equal, underdeveloped countries benefit from purchasing second-hand machinery from advanced economies by addressing unemployment rates. Cooper et al. [75] argue that second-hand machinery and equipment should not be used when it is inefficient. However, for importing countries, there is an acute conflict of concerns between negative consequences for the environment and economic development [23]. This above situation has raised many questions; therefore, governments must take the lead in defining priorities such as [75]: the definition of low energy standards for products; the environment of second-hand machinery transactions and the determination of prices; the incidence of transport and installation costs; costs of repair and maintenance; the issue of spare parts; and the efficiency of operations in developing countries. Without policies, manufacturers10 do not recognize the need to realize carbon reductions through the equipment that they design, and consumers remain unaware of the energy usage of certain products [40]. Public opinion in the UK has long acknowledged that governments must regulate factories to protect the environment, even when “business processes are impeded when making decisions” [64]. Drawing from the view that policies are not compulsorily neutral instruments but rather products of discursive struggle [76], it might be safe to assume that future policies on adaptation and mitigation may require developing an understanding of the implications of each discourse for policy design. This demonstrates that developed countries, regardless of how advanced they are, are somehow underdeveloped when adopting weak policies in the face of inefficiency. Furthermore, in 1994, before any forms of regulation were set in place, there was no regard for energy efficiency by manufacturers, there was no test used to recognize the variance between samples, and the distribution was thus oriented towards inefficiency [40]. Issues of efficiency came into consideration in 1995, and over more than 21 years, advanced and developing countries did not find an adequate solution to this matter. We propose some solutions to this problem in the following section.11 However, this issue should be taken into consideration, as there is evidence that the limitation of global warming to two degrees Celsius requires shifting activities from global efforts to domestic actions to avoid free-riding [77]. In brief, reaching efficiency, it is necessary to employ various coordinating mechanisms to define priorities and to take advantage of the various financial tools accessible for each policy. Finally, the third appeal made according to the examined material related to materialistic concerns focused on what people can earn by changing their behaviour. Studies have shown that offering information to consumers on their current energy usage can help promote energy saving without the purchase of more efficient appliances [35,36]. However, the main factors affecting motivations to undertake energy saving actions are “a spirit of competition”, “saved money”, and “information on ways to save” [78]. Nonetheless, the relationship

4.2. Creating incentives Several energy utility companies manage shop locations referred to as energy centres or cabins that are available to the public. At these locations, consumers can ask energy suppliers about energy consumption practices and obtain advice on how to save energy. Studies have shown that it is efficient to disseminate forms of energy efficiency through educational institutions that can be used both nationally and internationally [65]. The goal is for savings achieved at such schools to return to institutions for continued energy savings to ensure that institution budgets for energy are not exceeded and to create a benchmark of energy use. This highlights the fact that the effects of information can be sometimes be unpredictable; thus, there is a need to identify smart ways to put knowledge into effect in the consumer’s mind. Energy consumers can be divided into six groups: the well-beingoriented energy consumer, the indifferent consumer, the selfless consumer, the thrifty consumer, the convenience-oriented consumer, and the idealistic consumer [66]. However, according to the examined materials examined, we found three main incentives are involved. First, information should appeal to ideologies, meaning that something must be done to save the world. For instance, according to the examined materials, one of the LA21 informers states: “Yeah, that is how it should be - that is what we struggle to do: alter habits! The tips must address everyday matters, and they need to be rather simple, stressing that we aren’t talking about considerable offerings but rather rational approaches”. From this, it is evident that information must be structured in a manner that can appeal to both old and young generations. This is crucial, as studies have shown that more and more residents in Beijing, and especially young people, have never experienced an electricity shortage, highlighting the need to fortify consumer consciousness on electricity shortages to improve household electricity efficiency levels [67]. Similarly, regarding what must be done to save the environment (www.guinea-consulting.com), broadcasts could use the following messaging: “Yes, this is what we must do - get rid of fraud. Did you know that electricity losses in Guinea were estimated to represent 32.6% of the supply in 2000 [24]? Agents must address everyday issues. You better not steal electricity because if you do, you may receive an anonymous message about it. It is not about a major sacrifice but rather an overall outcome”. Adding a smiley [68–70] and country-relevant data to the message could make the information more salient and informative. It is worth noting that www.guinea-consulting. com does not exist and that we are only presenting possibilities. In addition, through our online survey, we found that the government of Guinea has initiated prepayment metres that discourage fraud. We found that the management of prepayment metres is new to EDG. According to the examined material, a second appeal was made to health concerns, which were viewed environmentally friendly concerns. Rather, riding a bike instead of driving a car improves one’s fitness level and increases one’s exposure fresh air. Regarding fresh air, while towns constitute the origins of many global environmental problems related to air and water pollution, it is in towns that one can find aspiring solutions, as they present several positive features [71]. Urban pollution in developing countries often results from heavy automobile use [72] and biomass uptake [43]. While it can be worth riding a bicycle for better health and environmental outcomes, when the air that people breathe is also polluted, people are less willing to bike and are more willing to purchase a used car, bettering the second-hand equipment industry. In addition, biomass use is not in itself a cause for concern. However, when energy conversion technologies are inefficient and when resources are harvested unsustainably, severe side effects on the environment, health outcomes, and economic development result. In turn, sources of environmental damage such as land degradation and regional air pollution can result. This raises conflicting views as follows. Janischweski et al. [73] stated that the increased use of secondhand equipment and machinery has expanded a component of the business sector to levels almost unprecedented. Following Lewis’ [74]

