- Email: [email protected]
Environmental ethics in engineering education: A missing fundamental
e:>
Pergamon
. Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 34, No. 12. pp. 197-203. 1996. Copyng~t C> 1996 IA WQ. PIlblished by Elsev ier Science ltd Primed in Oreat Britain. All rights reserved , 027)-1223196 $15'00 + 0'00
PU: S0273-1223(96)00870-0
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION: A MISSING FUNDAMENTAL David G. Wareham* and Panagiotis Elefsiniotis** • Department ofCivil Engineering. University ofCanterbury. Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand •• Department of Civil and Geological Engineering. 403A Engineering Building, J5 Gillson Street. Winnipeg, Manitoba. Canada R3T 5V6
ABSTRACT This paper reviews !he way in which engineers interact wilh the environment. It argues that future engineering should be part of a paradigm shift in which engineers are seen as responsible stewards rather than negligent trustees of the environment . This can be accomplished by educa tion in environmental ethics, defined here as a set of obligations 10 nature characterised by a mindset geared towards pollution prevention and pollution remediation . It is argued that training in environmental ethics should be considered as a fundamental skilliaughl in all engineering programmes . The paper closes with a suggested outline Dr a lirsl course in environmental ethics. Copyright © 1996IAWQ. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
KEYWORDS Environmental ethics; engineering education; code of ethics; stewardship; sustainable development. INTRODUCTION In the early years of this century, the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadski stated that mankind was a powerful geological force (Laptev, 1990). He was referring to the many civil engineering activities beginning to deliberately shape the surface morphology of the earth. These included the mining of ores, the digging of canals, the construction of dams. the boring of tunnels and the levelling of mountains. A recent example of this latter activity occurred in December 1992 when the Paotai mountain in China erupted in an enormous cloud of dust and debris. This eruption was the largest peacetime explosion in history and was equivalent to the blast which levelled Hiroshima Approximately I I million cubic metres of earth and stone were shifted as part of the expansion of the Zhuhai airfield in China. China also plans to resettle over a million people from the Yangtze river area, allowing construction of the world's largest dam (185 metres high). This dam will cost approximately US$ 12 billion and will flood a vast area (28,800 ha.), obliterating farmland and raising the water level at the famous Three Gorge! section of the Yangtze river. The history of engineering activities include many examples of development which have resulted in the degradation of the environment. The above examples however, serve to illustrate that engineering of the future, now, more than ever, has the potential to have absolutely enormous environmental impacts . Engineers in the past have shouldered much of the blame for the devastation wrought by economic 197
198
D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOTIS
development. This has been magnified. not only by an increase in the demand for energy and natural resources. but also by an elevation in the standard of living brought about by the activities of engineers. The present environmental crisis can be directly attributed to the imposition of economic activities on ecological systems. with little regard for the latter's physical limitations. It is axiomatic that development without restraint directly undermines the potential for future development through (i) over-exploitation of natural resources and (ii) discharge of residuals (Hashim. 1994). The rate and magnitude of exploitation has also increased. not only because of population growth. but also because technology (practically synonymous with engineering activities) has enabled individuals to access and deplete more resources within a shorter unit of time (DuBose et al., 1994). There is now therefore a compelling need for engineers to intelligently manage both the natural resources used in development and the residuals generated from these developments. The guiding caveat for all future development is the principle of inter-generational equity (i.e. equal opportunity across all generations (Wilkinson. 1993». This is the principle embodied in the term sustainable development, loosely defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) to be "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". To some degree, the tension between economic development and conservation practices has been acknowledged by many countries in that they now require some kind of formal procedure for assessing the environmental impacts associated with engineering works. Furthermore. this evaluation is usually based upon some notion of sustainable development. Engineering educators have responded by providing courses in environmental impact assessment and/or courses in society and technology. What has been slow in coming however, is the mandate that engineers be ethically bound to practice in a way that promotes the concept of sustainability (Thorn, 1994). Moreover, what is missing in the engineering education system is an emphasis that breeds an ethic which. in the first instance, automatically looks outside the anthropocentric view and interprets the environmental data within a framework of quality of life for IDl organisms on the planet. Looking beyond mankind's interest and widening the moral community to include all life (Gunn and Vesiland, 1986) forms the basis for an environmental ethic. COMPONENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC Technological solutions to environmental problems can often be inadequate in and of themselves because they are developed within a reductionist mindset. This is an attitude which believes that the ability to reduce a problem to technological terms leads to an attendant ability to solve the problem on purely technological grounds. The difficulty with this approach is that it fails to question the very nature of the human activity which generates the pollutant. Human behavioral changes, waste management techniques, elimination or reduction at source. in-house preventive measures and/or iterative process modifications may actually be a more realistic way forward than remedial methods once pollution has occurred. Value-laden questions associated with the nature or the "why" of human activities are fundamentally ethical questions. These have not traditionally been the focus of engineering programmes (which have tended to focus on the "what" or "how" questions). It is advocated that a sustainability ethic should pervade all engineering fields. The goal of engineering education programmes should be to produce engineers who are both technically competent and environmentally conscious (Hashim, 1994). A sustainability ethic can be thought of as an obligation to the environment made up of two components - one targeted to pollution prevention and one targeted to pollution remediation (Wareham and Elefsiniotis, 1995). The first component refers to the belief that environmental impact assessment, environmental auditing, waste minimization and life- cycle analysis concepts should be incorporated into all engineering educational programmes regardless of discipline. As implied previously however, to teach these concepts ~ as engineering techniques. reduces them to technical procedures to be blindly followed with little questioning of the nature of the human activities.
