Environmental, economic and social impact of aviation biofuel production in Brazil

Accepted Manuscript Title: Environmental, economic and social impact of aviation biofuel production in Brazil Author: Paulo Andr´e Cremonez Michael Feroldi Carlos de Jesus de Oliveira Joel Gustavo Teleken Helton Jos´e Alves Silvio C´ezar Sampaio PII: DOI: Reference:

S1871-6784(15)00005-9 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2015.01.001 NBT 743

To appear in: Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

6-6-2014 2-1-2015 4-1-2015

Please cite this article as: Cremonez, P.A., Feroldi, M., Oliveira, C.J., Teleken, J.G., Alves, H.J., Sampaio, S.C.,Environmental, economic and social impact of aviation biofuel production in Brazil, New Biotechnology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2015.01.001 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Environmental, economic and social impact ofaviation biofuel production in Brazil Paulo André Cremonez¹*, Michael Feroldi¹, Carlos de Jesus de Oliveira², Joel

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Gustavo Teleken², Helton José Alves², Silvio Cézar Sampaio¹

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¹University of West Paraná, Paraná, Brazil. Master in Agricultural Energy,

Department of Agricultural Energy. Universitária Street, n.2069, CEP: 85.819-

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130, Bairro Faculdade, Cascavel – PR, Brazil.

²Federal University of Paraná (UFPR-Setor Palotina), R. Pioneiro, 2153, CEP:

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85.950-000, Bairro Jardim Dallas, Palotina - PR, Brazil.

e-mail: [email protected].

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Highlights

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Phone: +55(44)9927-5099

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*Corresponding author:

 The development of alternative fuels is an essential initiative aiming at maintaining the energy security of a nation and reducing the dependency on fossil fuels.

 Aviation biofuels have great potential to complement current matrix of aviation and can bring energy sources able to compete with the high costs of petroleum.  Supply chains of raw materials for obtaining this bioenergetics have environmental impacts.

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Abstract

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The Brazilian aviation industry is currently developing biofuel technologies that can maintain the operational and energy demands of the sector, while reducing the dependence on fossil fuels (mainly kerosene) and greenhouse gas emissions. The aim of the current research was to identify the major environmental, economic and social impacts arising from the production of aviation biofuels in Brazil. Despite the great potential of these fuels, there is a significant need for improved routes of production and specifically for lower production costs of these materials. In addition, the productive chains of raw materials for obtaining these bioenergetics can be linked to environmental impacts by NOx emissions, extensive use of agricultural land, loss of wildlife and intensive water use, as well as economic, social and political impacts.

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1. Introduction

The airline industry has fostered strong economic growth through significant greenhouse gases emissions, which has triggered major political especially

with

regard

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discussions,

environmental

issues

[1].

Many

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governments have promoted and encouraged the production of biofuels through

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subsidies and tax exemptions, in addition to goals and standards for fuels [2]. The aviation sector is responsible for approximately 2% of all CO2 released into the atmosphere, rising to 3.5% when other methods for quantification at altitude are considered[3, 4].Despite the airline industry being 70% more efficient than 40 years ago, due to lighter aircraft and modern engines [5], it continues to grow atan accelerated rate, with estimated growth rates of 5% annually until 2030.Fuel efficiency over the same period is only expected to increase by 3% annually, which means that sustained growth will increase fuel consumption and emissions [6]. Several studies have reported new technologies for mitigating the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) [7,8], but few have been evaluated at a pilot level or with the concept of industrial eco-innovation [1].Even with the high operational costs caused by the need for high quality fuels, energy efficiency is a major goal of technological development, and this has developed greatly in recent years as a result of intensified activity [9].

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Currently, several initiatives and test-flights have been performed with the intention of developing renewable and sustainable biofuels in several countries, including Brazil. Despite many of these initiatives having American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

technical certification, none are considered

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commercially practical. Given this scenario, the goal of the current research is to assess the major environmental, economic and social impacts resulting from

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2. Biofuels in Brazilian Aviation

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the production of aviation biofuels in Brazil.

Several Brazilian researchers have investigated alternative fuels of a quality

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that can be used in Brazilian aviation. However, fuels obtained by the secondgeneration route, from cells to hydrogen, via water electrolysis, are still far from viable. Thus, raw materials rich in sugars, starch and lignocellulosic materials

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are the main sources of renewable aviation fuels [10,11]. Nationally, the availability of the raw materials is not a problem as Brazil has 150 million hectares of new frontiers and rangelands that can be incorporated into

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agricultural production of vegetable oils [12].