10 For instance, whilst the industry was progressively reducing standby consumption, it was also making the plasma TV. This consumes approximately 450 W in the on-mode compared to 75 W currently in existence. There is value in having elaborate policies aimed at reducing standby consumption by 3 W if a factory is simultaneously developing new technologies that consume an additional 375 W. This example vividly demonstrates manufacturers’ lack of concern for the environment. 11 For instance, suppose that manufacturers have two types of industry. The first type is called source industry and is based in developed countries; the second is called renewable industry, which is based in developing countries. Now suppose that source industry produces and sells a limited series of 100 Peugeot 406. After 10 years of use, those same cars could be sent to the renewable industry in developing countries to be renewed into new second-hand 100 Peugeot 406 cars and then sold at a lower price. After another 10 years of use, those same cars could be sent back to the source industry to be rebuilt, possibly into Peugeot 506, etc. In this manner, we would avoid second-hand car issues and create new cars with the same material, thus saving more materials, creating jobs, improving and specifying manufacturers’ car designs, increasing cooperation among developed and developing countries, and reducing the impact of inefficiency on the environment and health. In addition, the same procedure could be used for all kinds of assets and both electric or gasoline cars. Yes, of course, there is a cost for that, but since efficiency involves doing more with less, the cost incurred alone would therefore be inferior compared to all the advantages mentioned above.

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en the policy system. According to the examined material examined, we identified ways of taking control over energy flux, but primarily in regards to the manufacturing of measurable energy-related activities. Energy behaviour was converted into units of how much energy and time is needed for the use of certain goods. There is evidence that electricity usage in European homes can provide insight into trends in uptake and in the efficacy of policies [40]. Statistics have also interpreted comfort levels and have linked energy to a practical and quantifiable world, though this appeals more to those interested in technical details than to those not interested in technology [87]. Within each arena, it was possible to identify how much electricity different tasks consumed. For instance, low-energy light bulbs last ten times longer than standard light bulbs. Approximately 200 Swedish crowns are conserved for each light bulb that is replaced (www.energiradgivningen.se). Similarly, there is evidence that supplying people with an “Ambient Orb” can decrease peak energy use by 40% [88]. Another key unit found according to the examined material was the amount of carbon dioxide produced through different behaviours or through the use of dissimilar technologies. By confronting different values, it was possible to measure habits, houses or apartments, etc. (www.fortum.se, www.energiradgivningen.se). In sum, studies have shown that several policies can be used to reduce emissions of (GHGs) and to limit climate change by redirecting the direction from "business as usual" to the necessary downward path [40]. In this sense, following the completion of the Kaleta Dam in July 2015 and of the Souapiti Dam in 2020, the Republic of Guinea should move from a business as usual approach (high biomass uptake, generalized fraud, and lack of awareness) to business as it should be done (lower biomass uptake, smart electricity use, bill payment, fraud prevention, awareness and concern for the global climate and environment and consideration of health and children). According to Leach and Mearns [89], a transitional period occurs as development and urbanization increase household earnings and modern fuel access. Therefore, the Republic of Guinea is undergoing a period of transition.