Environmental ethics in enginee ring
199
Instead, these concepts should be taught within a philosophical or ethical framework which Intertwines economic development and environmental impact with principles of equity between cultures, social justice, ~nvironmental responsibility, environmental accountability. and the rights of the organisms of the ecosystem m a ~ balance with the rights of man. These latter aspects are all ethical considerations which should act as constraints to shape the engineer's thinking towards a realistic respect for the environment. In essence what is called for is a paradigm shift, in which engineers by Irainine are promoted as the guardians of creation rather than the destroyers of creation. Engineers henceforth should be seen as not only having a duty to serve the public, but also having a duty to serve the natural world in both a professional and ethical manner. This requires a shift in perception from a narrow, uni-generational focus to a multi-generational, global focus. In this way, green movements will no longer be allowed to claim exclusive ownership of ecological concerns. The concept of development has traditionally been a compromise between what is technically feasible and what is economically attractive (Mena, 1994). Within an ethical framework which applies social justice to the rights of all creation, an additional factor which now must be considered is whether the technology is 1D.l1x acceptable on environmental grounds (Mena, 1994). An environmentally-integrated approach recognizes that the engineering profession at large has an obligation to meet environmental stewardship goals, especially as they relate to economic development. The second component of a sustainability ethic is the cultivation of a sense of moral values specifically related to pollution remediation. Vesiland (1994) is essentially referring to this when he states... "....public opinion has evolved to where the direct and immediate health effects of environmental contamination are no longer of primary concern. The cleanliness of streams, not only for the benefit of human health, but also for lite benefit of the stream itself has become a driving force, and legislation has been passed that does not focus directly on human health but instead addresses our desire for a clean environment. Protection of wildlife habitat. the preservation of species and the health of ecosystems have become valid objectives for the spending of resources. Such a sense of mission, unrelated to human health. is often referred to as an environmental ethic, which is a major driving force of modem environmental engineering."
It can be seen from the above that engineers have an additional responsibility to be at the forefront of movements to clean up pollution, even pollution which does not have a direct link to public health. This again takes the form of an ethical imperative because pollution-remediation is seen as the III.2W thing to do (rather than the necessary thing to do because of human health concerns). A solid grounding in environmental ethics should be a foundational course for all undergraduate engineering programmes. Engineers may feel uneasy about designating an ethics course as a fundamental skill, primarily because such courses require substantially less (or a different degree 00 rigour than traditional engineering courses. It is worth asking however, whether the current environmental crisis has arisen because environmental ethics has been historically perceived as peripheral to engineering, rather than the foundation upon which it should be built? Have engineers been guilty of dividing environmental problems into technical and non-technical areas and then proceeding to act as if the latter area was of minimal importance? Historically, much of the engineer's Code ofEthics has focused on the practice of engineering as it relates to (i) the manner in which technical procedures should be executed and (ii) the way in which engineering professionals should interact. Ethics however is not served if a system is designed in a professional manner (such that it meets all codes and standards of the day), yet despoils the environment. It is encouraging to see the recent consideration of an 8 th canon to the ASCE Code of Ethics which recognizes the importance of sustainable development. Other professional engineering bodies in other countries have or are already in the process of adopting similar principles to guide future engineering development. It appears in practice, that professional engineering bodies are moving away from the image of a paid hireling, employed to do the bidding of society with no thought given to the ecological ramifications of their activities. As resources dwindle, engineers have realized that engineering activities have the potential to
200
D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOllS