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Ethanol is a viable alternative fuel for aviation because of its fixed molecular formula, regardless of the process through which it is obtained or the raw

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materials used in its synthesis [13] and the already widespread ethanol infrastructure and supply chain in Brazil. In addition to conventional sources, ethanol can also be obtained from the conversion of cellulosic biomass. Various industrial ventures produce alcohol from crop waste and forestry residues, among others, because they are low cost and readily available [14,15]. Highchain alcohols have also been investigated because of their advantages with respect to energy density. One such example is n-butanol which can be produced from the fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass [16,17]. Since the early twentieth century, vegetable oils have been used as a fuel in diesel cycle engines. However, the high viscosity of vegetable oils can cause extensive damage to the injection systems, fuel tanks and engine. Fatty acid esters (FAES) are produced by transesterification of triglycerides and esterification of fatty acids, whether of plant or animal origin [18].Production of

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natural and renewable fuels with characteristics similar to diesel fuel can be achieved

with

short-chain

monohydric

alcohols

in

the

presence

of

homogeneous, heterogeneous or enzymatic catalysts[19,20].Factors such as climate and the region of the country determine which fatty material has the

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greatest potential for ester production [21]. Biodiesel has many challenges to overcome, such as its low inferior calorific

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power (ICP) and high freezing point, before it can become a potential aviation

fuel. Furthermore, the characteristics and properties of the esters vary

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considerably depending on the raw material used, while some contaminants may be detrimental in burning engines [22]. In order to meet the specifications

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required, many test-flights have been conducted with blends of biodiesel and fossil fuels to improve the ICP properties and freezing point [18].

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Paraffinic kerosene obtained via Fischer-Tropsh synthesis (FT-SPK) is a material made from raw materials via gasification [23]. The technique uses the same raw materials as biodiesel (i.e. oils and fats) to obtain a fuel similar to

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kerosene oil. Recently, we have started to use other forms of biomass in the

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"BTL" (biomass-to-liquid) process, such as woody biomass, algae, fungi and

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municipal and industrial waste [16,24,25]. Several other processes for the production of biokerosene, such as hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) [26], direct liquefaction or liquefaction term [29] and plasma gasification of biomass [27,28], have also been studied. Despite being promising sources of clean energy, there is much discussion about the real sustainability of these raw materials and fuels in relation to agricultural systems and production routes [10,30,31]. If no mitigation measures are taken, the aviation sector may contribute more than 5% of total CO2 emissions by 2050 [32]. In recent years, this concern for the environment has resulted innumerous studies in Brazil and around the world into different aviation biofuel technologies.

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In Brazil and internationally, second generation biofuels are the most cited as attempting to mitigate CO2 emissions, but this will only be possible in the longterm (2030-2050). Already, third generation biofuels are starting to show great progress in the international scientific community [33].Several companies are

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already producing second generation biofuels for use in aviation (Table 1). The hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) process has been considered for the

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production of aviation biofuels, since the airline industry already uses

approximately 8% of the world's oil, which will continue to increase if tough

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initiatives are not taken [34].In Brazil, the use of algal biomass in the HTL process is taking a different path to the global reality, since the species is

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primarily cultivated in industrial waste treatment systems, ensuring greater energy balance and carbon cycling [35,36].

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3. Waste in the aviation ethanol chain

Projects initiated since the 1970s which promote the scope of Brazilian leadership in the production of ethanol and sugarcane in Latin America,

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currently have the highest technology investments. This is mainly due to Law

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No. 737 of 1938 and Law No. 723 of 1993, which determine the mandatory proportion of ethanol in gasoline. However, the use of ethanol in gasoline was

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not based on environmental concerns, which controversially was not discussed at the time, but on energy security and self-sufficiency as a way to overcome the economic crisis of the time [37]. After the turn of the century, based on the same reasoning, the Brazilian government implemented the Programa de Óleos Vegetais - Vegetable Oils Program- (OVEG) by inserting a new fuel into the transport sector and testing biodiesel in various proportions with fuels of mineral origin [38]. Figure 1 shows the development of sugarcane production and the increase in ethanol production in Brazil since the 1970s. The use of ethanol in the land transport sector is already widespread, and in the Brazilian automobile industry new vehicles must be adapted touse both gasoline and ethanol, or even a mixture of the two. Although most saccharine material arising from sugarcane production is intended for refined sugar production, because of the characteristics of the commodity market, evidence

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suggests that the expansion of ethanol use does not affect food production. However, two of the main problems related to the expansion of ethanol production are the increased planting of monocultures and the high generation of vinasse, a leading waste arising from the ethanol production process.