between energy efficiency and energy conservation is not well understood. The UK’s Performance and Innovation Unit made a clear distinction when it stated that a 20% amelioration in energy efficiency would allow for a 10% drop in energy uptake [64]. Energy conservation and energy efficiency differ in that it takes time for the cumulative benefits of energy efficiency improvements to decrease energy needs. In addition, there is evidence that energy saved in the home benefits the consumer by lowering energy bills and benefits communities by lowering oil imports [37]. It has also been shown that behaviours affect residential energy use to the same extent as the use of more efficient appliances and equipment [79,80] and that household behaviour may vary to such an extent that residential energy use differs by a factor of two, even when assets are indistinguishable [81, 82]. For example, a study conducted by Danny Parker of the Florida Solar Energy Centre [83] showed that the total energy use of 10 identical homes varied by a factor of three, even though the houses studied were positioned on the same street, covered the same floor area, were built in same year and exhibited similar energy efficiency features. Behaviours examined in this field include how often occupants bathe or take showers, adjust thermostat settings, open/ close windows, pull up/down blinds, turn off lights in unused rooms, use washing machines or dishwashers, regulate indoor temperatures, and put lids on pots when cooking food and behavioural adaptations such as clothing adjustments, drink consumption levels and changes in human metabolic rates. In summary, from the studied material, we found many websites through which one can find alternative information showing more concern for the economy and environment, listing ways to save more money, presenting simulators that illustrate habits and consumption patterns, and presenting energysaving advice. It is clear that the actors examined in this study tried to make efficiency easy to achieve. 4.3. Creating a measurable world Our questions here are the following: is it possible to create a measurable world where there are unlimited conflicting views, or are we just creating conflicts so that something can be done tomorrow? Is this the way the world should operate, or are we just powerless in the face of certain circumstances? Likely, many people believe that by improving technologies we can solve our problems, but why are we so inefficient in the face of inefficiencies, and are we just inefficient by nature and are trying to reach our optimal efficiency? Otherwise, is product efficiency just an alibi created by human beings to reach optimal efficiency levels? It is believed that efficiency has to with doing more with less, but from the above, this is not the case. For instance, car manufacturers can produce several new cars of the same materials (cars) (see footnote 11) rather than producing several new cars composed of different materials. In addition, improved biomass stoves save 10–50% of biomass uptake for the same cooking services [84] and lowers indoor air pollution levels by up to one half, but no concrete action has been undertaken. Furthermore, manufacturers and policymakers know that energy efficient light bulbs are more efficient than older versions, yet they continue to produce both. Are we trying to create a “wasted world” or a “measurable world’’? To live a more efficient life, it is necessary to control inputs and outputs and how do different behaviours affect the amount of electricity or heat used [19]. Studies have shown that the reduction of demand reduces the gravity of problems related to supply, security and cost [40]. From the above, it is evident that creating a measurable world is rather more complex than employing a single approach. It is worth noting that the broader social goal of reducing environmental impact is a matter of policymaker and consumer choice. This means that positives policies and investment transfers can break cycles of hardship, while negative transfers can reinforce intergenerational transmission of poverty [85,86]. This latter fact provides us with fruitful avenues through which to examine the accuracy of policies developed. Such an investigation can only strength-

4.4. Investigating Guinea’s Energy consumption The US Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy [90] assumes without explanation that ratios of useful energy to energy input are 25% for the transportation sector and 75% for households. This is likely attributable to the fact that household energy services are typically more extensive than household energy impacts on the environment, while transportation services have higher impacts on the environment. Hence, the introduction of advanced vehicles (hybrids, plug-in hybrids and electric cars), which are estimated to be used by 70% of all car owners by 2035 [91], could play a crucial role. However, many suggest that the impacts12 of energy resource utilization on the environment and the achievement of increased resource utilization efficiency levels are best addressed by considering exergy13 issues. Rosen and Dincer [92] conducted a study on exergy as the confluence of energy, the environment and sustainable development. Their results suggest that exergy serves as an effective measure of the potential for a substance or energy form to impact the environment, and it appears to be critical in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). Moreover, multiple regression models were developed to examine which factors and to what extent certain factors can explain variations in electricity consumption [78–93]. Ishak et al. [94] used an energy culture framework 12 Some crucial domains of environmental anxiety in which energy plays an important role have been acknowledged [143]: water pollution, maritime pollution, land use and siting impact, major environmental accidents, radiation and radioactivity, solid waste disposal, hazardous air pollutants, ambient air quality, acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion, and global climate change. 13 The exergy approach is a useful instrument for expanding the objective of more efficient energy-resource use, for it allows the types, locations, and true magnitudes of waste and loss to be evaluated [144,145].