severely impact the environment and in turn the environment that is created impacts enormously the future of engineering projects. This cyclical effect makes it important to appreciate the non-technical as well as the technical issues. It is also apparent that. just as a better job of engineering can be done when formal training in engineering is provided. so too a better job of making ethical decisions (as they relate to the environment) can be done when a formal programme in environmental ethics is an integral part of an engineer's training. It is therefore time that the ethical value of the survival of a species and/or the maintenance of an ecosystem be considered as an engineering problem. That is, a problem in which the engineer, by virtue of his training. has the requisite degree of skill to be able to solve. Having therefore provided the rationale and basis for environmental ethics in engineering programmes, it is now important to specify the contents of a first course in environmental ethics. PROPOSED SYLLABUS FOR A FIRST COURSE IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS The foIlowing course outline provides a survey of the developing field of environmental ethics and its applicability to engineering practice. The material presented in the course can be divided into three divisions which are constructed to foIlow 12 weeks of a 13 week semester (Table I) . Table I. Suggested syIlabus for environmental ethics course
Division and Topic
Week
Part I: Weeks 1 and 2 Weeks 3 and 4
Basic Concepts Ethical Theory and the Enviromnent
Part II: Week Week Week Week
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
Theories of Environmental Ethics
Biocentric Ethics Ecology and Ethics The Land Ethic Deep Ecology and Social Ecology
Part III: Week Week Week Week
Foundations of Environmental Ethics
Selected Case Studies
Air and Water Quality: Acid Rain Nuclear Power Agriculture Economics and Integrated PoIlution Control
Assessment would take the form of 3 tests (correlated to the 3 divisions of the course) and be used to gauge the comprehension of the material. As weIl, a major term paper would be required on an engineering development which presented an environmental ethical dilemma. Oral presentation of the paper would comprise a component of the final mark and these presentations would be given during the 13th week of classes. The detailed course outline shown below draws from material presented in part by Hargrove (1989), Berry (1993) and Desjardens (1993). Part I (Basic Concepts) serves as an introduction to environmental philosophy by covering the fuIl range of the foundations of environmental ethics as weIl as current philosophical positions. Part II (Theories of Environmental Ethics) focuses on the theories of environmental ethics. ranging from biodiversity to social ecology. Part III (Applications of Environmental Ethics in Engineering Decision-Making Processes) adopts a case-study approach by reviewing examples from various areas of engineering to illustrate the need for an environmental ethic in creating judicious planning and developing sound environmental policies.
Environmental ethics in engineering
201
PART I' Foundations ofenvjronmental ethics
Weeks 1 and 2: basic concepts Introduction (global environmental challenges, technological "solutions" and environmental policies); Science and technology without ethics (the "myth" of scientific objectivity. reductionistic approach. distinction between "facts" and "values"); Ethics without science and technology ("pure" or "abstract" philosophical reasoning, need for "applied" ethics. usefulness of "empirical" sciences in formulating ethical concepts); Environmental ethics (definition. roots and historical development); and Descriptive. normative. and philosophical ethics (definitions. distinction. relation to environmental controversies and problems).
Weeks 3 and 4: Ethical theory and the environment Introduction (individual rights and the overall good. need for systems of values of ethical theories. reasons for studying them); Ethical relativism (value and "objectivity" of ethical judgments); and Traditional ethical theories (eg. the natural law or teleological tradition; the utilitarian tradition; deontology (the ethics of duty and rights etc.l). PART II: Theories of enyironmental ethics
Week 5: Blocentric ethics Introduction (the concept of ethical extensiomsm, anthropocentric vs. biocentric ethics. need for the development of a comprehensive environmental philosophy); Discussion on values (instrumental value. intrinsic value. inherent worth); and Biocentric ethics and the reverence for life (Taylor's theory regarding "respect for nature". ethics and character, practical implications on conflict resolution).
Week 6: Ecology and ethics Introduction (development of ecological ethics. holistic vs. individualistic ethics, the value and the idea of wilderness); Environmentalism and the romantic wilderness myth (preservation (Emerson, Thoreau. Muir) vs. conservation (Pinchot), influence of the romantic model on current environmental behaviour); and Ecological models of nature (development and evaluation of the organic. community. and energy models).