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The sustainability of monocultural models is widely questioned because of its

competition for natural resources, impact on soil, biodiversity threats and

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deforestation, and contradictorily by its competition with other crops used for

human consumption. Another point often questioned in the National Programme

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of Production and Use of Biofuels is the inclusion of smallholders in this chain, a very difficult goal to achieve with the use of monocultures [40].Despite the expansion of sugarcane monoculture, primarily in pastures and other planted

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areas, by not requiring very fertile soil it can be raised in forest areas [41-44].

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In the industrialization process of sugarcane, alcohol is produced from fermentation and distillation of the sugarcane broth. This process generates a waste known as stillage, consisting of water and non-volatile materials. When

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one takes into consideration that the fermentation is facilitated by a low

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concentration of sugars (12-20%) [45], the amount of stillage produced may be

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10 to 15 times higher than that of the ethanol [46,47]. In 2011, it was estimated that more than 220.7 billion liters of vinasse was generated, which is a significant volume of waste. Given the large amount of waste generated from the production of ethanol, particularly vinasse, several alternative uses for these effluents, which are not harmful to the environment, have been studied, including fertigation [48].This is a very old method mainly used in the cultivation of sugarcane, but the practice of irrigation with vinasse is also common in other crops [48-51].By being deposited in the soil, stillage can improve soil fertility. However, the quantities deposited should be carefully measured by taking into account the characteristics of each soil because this effluent has disproportionate amounts of organic and mineral elements which may promote the leaching of various ions and contamination of the groundwater, as well as producing a stench [52]. Thus, the use of vinasse in fertigation of sugarcane crops goes from ‘good guy’ to ‘bad guy’. Although there

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are potential water savings in the crop production process and economic savings on fertilizers (mainly derived from fossil fuels), the potential pollution from this residue to the soil and water bodies is significant. Therefore, Brazilian law is fully accurate concerning protection of natural

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resources, water and biodiversity, while under current law, a minimum of 20%

(varying according to the biome in which the property is located) of land

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property should be maintained or reforested as legal reserve for the

preservation of natural resources. In addition, it quotes permanent preservation

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areas (PPA) protected by the Brazilian Forest Code (watershed areas, for

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example), which cannot be converted into production areas [10].

4. Waste arising from the production chain of oilseeds for biofuels Brazil has a characteristic climate and soil diversity spanning its entire length,

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which ensures the cultivation and production of crops such as soybeans, babassu, peanut, sunflower, crambe, palm, jatropha and canola, among others [12].The national biodiesel program, unlike programmes developed in the US

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and Europe, makes biofuel production a tool for social inclusion through family

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farming [53]by promoting cultivation of different oilseeds for biodiesel production, through tax exemption policies for the mills that buy these raw

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materials.

Brazil is one of the largest grain producers, being assigned the title of the "world's breadbasket". In 2012, 50.9 million hectares were used for grain cultivation and 49.2% of the acreage was planted to soybeans. Allied to this, it is expected that the acreage allocated to this crop will increase in the coming years [54]. Soybeans are the main grain exported by Brazil[55] and the main raw material currently used for biofuel production, as can be observed from Figure 2. Although soybeans have low oil content (18%) compared to other oil seeds such as canola (40%), peanuts (44–56%) and crambe (30–45%) [5658],encouragement from the national programme for biofuel production promotes soybean as its preference for biofuel production because of existing

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cultivation technologies, wide spread management and grain processing and easy availability throughout the country. In addition, industries can optimize their production processes to a single vegetable oil, to obtain the best production efficiency. Despite the soybean production sector having greatly reduced its environmental impact in recent years by crop rotation, tillage systems and

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reduction of deforestation, production of this cultivar is still very dependent on

inputs, fertilizers, fuel and pesticides, increasing greenhouse gas emissions and

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reducing carbon balances, which are so acclaimed in the end use of biofuels

Glycerol

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4.1.

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[55,60].