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combined with a centrographic approach and multiple-regression analysis to estimate potential savings from an energy consumption behaviour model for Malaysian institutions. Their results show that the model can predict the energy consumption behaviours of each respondent but that it must combine physical elements (e.g., appliances, building characteristics, etc.) and human variables (e.g., lifestyles, beliefs, demographics, etc.) to measure energy consumption behaviours. It is very important to understand consumer behaviours and habits of energy use as they allow us to examine various factors that affect electricity consumption. McLoughlin [95] listed the most frequently mentioned factors affecting household energy consumption: household income, the number of electrical devices used, the number of household members and house types. Mondol et al. [96] argued that forms of heating, building locations, the efficiency of electrical equipment and users’ attitudes are among the most important considerations. In other studies, household members, the age of the main household breadwinner and the amount of time spent at home were found to be the most statistically significant factors [97]. Yohanis [98] showed that individuals over the age of 65 consume more electricity than younger people. Zhou and Teng [99] showed that electricity consumption increases by 8% when the number of family members increases by one person. Other interesting studies by Olaniyen and Evans [100] and Orlando [101] showed that the price of electricity, household income, climatic conditions and technical progress significantly affect monthly per capita electricity consumption. However, in the case of Guinea, related analyses are not probable due to a severe shortage of data. Some of the most significant challenges associated with data collection concern a lack of standardized data and the regulation of privacy issues [102]; uncertainties regarding physical and user behaviours [103] (when occupants alter their behaviour due to heightened awareness, making data collection challenging); and resource and time limitations that often restrict data collection periods. Moreover, increases in energy use and lifestyle factors among consumers considerably affect the assessment of energy consumption behaviour patterns [104]. However, Guinea’s consumers function in a context of electricity shortage rather than electricity overuse. For this reason, 24 years of data were analysed to facilitate an understanding of energy production and consumption trends in Guinea. Table 1 presents information on total primary energy production and consumption based on different fuel economy improvement scenario for

Fig. 4. Guinea’s primary energy consumption and production trends.

24 years. Fig. 4 presents Guinea’s energy primary production and consumption. From Table 1 and Fig. 4 we can see that Guinea’s primary energy consumption is higher than its primary energy production. This abnormal situation (EP < EC) is probably because of the high fuel wood uptake (80%) and the low electricity consumption (2%). In addition, in most developing countries fuel wood harvesting is not adequately recorded or even free sometimes which leads to biased evaluation [105]. Therefore, for Guinea to shift its primary energy production and consumption in a normal trend (EP > EC); there is a need to create a special division of monitoring, control and documentation for electricity and biomass consumption as well as the bush fires and the anthropogenic actions that cause them (i.e., hunting, agriculture, livestock, and beekeeping). To that, augmenting electricity supply by increasing hydro installed capacity could lower fuel wood uptake and automatically decrease oil import burden. From Fig. 4 it can be seen that in 1996, E.C started increasing with a little drop in 1999 to then keep increasing for the second drop in 2002. This situation is attributable to the French-constructed 75 MW Garafiri Dam in 1999 in Guinea. This technological improvement surely led to refurbish the old installed capacity thus increasing their production capacity. This latter fact explains the increase in 1996. The drop in 1999 can be explained by the late launch of the Garafiri dam which pushed Guinea’s population to surely make biased evaluation; thus increasing electricity theft and fuel wood uptake. The second drop can be explained by the malfunction of Garafiri dam that occurred in 2002. Moreover, from the same Fig. 4, it can be seen that from 2012 Guinea’s energy consumption just kept increasing to drop in 2014 while energy production remains the same. This situation can be attributed to successful outcomes of the presidential election in Guinea of November 2010 and to the normalization of social and economic conditions. This latter fact probably led the government of Guinea to implement new reform and take drastic measures against fraudsters which probably helped to take over hidden cost (electricity theft). For this reason, the energy consumption just kept increasing while the energy production remained the same. The drop in 2014 can be explained by the resilient status quo which surely led consumers to get back to their old habits. Therefore, on-going awareness, drastic measures, simple prompts and reminders can increase a range of pro-environmental behaviours.