Week 7: The land ethic Introduction (Leopold's theory on resource management, development of the concept of land conservation as a moral issue);
D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOTIS
202
The land ethic (the concept of "land community", biotic, and land pyramids, holistic or systems view, ethical holism); and Criticisms of the land ethic (the ethics, ethical implications of holism).
move
from
the
facts
of
ecology
to
the
values
of
Week 8: Deep ecology and social ecology Introduction (environmental activism, legal and illegal, "deep" vs. "shallow" environmental perspectives, sustainable agriculture and the social ecology approach); Deep ecology (basic principles, the concept of eco-philosophy, metaphysical ecology: individualism vs. reductionism, from metaphysics to ethics: objectivity vs. subjectivity, biocentric equality); and Social ecology (human domination and ecological destruction, social structure and its ecological impacts, notions on "productivity", domination vs. stewardship, eco-feminism), PARI III: Selected case studies
Week 9: Air and water quality: acid rain The acid rain debate (chronological development, the scientific complexity of the issue, the impact of the Stock.holm conferences, resolution); The wider context (environmental awareness, dealing with uncertainties in environmental decision-making, "real" vs. "perceived" risk, the precautionary principle); and The way forward (sustainable environmental management, challenges in matching scientific hypotheses and policy, global thinking).
Week 10: Nuclear power Introduction (power supply and demand, control of ionizing radiation, occupational and public health issues, fuel cycle and conservation, nuclear weapons); Waste disposal (waste characterization, disposal practises, disposal criteria, evaluation and public concern); and Risk of major accidents (critical reflection on recent severe accidents, quantitative risk assessments, usefulness and moral implications, evaluation of safety standards).
Week JJ: Agriculture Historical perspective (traditional agriculture, agricultural change, fertilizers, intensive methods, the role of the state in transforming agricultural practices (subsidies, land use, etc.I) Dilemma and opportunity ("reversibility" of environmental damage, food production and distribution, social and economic implications, multiple uses of land); and Farming and conservation (perceptions of nature, review of the philosophical systems discussed earlier and their application to agricultural practices, need for new objectives and "new ethics").
Environmental ethics in engineering
203
Week 12: Economics and integrated pollution control Introduction (meaning. rationale. and limits of the term "integrated pollution control. residuals management failures. information on failure. lack of "systems" thinking. institutional failure. lack of appropriate decision framework. market failures); Cleaner technology (financial vs. economic viability. the role of ethics in innovation and diffusion of new technologies. socio-economic implications); and Comprehensive environmental appraisal (holistic approach. costs and benefits evaluation extending beyond the monetary value system. development of multi-criteria methods. search for new options and alternatives) .
Week 13: Review and critical reflections Term paper presentations and discussions . CONCLUSIONS Education in engineering should be geared towards creating a paradigm shift in the realm of public perception as it relates to the interaction between engineers and the environment. Through training in environmental ethics. the new model of interaction should be one in which the engineer acts in the capacity of a viceroy/steward in charge of managing pollution prevention and remediation. Training in environmental ethics should be considered as a fundamental skill taught in all engineering programmes. A suggested outline of a first course in environmental ethics has been presented. REFERENCES Berry, R. J. (ed) (1993) . Environmental Dilemmas. Ethics and Decisions. Chapman and Hall. London. U.K.. pp. 271 Desjardens, J. R. (1993) . Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont. California. pp. 272. DuBose . J.• Frost, J. D.• Chameau, J. L. A. and Vanegas. J. A. (1994). Sustainable Development and Technology . Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals ofEnvironmental Education. Christchurch. New Zealand. Aug. 22-24. Gunn, A. Sand Vesiland, P. A. (1986) . Environmental Ethicsfor Engineers. Lewis Publishers Inc.• Chelsea, Michigan. pp. 153. Hargrove. E C. (1989). Foundations ofEnvironmental Ethics. Prentice-Hall. Inc.• Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey. pp. 229. Hashim. M. A. (1994) . Environmental Eng ineering Education in Malaysia. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals of Environmental Education. Christchurch. New Zealand. Aug. 22-24. Laptev, I. (1990) . Raising the Biosphere to the Noosphere . Chapter in Ethics of Environment and Development: Global Challenge. International Response. Ed. lR. Engel and J.G. Engel. The University of Arizona Press. pp. 230. Mena, M. M. (1994) . The Fundamentals of Environmental Engineering Education. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals ofEnvironmental Education, Christchurch. New Zealand. Aug. 22-24. Thom , D. (1994) The Need for Environmental Engineering Education Fundamentals . Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals ofEnvironmental Education. Christchurch. New Zealand . Aug. 22-24. Vesiland , P. E. (1994). The Future of Environmental Engineering. ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering. Editorial. 119 (4).595-599. Wareham. D. G. and Elefsiniotis, P. (1995). A Proposed Course Matrix for Holistic Education in Environmental Engineering. International Journal ofEngineering Education. (In Press). Wilk inson. R. (1993) . Responding to the Future. The President's Address. 1993 Institution of Engineers of New Zealand Conference. World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Oxford. U.K.. p. 383.