In the transesterification process to obtain biofuels, vegetable oils or animal fats are reacted with alcohols (methanol, ethanol or higher), to form esters of fatty

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acids and glycerol products [61]. This production process generates waste and highly polluting byproducts whose valuation could increase the viability of the biofuel production process [62,63]. Refined glycerol has several industrial

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applications, mainly in the production of cosmetics and medicines. However,

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glycerin obtained from the production process (about 10kg are generated for every 100kg biodiesel) possesses several impurities such as water, fatty waste,

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catalyst waste and high oxygen chemical demand [64], which makes refining often unfeasible due to its low commercial value [65].Several expensive, energy intensive processes, such as distillation and filtration through membranes, are required to make glycerin usable in food, cosmetics and drugs [66]. In 2010, transesterification of fatty acids produced the equivalent of 240,000.00 m³ of aqueous glycerol, and the following year a surplus of 100,000 tons of crude glycerol was generated [67]. The high production is a major concern for the biofuels sector, while higher volumes are generated today with the prospect of large increases in the coming years due to the increased production of biofuels. Meanwhile, the trading prices of glycerol follow international trends [68].

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Interesting alternative scan be used in the treatment and processing of glycerol, and much research has investigated the use of microorganisms to generate higher value-added products, such as 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PD), 2,3-butanediol (2,3-BD), ethanol, acetic acid and hydrogen [69-72].Several studies have also reported the use of glycerol, from biodiesel production processes, to increase

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biogas production in anaerobic digestion of agro-industrial waste [73-75].

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4.2 Wash Water

The conventional transesterification process used in Brazil proceeds via a

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homogeneous alkaline route and the main steps of the process include transesterification, ester phase separation, washing, separation of wash water

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and heating to remove moisture and traces of alcohol [76]. Wet and dry washing cleaning processes are widely used on the commercial scale, but only the conventional washing (wet) promotes the purification of biodiesel accepted by

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EN14214 [77]. The wet-cleaning process aims to remove excess catalyst, alcohol, soap and the rest of the oil and residual glycerol of the biofuel process production. By the characteristic of high solubilizing power of the water if

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generates waste containing high concentrations of unreacted fat, catalysts,

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salts, soaps and other organic impurities. For every gallon of biodiesel produced, 0.2–3 gallons of wastewater are generated depending on the

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technique used, which can be hazardous if discarded into sewers, rivers and lakes without prior treatment [76]. Several physicochemical and biological processes have been investigated for the treatment of wastewater from biodiesel production [78-80]. Although most of the waste can be treated biologically, a large amount of low-density sludge with low efficiency and slow decomposition is generated. In addition to the biological processes, many physical and chemical methods are also employed, adsorption processes being among the most widely used and most effective. The main adsorbents used are bentonite, peat, charcoal, and some agricultural wastes which require pretreatment to increase the adsorption capacity of these compounds [81,82].

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Inefficient biodiesel purification processes can lead to several problems in diesel cycle engines, such as clogging filters, carbon deposits, wearing down parts and thickening of the lubricating oil [83]. In order to eliminate some of the neutralization and washing steps in the alkaline homogeneous processes, various researchers have used heterogeneous catalysts, which facilitate mixture

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separation, allowing the reuse and recycling of the catalyst ensuring the purity of the esters, which can exceed 99%. However, some challenges still need to

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be overcome, such as higher reaction temperatures, long reaction times and the

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high cost of the catalysts [84].

5. Impacts on land use and water

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By 2010, land used for biofuels accounted for only 1% of the total arable land, and the increased use of these lands for this purpose has generated much discussion in the scientific literature [85-87]. Improper land use can directly

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impact the environment in three ways: through biodiversity, ecological soil quality and potential biota production [88].

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Data presented by Castanheira et al. [87] show that grain crops and pastures

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increased by 241% between 1970 and 2006, and the north and south-central regions were the most affected. Moreover, natural pastures were significantly

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replaced by planted pastures, even if the grasslands are still of prominence in national bovine production.

Water scarcity is one of the most discussed global issues in the 21st century [89]. Although biofuels are making great strides in sustainability and reducing greenhouse gases, biomass production is still the world's largest water consumer [90-92]. There have been few reports which evaluate the real impact on water consumption by energy crops for biofuel production and those that do exist only report case studies of small regions. The prospect is that consumption and dependence on biomass will increase considerably by the year 2030, with a global consumption of 71 EJ for that year. Moreover, global water consumption for biofuels into the third decade of this century should be 5.5% of the total available drinking water for humans, which will generate huge pressures on freshwater resources [89].