Table 1 [106] Guinea’s primary energy consumption and production from 1991 to 2014. Year

Total E.C

Total E.P/ Unit: terajoules

2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991

40092 40092 25321 25321 25321 25321 25321 24266 25321 25321 24266 23211 25321 25321 23211 22156 21101 21101 20046 20046 20046 18991 18991 18991

5275.28 5275 5275 5275 5275 5275 5275 5275 5275 5275 5275 4220 6330 6330 4220 4220 3165 3165 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110 2110

4.5. Technological improvements Market transformation runs more efficiently when scheduled technologies are used and when improvements can be identified and are incremental [40]. In principle, efficiency improvements for electricity use can be carried out in two different ways: through changed consumer habits and behaviours or through the use of more energy efficient technologies. Ting et al. [46] argue that promoting energyefficient technologies and new energy development is not sufficient to address high levels of environmental pollution and energy consump676

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ok, you should know that it costs seven kilowatt hours to take a bath, and it costs three kilowatt hours to shower. If you know that, then it is okay regardless of what you do. If you want to take a long bath and have a nice time with a tea and candles or whatever you do, that it is fine. The bath has another cost. You are not just there to bathe, but to enjoy the moment. It is a cost you choose. It does not mean you cannot enjoy energy, but there must be an awareness that energy costs money. That is what I want to achieve; that is the message”. In this sense, the divide between the public and private realms was viewed as related to knowledge. The public should only be aware of the repercussions of an act. If households then choose to continue to engage in an undesirable energy use, a consultant cannot do nothing. Some argue that public authorities can and should inform their citizens without violating their privacy [45], as households are not obliged to follow advice. They are not punished through regulations or economic controls. However, this does not mean that unwanted actions (e.g., electricity theft or unpaid bills) are welcomed, as electricity theft is a recognizable offense punishable with up to several years in jail [118]. The examined material presents several solutions, but we only focus on solutions that are most relevant to developing countries, and especially to Guinea-Conakry. A review of the examined material shows that through the use of new technologies, people can maintain the same lifestyle while using less electricity. Bardasi and Wodon [119] conducted a study on time poverty in Guinea and found that ‘low productivity’ results not only from a lack of education, skills, and assets reflected in low wage rates but also from heavy workloads, poor household technologies, and the inability of the poor to replace household production with market services. They also found that women work especially long hours due in part to lacking access to essential infrastructure services such as water and electricity but also due to growing demands of the ‘care economy’. Access to reliable electricity and technologies (e.g., IBTs) can facilitate the execution of household chores that are traditionally carried out by women, thus providing women with more free time to focus on literacy, vocational training or schooling. Improving Biomass Technologies (IBTs) are crucial, as traditional biomass energy use involves the direct combustion of wood, charcoal, leaves, agricultural residue, and animal or human waste for drying, cooking, and charcoal production. Although, these practices contribute to health problems and environment degradation, biomass constitutes a source of energy for many and is likely to remain as an important source of energy for years to come [120,121]. Fossil fuels are predicted to remain as the main source of energy used in 2035 [91]. It is thus not surprising that biomass is a primary source of energy for roughly 2.4 billion individuals in developing nations [121–123]. Furthermore, biomassbased industries constitute a crucial source of development through income generation and job creation in rural and remote areas [121– 124]. Given these advantages of biomass, there is a need to do more with less to maintain efficiency. For instance, improved biomass technologies (IBTs) are efficient and advanced technologies involving the direct combustion of biomass through improved cooking stoves and biofuels kilns [121–124]. Another crucial improvement pertains to modern biomass energy use, which refers to the transformation of biomass energy into modern fuels and namely liquid fuels, gas and electricity [125]. Moreover, from Fig. 5 shown below, it can be