Pergamon
. Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 34, No. 12. pp. 197-203. 1996. Copyng~t C> 1996 IA WQ. PIlblished by Elsev ier Science ltd Primed in Oreat Britain. All rights reserved , 027)-1223196 $15'00 + 0'00
PU: S0273-1223(96)00870-0
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION: A MISSING FUNDAMENTAL David G. Wareham* and Panagiotis Elefsiniotis** • Department ofCivil Engineering. University ofCanterbury. Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand •• Department of Civil and Geological Engineering. 403A Engineering Building, J5 Gillson Street. Winnipeg, Manitoba. Canada R3T 5V6
ABSTRACT This paper reviews !he way in which engineers interact wilh the environment. It argues that future engineering should be part of a paradigm shift in which engineers are seen as responsible stewards rather than negligent trustees of the environment . This can be accomplished by educa tion in environmental ethics, defined here as a set of obligations 10 nature characterised by a mindset geared towards pollution prevention and pollution remediation . It is argued that training in environmental ethics should be considered as a fundamental skilliaughl in all engineering programmes . The paper closes with a suggested outline Dr a lirsl course in environmental ethics. Copyright © 1996IAWQ. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
KEYWORDS Environmental ethics; engineering education; code of ethics; stewardship; sustainable development. INTRODUCTION In the early years of this century, the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadski stated that mankind was a powerful geological force (Laptev, 1990). He was referring to the many civil engineering activities beginning to deliberately shape the surface morphology of the earth. These included the mining of ores, the digging of canals, the construction of dams. the boring of tunnels and the levelling of mountains. A recent example of this latter activity occurred in December 1992 when the Paotai mountain in China erupted in an enormous cloud of dust and debris. This eruption was the largest peacetime explosion in history and was equivalent to the blast which levelled Hiroshima Approximately I I million cubic metres of earth and stone were shifted as part of the expansion of the Zhuhai airfield in China. China also plans to resettle over a million people from the Yangtze river area, allowing construction of the world's largest dam (185 metres high). This dam will cost approximately US$ 12 billion and will flood a vast area (28,800 ha.), obliterating farmland and raising the water level at the famous Three Gorge! section of the Yangtze river. The history of engineering activities include many examples of development which have resulted in the degradation of the environment. The above examples however, serve to illustrate that engineering of the future, now, more than ever, has the potential to have absolutely enormous environmental impacts . Engineers in the past have shouldered much of the blame for the devastation wrought by economic 197
198
D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOTIS
development. This has been magnified. not only by an increase in the demand for energy and natural resources. but also by an elevation in the standard of living brought about by the activities of engineers. The present environmental crisis can be directly attributed to the imposition of economic activities on ecological systems. with little regard for the latter's physical limitations. It is axiomatic that development without restraint directly undermines the potential for future development through (i) over-exploitation of natural resources and (ii) discharge of residuals (Hashim. 1994). The rate and magnitude of exploitation has also increased. not only because of population growth. but also because technology (practically synonymous with engineering activities) has enabled individuals to access and deplete more resources within a shorter unit of time (DuBose et al., 1994). There is now therefore a compelling need for engineers to intelligently manage both the natural resources used in development and the residuals generated from these developments. The guiding caveat for all future development is the principle of inter-generational equity (i.e. equal opportunity across all generations (Wilkinson. 1993». This is the principle embodied in the term sustainable development, loosely defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) to be "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". To some degree, the tension between economic development and conservation practices has been acknowledged by many countries in that they now require some kind of formal procedure for assessing the environmental impacts associated with engineering works. Furthermore. this evaluation is usually based upon some notion of sustainable development. Engineering educators have responded by providing courses in environmental impact assessment and/or courses in society and technology. What has been slow in coming however, is the mandate that engineers be ethically bound to practice in a way that promotes the concept of sustainability (Thorn, 1994). Moreover, what is missing in the engineering education system is an emphasis that breeds an ethic which. in the first instance, automatically looks outside the anthropocentric view and interprets the environmental data within a framework of quality of life for IDl organisms on the planet. Looking beyond mankind's interest and widening the moral community to include all life (Gunn and Vesiland, 1986) forms the basis for an environmental ethic. COMPONENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC Technological solutions to environmental problems can often be inadequate in and of themselves because they are developed within a reductionist mindset. This is an attitude which believes that the ability to reduce a problem to technological terms leads to an attendant ability to solve the problem on purely technological grounds. The difficulty with this approach is that it fails to question the very nature of the human activity which generates the pollutant. Human behavioral changes, waste management techniques, elimination or reduction at source. in-house preventive measures and/or iterative process modifications may actually be a more realistic way forward than remedial methods once pollution has occurred. Value-laden questions associated with the nature or the "why" of human activities are fundamentally ethical questions. These have not traditionally been the focus of engineering programmes (which have tended to focus on the "what" or "how" questions). It is advocated that a sustainability ethic should pervade all engineering fields. The goal of engineering education programmes should be to produce engineers who are both technically competent and environmentally conscious (Hashim, 1994). A sustainability ethic can be thought of as an obligation to the environment made up of two components - one targeted to pollution prevention and one targeted to pollution remediation (Wareham and Elefsiniotis, 1995). The first component refers to the belief that environmental impact assessment, environmental auditing, waste minimization and life- cycle analysis concepts should be incorporated into all engineering educational programmes regardless of discipline. As implied previously however, to teach these concepts ~ as engineering techniques. reduces them to technical procedures to be blindly followed with little questioning of the nature of the human activities.