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6. Economic impacts and viability of biofuel generation for aviation A fuel can only be considered sustainable when it is produced with economic feasibility. The amount paid by the end-consumer directly incorporates the value of oil used in the production of aviation fuel [93]. With the introduction of

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alternative fuels with lower production costs, the aviation industry can maximize

profits by selling their services for the same value obtained from conventional

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fuel [94].There are few studies in the literature which assess the economic

impacts related to the introduction of biofuels in general. Likewise, studies that

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specifically report the economic impacts of the biofuels chain for aviation are even scarcer, since issues arising from the introduction of biofuels in energy

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chains are very recent, and in the case of aviation fuels, biofuels are still only used for research and testing.

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Several factors impaction the viability of biofuels : technical and environmental factors, the commodities market, the cost of raw materials, food crises and fluctuations in the value of oil can all significantly influence biofuel policies. The

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increasing demand for energy in the world increases the need for energy

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production. Since the 1970s, the price of a barrel of oil has increased considerably, reaching a peak in 2008 with the global recession, pointing to the

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end of an era of accessible oil. This increase in fuel prices directly impacted the aviation industry, making kerosene the main operational cost for the airline industry [94]. These factors pave the way for the introduction of new policies and the development of alternative fuels that can compete economically while maintaining energy security and reducing the government's dependence on fuels coming from petroleum.

With respect to the costs of using biofuels in aircraft, a very important factor to be taken into consideration is the need for "drop in" alternative fuels, i.e. fuels that do not require changes to the operation of jet engines. This ensures that biofuel scan also benefit from the existing distribution infrastructure, by not requiring large investments not justified in the sector [94].

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In Brazil, the biofuels market does not depend exclusively on raw materials, yet this serves as the basis of Brazilian biodiesel production [95]. The cost of the raw material represents between 70–75% [96] depending on its origin, management, climate, soil and technology used in obtaining it. In addition, the positive energy balance obtained from crop production is more variable

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depending on the same factors mentioned above. From Table 2, one can see the index of energy balance (IBE) obtained for some energy crops grown in the

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Brazilian agroecosystem. Thus, as in the case of kerosene oil, the cost of

production and sale of biofuels are directly related to the cost of raw materials

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used in production, a factor that is apparent when examining Figure 3, where abrupt changes in the price of biodiesel production occur due to large variations

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in the cost of oil production.

In the case of Brazil, as most biodiesel production uses soybeans as the raw

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material, the final price of the biofuel is linked directly to fluctuations in the price of this commodity. In order to reduce the dependence on higher raw material costs, some countries use alternative raw materials such as used cooking oil,

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animal fat and tallow and inedible oils, sources that are cheaper to obtain [102,

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103]. Also, according to Rincón et al. [104], microalgae are seen as the raw material of the future for the production of fatty materials, because of the

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reduced need for land and the high potential for CO2 capture. However, improvements in the production and processing technologies are needed in order to reduce the production costs and increase their economic sustainability.

7. Emissions of CO2 and NOx Concern about the environmental impacts generated by the aviation industry has motivated the search for and the development of strategies to mitigate carbon emissions, mainly represented by the greenhouse gases [105]. The big ambition of the century for the attempted mitigation of carbon emissions is a total replacement or supplementation of conventional aviation fuels with a similar renewable source. This has been studied for many years because of the great efficiency of the CO2cycle of these biofuels compared to conventional aviation fuels. Such superiority is observed when conducting emissions

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balance, since much of the CO2 released in the production, distribution and use of biofuels is reabsorbed by the original raw material [105,106]. Aviation is responsible for 2% of all CO2 released by humans into the atmosphere (Figure 4) and 10% of all fuel consumed in the world, which emissions

of

NOx,

sulphur,

water

vapour,

particulates

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generates numerous effects on the environment and atmosphere with and

various

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hydrocarbons. Such figures have encouraged the establishment of targets for

reducing carbon emissions, especially where the industry has pledged by 2050

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the industry, i.e. carbon-neutral growth [107,108].