tion. However, changing people’s energy-consumption behaviours can mitigate the problem [107,108]. Nonetheless, from the materials examined, a prevalent attitude was that appliances that consume less heat or electricity are better no matter what. The Swedish Energy Agency examined the electricity uptake and electrical assets ownership trends of several households to evaluate ways to lower total electricity use by means of altered lighting behaviours [109]. This is central because to make correct judgements before a purchase is made, consumers must have access to relevant information. This relevant information comes from different forms of investigation. Therefore, households should be studied through various surveys (i.e., through investigations on household energy consumption, appliances used, and energy behaviours), as preferences can be used to strengthen the energy system. Household surveys have also been identified as the most common methods used for energy consumption analyses [110]. However, a coherent concept of product policy emanates from market transformations. This general strategy combines several policies and ensures that sufficient energy efficient equipment is available and purchased. Studies of household energy use have often focused on the selection of household assets, which have a bearing on energy use [111]. For instance, the Republic of Guinea built the Kaleta Dam (big issue) without assessing the credibility of its transmission and distribution networks (small issue). Procedures like this are often a waste of time and can lead to confusion. From this, it is evident that while there is a focus on the supply side, such efforts still fail to meet population needs. In addition, there is evident that occupant behaviours are a leading source of uncertainty in predicting energy use [112]. However, the examined material showed that informed actors have limited scientific knowledge on energy behaviours when designing and developing information. Nonetheless, campaigns concerned with getting households to save energy can result in energy savings or in a rebound effect, resulting in behavioural responses to the insertion of new technologies or actions that offset expected beneficial effects [113]. For example, purchasing more efficient appliances may not reduce consumption if a consumer uses their new appliances more often [114]. For these reasons, earlier studies have shown that general information is less effective than personalized information [115]. On this issue, Benders et al. [115] state that personalized information serves as data on specific household features. Tailored information helps take personalized information a step further whereby households are provided with discounted options that suit their needs. Steg [116] notes that general information is less efficient than tailored information in changing behaviour. We conclude that tailored information is pricier than general information because tailored information is personalized and general information is targeted to larger audiences. In addition, as general information does not influence different behaviours all together, this form of information is less efficient than personalized information. However, according to the examined material, technologies that have been discussed mainly include lamps, heating systems, refrigerators, washing machines, and stoves (www.vattenfall.se; www. boras.se; www.bidra.nuwww.bidra.nu). Various types of technologies have also been recommended, whereas some have not been recommended (e.g., avoiding the stand-by function by installing an on/off button on an outlet). Behavioural issues were highlighted in the form of tips (e.g., turning off the light when leaving a room, washing with a full machine, and decreasing indoor temperatures and wearing warmer clothing instead). Mahapatra et al. [117] conducted a study on 3000 households and found that municipal energy consultants are crucial sources of information. The survey showed that interpersonal sources are the most important sources of information to use when identifying energy efficiency measures. However, in discussions of the public-private divide, it was often stated that a borderline is created when energy use is connected to behavioural and lifestyle constraints: “Yeah, you cannot play with behaviour, only urgent requests. I may only make people aware”. The following energy consultant believed that he could inform others: “It is about bathing and showering. Yeah,

Fig. 5. Energy supply mix of Guinea after Kaleta.