Environmental ethics in enginee ring
199
Instead, these concepts should be taught within a philosophical or ethical framework which Intertwines economic development and environmental impact with principles of equity between cultures, social justice, ~nvironmental responsibility, environmental accountability. and the rights of the organisms of the ecosystem m a ~ balance with the rights of man. These latter aspects are all ethical considerations which should act as constraints to shape the engineer's thinking towards a realistic respect for the environment. In essence what is called for is a paradigm shift, in which engineers by Irainine are promoted as the guardians of creation rather than the destroyers of creation. Engineers henceforth should be seen as not only having a duty to serve the public, but also having a duty to serve the natural world in both a professional and ethical manner. This requires a shift in perception from a narrow, uni-generational focus to a multi-generational, global focus. In this way, green movements will no longer be allowed to claim exclusive ownership of ecological concerns. The concept of development has traditionally been a compromise between what is technically feasible and what is economically attractive (Mena, 1994). Within an ethical framework which applies social justice to the rights of all creation, an additional factor which now must be considered is whether the technology is 1D.l1x acceptable on environmental grounds (Mena, 1994). An environmentally-integrated approach recognizes that the engineering profession at large has an obligation to meet environmental stewardship goals, especially as they relate to economic development. The second component of a sustainability ethic is the cultivation of a sense of moral values specifically related to pollution remediation. Vesiland (1994) is essentially referring to this when he states... "....public opinion has evolved to where the direct and immediate health effects of environmental contamination are no longer of primary concern. The cleanliness of streams, not only for the benefit of human health, but also for lite benefit of the stream itself has become a driving force, and legislation has been passed that does not focus directly on human health but instead addresses our desire for a clean environment. Protection of wildlife habitat. the preservation of species and the health of ecosystems have become valid objectives for the spending of resources. Such a sense of mission, unrelated to human health. is often referred to as an environmental ethic, which is a major driving force of modem environmental engineering."
It can be seen from the above that engineers have an additional responsibility to be at the forefront of movements to clean up pollution, even pollution which does not have a direct link to public health. This again takes the form of an ethical imperative because pollution-remediation is seen as the III.2W thing to do (rather than the necessary thing to do because of human health concerns). A solid grounding in environmental ethics should be a foundational course for all undergraduate engineering programmes. Engineers may feel uneasy about designating an ethics course as a fundamental skill, primarily because such courses require substantially less (or a different degree 00 rigour than traditional engineering courses. It is worth asking however, whether the current environmental crisis has arisen because environmental ethics has been historically perceived as peripheral to engineering, rather than the foundation upon which it should be built? Have engineers been guilty of dividing environmental problems into technical and non-technical areas and then proceeding to act as if the latter area was of minimal importance? Historically, much of the engineer's Code ofEthics has focused on the practice of engineering as it relates to (i) the manner in which technical procedures should be executed and (ii) the way in which engineering professionals should interact. Ethics however is not served if a system is designed in a professional manner (such that it meets all codes and standards of the day), yet despoils the environment. It is encouraging to see the recent consideration of an 8 th canon to the ASCE Code of Ethics which recognizes the importance of sustainable development. Other professional engineering bodies in other countries have or are already in the process of adopting similar principles to guide future engineering development. It appears in practice, that professional engineering bodies are moving away from the image of a paid hireling, employed to do the bidding of society with no thought given to the ecological ramifications of their activities. As resources dwindle, engineers have realized that engineering activities have the potential to
200
D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOllS