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to reduce emissions to 50% of 2005 levels without stagnation or regression in

Another major challenge is the attempt to mitigate NOx emissions. They are mainly linked to engine settings, the technology involved and the way to guide

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the aircraft [110]. Over the years, concern about the efficiency of aviation fuel has promoted many technological developments in jet engines, so that higher temperatures and pressures in the combustion chambers favored high NOx

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emissions, requiring the efforts of the world scientific community to balance

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efficiency/NOx emissions, since thermal efficiency also increases NOx emissions [111]. In general, NOx emissions are mainly linked to a degradation

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of air quality. However, according to Lee et al. [112], 60% of NOx emissions are observed at altitudes between 9 and 12 km, in which there is variation in the amount of methane and ozone (Figure 5). For ozone, there are opposing sides, but after various chemical reactions there is ultimately a decrease in the amount of stratospheric ozone and an increase in the tropospheric zone, which indirectly impacts the climatic in the mid to long term [113].

8. Biofuels and social sustainability in Brazil The social gains of agricultural development and the production chain of biodiesel in Brazil are difficult to treat, since in many situations industrialization and agricultural development have led to increased wealth and land concentration by a few people, along with cases of rural violence and devaluation of labor in the field [114-116].As mentioned in the previous section, the national programme supported by the Brazilian government, to promote

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biodiesel blended with diesel and to improve the economic and social development of small scale family farmers, has worked by improving the value of the biodiesel chain, particularly in poor regions of the country [117]. The programme developed the social fuel seal and a special tax system to stimulate north-eastern families to participate in the biodiesel production chain, unlike the

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major producers in the Midwest of the country. Only companies bearing the

social seal are allowed to participate in auctions and commercialize fuel in

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Brazil. The seal carrier companies are still obliged to provide technical

assistance and support the family farmers [117]. Since 2009, the inclusion role

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was assumed by the agricultural cooperatives in the energy sector, functioning

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as mediators of farmers, industry and government.

First generation ethanol is the most produced and sold today, especially in Brazil, through fermentation of sugarcane broth[118].In the local production

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process, projects for ethanol production as well as oilseeds, contribute to empowerment of family farming, ensuring an income source and local energy. However, since the monoculture systems have been established for large scale

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export, concentration of wealth and problems with social relationships of the

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people surrounding plantations may occur[119-121].According to Ribeiro [121], more indicators are needed for the formulation of criteria of the overall

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sustainability of ethanol, depending mainly on working groups integrated by researchers in the areas of environmental and social sciences, assessing the chain sustainability, ecosystem functions and contribution of natural resources. This integration aims to investigate the welfare of human beings and understand how these relationships are affected by the implementation and development of ethanol projects.

9. Conclusions Aviation biofuels have great potential to complement the current matrix in aviation and can provide energy sources which can compete against the high costs of petroleum. However, the need for improvement and optimization of production routes is crucial to reduce production costs of these materials. Supply chains of raw materials for obtaining these biofuels have environmental impacts, including NOx emissions, extensive use of agricultural land, loss of

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wildlife and intensive water use, as well as economic, political and social impacts, especially when taking into consideration the monoculture farming for extensive production and exports.

Table and Figure Legends

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Table 1. Companies producing second generation biofuels in Brazil.

Table 2. Index of energy balance (IBE) for biodiesel production from different

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sources

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Figure 1. Production of sugarcane and ethanol since the 1970s (Source: OECD / FAO [39]). Figure 2. Raw materials used for biodiesel production in Brazil, February/2014. (Source: ANP [59]).

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Figure 3. Cost of production of vegetable oils in Brazil related to the production cost of biodiesel (2003-2013). Source: OECD / FAO [39]. industry. Source: Lee et al. [109].

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Figure 4. Relationship of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions and the aviation Figure 5. Effects of NOx emissions from the aviation sector on low and high

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References

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altitudes. Source: Adapted from Lee et al. [109].

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Table 1. Companies producing second generation biofuels in Brazil. Ton/year **64780 **63200 270 **31600

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Deployment 2010 2012 2009 2013 2014 *2016 2007 *2024

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Company Amyris Biomin Amyris Paraiso Amyris Pilot & Demonstration Plant Amyris São Martinho Gran Bio Odebrecht Agro Petrobras Raízen *Project. **Capacity.

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Table 2. Index of energy balance (IBE) for biodiesel production from different sources Culture IBE Source 2.19

Gazzoni et al. [97]

Crambe

8.98

Jasper et al. [99]

Sunflower

2.37

Gazzoni et al. [95]

Palm oil

4.6

Gazzoni et al. [97]

Soybeans

5.44

Melo et al. [100]

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Canola

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Adapted: Cremonez et al. [101].

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