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capacity in their careers, studies or in society [131]. Similarly, governments and policymakers must put in place strong policies and monitoring systems to support daily development, while at the same time identifying constraints that hinder processes of development. This requires following up on household energy behaviours through surveys to evaluate households based on an understanding of individuals rather than “receiving a body of truthful science about the world” [49]. In addition, encouraging public and private actors through praise, public recognition or extra money could strengthen their resolve. Henrikson and colleagues stress that before determining which strategies are most appropriate in any given situation, it is necessary to examine how such strategies affect other aspects of sustainable development [132]. However, according to the examined material, behavioural aspects must also be considered. Energy saving behaviours are often encouraged by promoting the adoption of more energy-efficient apparatuses. Hence, the longer the trial period involved, the longer lasting its effects. Longer trials also help households take control over “side-effects”. Therefore, expanding consumer knowledge can lead consumers to the use of more energy-efficient apparatuses and when consumers are reminded to do so constantly, “side-effects” decline [44]. In this sense, efficiency can involve not changing lifestyles but changing technical equipment [19]. Nevertheless, our questionnaire respondents were asked whether they had any knowledge on energy saving behaviours. In total, 45% of the respondents stated that they had some knowledge on energy saving behaviours. They defined energy saving behaviour as, for instance, turning off lights and television sets. Although this is a good sign, it is not good enough. First, as examples of energy saving behaviours, no respondents mentioned “avoiding electricity theft” (saving electricity for those who pay for it) or “avoiding using old appliances” that are inefficient and thus consume more electricity. Second, 55% of the respondents had no knowledge of electricity saving behaviours. This denotes a severe lack of awareness, knowledge and strong policy that contributes to a lack of awareness on energy saving. Consistent with this, through our self-administered questionnaires, we found that 65% of the respondents did not know of the dangers of smoke generated from burning wood. We also found that 85% of the respondents would like to have access to a website or centre where they could access information on energy use, but unfortunately, no concrete actions in this direction have been taken. These 55% and 65% of the respondents were then asked why they have not obtained information on energy saving behaviours or on the dangers of smoke. They stated first that they did not know where to find such information and second that due to a lack of electricity access, there is no need to ask for such information. The 45% and 35% exhibiting some knowledge on ways to save energy and on the dangers of smoke were asked to state where they had gathered such information. They stated being informed through television and radio shows. This demonstrates that a lack of electricity and appliances can hinder energy saving literacy. From the above, it is evident that there are enormous challenges that Guinea must face before reaching strong results. These challenges include eliminating electricity theft, ensuring bill payment, securing available and affordable electricity, ICT development, raising on-going awareness, improving statistics, involving consumers in management processes, and establishing and putting strong policies into action. Each of these challenges, however, has serious implications in establishing an efficient energy information system. In addition to challenges associated with the data collection described above, Hong et al. have identified additional challenges [102]: (1) the collection of adequate data for understanding behaviour and modelling, (2) developing an ontology specific and broad enough to represent occupant behaviours in buildings, (3) evaluating the applicability of behaviour models, (4) quantifying the effects of energy-related occupant behaviours on building energy performance, and (5) formulating metrics and insights that integrate sustainable behaviours into robust building design and smart communities. They conclude that despite these challenges, understanding occupant behaviour creates new opportunities to mould

concluded that through technological improvements (construction of the Kaleta Dam), Guinea’s hydro usage has increased from 2% to 6%, and hydrocarbon imports have decreased from 18% to 14%. This latter fact vividly demonstrates that an increase in installed power capacity can leverage oil import burdens and ultimately allow for energy saving. Yet, the number of people reliant on traditional biomass fuels for cooking has risen from 2.5 billion in 2000 [126] to 2.7 billion today [127], and this will rise to 2.8 billion in 2030 [128]. In addition, currently, 20% of the world’s population lacks access to electricity, and 1.2 billion people are projected to lack access to electricity in 2030. It is worth noting that 2030 is the target [128] of the proposed goal for universal access to modern energy services (SDG7). The SDG7 considers four dimensions [127]: affordability, reliability, sustainability and modernity. Considerations of affordability are meaningless when energy provisions are unreliable. Therefore, tapping into untapped potential and developing more income generating activities for households is crucial. Building reliability would involve diversifying resources (e.g., through more efficient alternatives such as electricity and LPG). This diversity hedges against supply disruptions and ensures that a variety of options (resources, instruments, etc.) is available to address disturbances and to thus ensure sustainability [129]. Bolstering sustainability would require energy conservation, and modernity, which refers to access to modern fuels such as electricity, would decrease biomass uptake and lower oil imports. The projected failure to reach universal access by 2030 is likely attributable to uncertainties in government policies around the world, cultural diversity [130], the depreciation of existing infrastructure (a lack of institutional guidelines, standing malls, microfinances, and perseverance), and negligence. Therefore, mapping and tapping into untapped resources, strengthening government policies and commitments, the construction of decentralized malls (where people can buy modern cooking stoves), the mitigation of cultural diversity, the formation of clear guidelines, and the availability of microfinances for women (to help them purchase modern assets) should be prioritized to achieve universal access to modern fuels. In this way, beneficiaries can help make improvements as a result of awareness campaigns directed at citizens who honour bill payments, energy efficiency, and cooperation with energy companies to fight against fraud and network vandalism. Moreover, Africa’s hydropower potential was estimated to account for 5% of its total capacity (1750 terawatt-hours) in 2007 [4]. Thus, tapping into this immense potential could constitute a stepping-stone to achieving universal access. Achieving universal access can boost developing countries’ economies and can thus decrease the number of migrants moving to Western countries. Most of these migrants come from parts of the world where there is a serious lack of electricity available, posing an economic hindrance. Technological improvements (universal access) can thus decrease immigration levels as well. From the above, human behaviour is not always consistent with words. Words are no longer sufficient. Real action is needed now, and we can and must get there in the end. 5. Conclusion and policy implications What emerges from this study is the notion that available energy supplies alone will not allow a country to achieve its goals of maintaining sustainable energy systems unless this is accompanied by the right combination of changes in household attitudes and behaviours. To do so, households require more knowledge and information to support better energy saving behaviour. This awareness must emanate from both public and private actors. Such actors can broadcast messages through websites, newspapers, radio and television channels and Energy Centres. According to the examined material, the consumer has a role to play when making the energy system more sustainable and the responsibility to make the right choices. Individuals must exhibit determination to perform well and at full 678