severely impact the environment and in turn the environment that is created impacts enormously the future of engineering projects. This cyclical effect makes it important to appreciate the non-technical as well as the technical issues. It is also apparent that. just as a better job of engineering can be done when formal training in engineering is provided. so too a better job of making ethical decisions (as they relate to the environment) can be done when a formal programme in environmental ethics is an integral part of an engineer's training. It is therefore time that the ethical value of the survival of a species and/or the maintenance of an ecosystem be considered as an engineering problem. That is, a problem in which the engineer, by virtue of his training. has the requisite degree of skill to be able to solve. Having therefore provided the rationale and basis for environmental ethics in engineering programmes, it is now important to specify the contents of a first course in environmental ethics. PROPOSED SYLLABUS FOR A FIRST COURSE IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS The foIlowing course outline provides a survey of the developing field of environmental ethics and its applicability to engineering practice. The material presented in the course can be divided into three divisions which are constructed to foIlow 12 weeks of a 13 week semester (Table I) . Table I. Suggested syIlabus for environmental ethics course
Division and Topic
Week
Part I: Weeks 1 and 2 Weeks 3 and 4
Basic Concepts Ethical Theory and the Enviromnent
Part II: Week Week Week Week
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12
Theories of Environmental Ethics
Biocentric Ethics Ecology and Ethics The Land Ethic Deep Ecology and Social Ecology
Part III: Week Week Week Week
Foundations of Environmental Ethics
Selected Case Studies
Air and Water Quality: Acid Rain Nuclear Power Agriculture Economics and Integrated PoIlution Control
Assessment would take the form of 3 tests (correlated to the 3 divisions of the course) and be used to gauge the comprehension of the material. As weIl, a major term paper would be required on an engineering development which presented an environmental ethical dilemma. Oral presentation of the paper would comprise a component of the final mark and these presentations would be given during the 13th week of classes. The detailed course outline shown below draws from material presented in part by Hargrove (1989), Berry (1993) and Desjardens (1993). Part I (Basic Concepts) serves as an introduction to environmental philosophy by covering the fuIl range of the foundations of environmental ethics as weIl as current philosophical positions. Part II (Theories of Environmental Ethics) focuses on the theories of environmental ethics. ranging from biodiversity to social ecology. Part III (Applications of Environmental Ethics in Engineering Decision-Making Processes) adopts a case-study approach by reviewing examples from various areas of engineering to illustrate the need for an environmental ethic in creating judicious planning and developing sound environmental policies.
Environmental ethics in engineering
201
PART I' Foundations ofenvjronmental ethics
Weeks 1 and 2: basic concepts Introduction (global environmental challenges, technological "solutions" and environmental policies); Science and technology without ethics (the "myth" of scientific objectivity. reductionistic approach. distinction between "facts" and "values"); Ethics without science and technology ("pure" or "abstract" philosophical reasoning, need for "applied" ethics. usefulness of "empirical" sciences in formulating ethical concepts); Environmental ethics (definition. roots and historical development); and Descriptive. normative. and philosophical ethics (definitions. distinction. relation to environmental controversies and problems).
Weeks 3 and 4: Ethical theory and the environment Introduction (individual rights and the overall good. need for systems of values of ethical theories. reasons for studying them); Ethical relativism (value and "objectivity" of ethical judgments); and Traditional ethical theories (eg. the natural law or teleological tradition; the utilitarian tradition; deontology (the ethics of duty and rights etc.l). PART II: Theories of enyironmental ethics
Week 5: Blocentric ethics Introduction (the concept of ethical extensiomsm, anthropocentric vs. biocentric ethics. need for the development of a comprehensive environmental philosophy); Discussion on values (instrumental value. intrinsic value. inherent worth); and Biocentric ethics and the reverence for life (Taylor's theory regarding "respect for nature". ethics and character, practical implications on conflict resolution).
Week 6: Ecology and ethics Introduction (development of ecological ethics. holistic vs. individualistic ethics, the value and the idea of wilderness); Environmentalism and the romantic wilderness myth (preservation (Emerson, Thoreau. Muir) vs. conservation (Pinchot), influence of the romantic model on current environmental behaviour); and Ecological models of nature (development and evaluation of the organic. community. and energy models).