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the evolution of building technology and to improve energy efficiency levels and occupant comfort in buildings. Moreover, to eliminate opposition to goals such as a universal energy access, the following factors could play a crucial role: stakeholder participation [133], public and government acceptance [134], clear institutional guidelines, mapped resources [135], trust [136], equity [137], fairness [138] and justice [139]. Future studies may examine how with Kaleta’s completion in July 2015 and Souapiti’s completion in 2020, representing challenges addressed (available and affordable electricity) among others, can Guinea still improve household energy behaviours by shifting business practices from business as usual to business as it should be done? Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Professor Xu Deyi, Professor Wu Qiaosheng, Yongguang Zhu and AJE for providing excellent suggestions and advice throughout the preparation of this manuscript. We are also grateful to China University of Geosciences for their financial support (NSFC 41272362; NSFC 41572315). Appendix A Questionnaires for the 20 respondents 1. Could any website or social network inform a random Guinean about his/her energy use? 1-YES; 0-NO 2. Do you have any knowledge about how to save or use energy efficiently? 1-Yes; 0-No; if yes, please elaborate. 3. When was the last time that the government of Guinea undertook an awareness campaign about energy use? 4. What was the message of the awareness campaign? Which platform did they use to broadcast the message? 5. If there was one, how long did the awareness campaign last? 6. What measures are being taken by the government of Guinea to eliminate fraud? 7. Do you have any knowledge about energy-saving behaviour? 1-Yes; 0-No; if yes please elaborate. 8. Do you have any information or knowledge about the danger that smoke from fuel wood poses to your health and the environment? 1-Yes; 0-No; if yes, please elaborate. 9. Please elaborate on the reasons for not having any information or knowledge about energy-saving behaviour or the danger of smoke. 10. Please elaborate on where or how you received your knowledge or information about energy-saving behaviour. 11. Would you like to have a website or a place where you can be informed about your energy use? 1-Yes; 0-No. References [1] Camara N, et al. Understanding household energy use, decision making and behaviour in Guinea-Conakry by applying behavioural economics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;79:1380–91. [2] WORLD BANK/QUANDL. Guinea population overview. Cited 3/4/2017. Available at: 〈https://www.quandl.com/topics/guinea-population〉. [3] Diallo TA. Beyond the resource curse: mineral resources and development in Guinea-Conakry. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; 2015. p. 73–6, [URI] 〈http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/98930〉. [4] BMZ. Note to CODEV: hydropower outlook for Africa. 2007. Cited 3/4/2017 Available at：〈http://www.energypartnership.eu/background.asp〉. [5] Mweetwa AM. An inventory of agricultural persistent organic pollutants in Lusaka. Zambia: Miami University; 2004. [6] Klein RJ, et al. Integrating mitigation and adaptation into climate and development policy: three research questions. Environ Sci Policy 2005;8(6):579–88. [7] SOU 2008:25 (Swedish Government Official Reports), EttenergieffektivareSverige. Delbetankandeavenergieffektiviseringsutredningen. [8] Foley G. Sustainable woodfuel supplies from the dry tropical woodlands. ESMAP Tech Pap 2001;13:1–94. [9] Ribot JC. Forestry policy and charcoal production in Senegal. Energy Policy 1993;21(5):559–85.

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