Week 7: The land ethic Introduction (Leopold's theory on resource management, development of the concept of land conservation as a moral issue);
D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOTIS
202
The land ethic (the concept of "land community", biotic, and land pyramids, holistic or systems view, ethical holism); and Criticisms of the land ethic (the ethics, ethical implications of holism).
move
from
the
facts
of
ecology
to
the
values
of
Week 8: Deep ecology and social ecology Introduction (environmental activism, legal and illegal, "deep" vs. "shallow" environmental perspectives, sustainable agriculture and the social ecology approach); Deep ecology (basic principles, the concept of eco-philosophy, metaphysical ecology: individualism vs. reductionism, from metaphysics to ethics: objectivity vs. subjectivity, biocentric equality); and Social ecology (human domination and ecological destruction, social structure and its ecological impacts, notions on "productivity", domination vs. stewardship, eco-feminism), PARI III: Selected case studies
Week 9: Air and water quality: acid rain The acid rain debate (chronological development, the scientific complexity of the issue, the impact of the Stock.holm conferences, resolution); The wider context (environmental awareness, dealing with uncertainties in environmental decision-making, "real" vs. "perceived" risk, the precautionary principle); and The way forward (sustainable environmental management, challenges in matching scientific hypotheses and policy, global thinking).
Week 10: Nuclear power Introduction (power supply and demand, control of ionizing radiation, occupational and public health issues, fuel cycle and conservation, nuclear weapons); Waste disposal (waste characterization, disposal practises, disposal criteria, evaluation and public concern); and Risk of major accidents (critical reflection on recent severe accidents, quantitative risk assessments, usefulness and moral implications, evaluation of safety standards).
Week JJ: Agriculture Historical perspective (traditional agriculture, agricultural change, fertilizers, intensive methods, the role of the state in transforming agricultural practices (subsidies, land use, etc.I) Dilemma and opportunity ("reversibility" of environmental damage, food production and distribution, social and economic implications, multiple uses of land); and Farming and conservation (perceptions of nature, review of the philosophical systems discussed earlier and their application to agricultural practices, need for new objectives and "new ethics").
Environmental ethics in engineering
203
Week 12: Economics and integrated pollution control Introduction (meaning. rationale. and limits of the term "integrated pollution control. residuals management failures. information on failure. lack of "systems" thinking. institutional failure. lack of appropriate decision framework. market failures); Cleaner technology (financial vs. economic viability. the role of ethics in innovation and diffusion of new technologies. socio-economic implications); and Comprehensive environmental appraisal (holistic approach. costs and benefits evaluation extending beyond the monetary value system. development of multi-criteria methods. search for new options and alternatives) .
Week 13: Review and critical reflections Term paper presentations and discussions . CONCLUSIONS Education in engineering should be geared towards creating a paradigm shift in the realm of public perception as it relates to the interaction between engineers and the environment. Through training in environmental ethics. the new model of interaction should be one in which the engineer acts in the capacity of a viceroy/steward in charge of managing pollution prevention and remediation. Training in environmental ethics should be considered as a fundamental skill taught in all engineering programmes. A suggested outline of a first course in environmental ethics has been presented. REFERENCES Berry, R. J. (ed) (1993) . Environmental Dilemmas. Ethics and Decisions. Chapman and Hall. London. U.K.. pp. 271 Desjardens, J. R. (1993) . Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont. California. pp. 272. DuBose . J.• Frost, J. D.• Chameau, J. L. A. and Vanegas. J. A. (1994). Sustainable Development and Technology . Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals ofEnvironmental Education. Christchurch. New Zealand. Aug. 22-24. Gunn, A. Sand Vesiland, P. A. (1986) . Environmental Ethicsfor Engineers. Lewis Publishers Inc.• Chelsea, Michigan. pp. 153. Hargrove. E C. (1989). Foundations ofEnvironmental Ethics. Prentice-Hall. Inc.• Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey. pp. 229. Hashim. M. A. (1994) . Environmental Eng ineering Education in Malaysia. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals of Environmental Education. Christchurch. New Zealand. Aug. 22-24. Laptev, I. (1990) . Raising the Biosphere to the Noosphere . Chapter in Ethics of Environment and Development: Global Challenge. International Response. Ed. lR. Engel and J.G. Engel. The University of Arizona Press. pp. 230. Mena, M. M. (1994) . The Fundamentals of Environmental Engineering Education. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals ofEnvironmental Education, Christchurch. New Zealand. Aug. 22-24. Thom , D. (1994) The Need for Environmental Engineering Education Fundamentals . Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fundamentals ofEnvironmental Education. Christchurch. New Zealand . Aug. 22-24. Vesiland , P. E. (1994). The Future of Environmental Engineering. ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering. Editorial. 119 (4).595-599. Wareham. D. G. and Elefsiniotis, P. (1995). A Proposed Course Matrix for Holistic Education in Environmental Engineering. International Journal ofEngineering Education. (In Press). Wilk inson. R. (1993) . Responding to the Future. The President's Address. 1993 Institution of Engineers of New Zealand Conference. World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Oxford. U.K.. p. 383.