Environmental impacts of introducing cable cars in the Andean landscape: A case study for Kuelap, Peru

Journal Pre-proof Environmental impacts of introducing cables cars in the Andean landscape: A case study for Kuelap, Peru

Karen Biberos-Bendezú, Ian Vázquez-Rowe PII:

S0048-9697(20)30833-0

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137323

Reference:

STOTEN 137323

To appear in:

Science of the Total Environment

Received date:

2 December 2019

Revised date:

29 January 2020

Accepted date:

13 February 2020

Please cite this article as: K. Biberos-Bendezú and I. Vázquez-Rowe, Environmental impacts of introducing cables cars in the Andean landscape: A case study for Kuelap, Peru, Science of the Total Environment (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137323

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2020 Published by Elsevier.

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Environmental impacts of introducing cables cars in the Andean landscape: A case study for Kuelap, Peru

Karen Biberos-Bendezú, Ian Vázquez-Rowe*

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Peruvian LCA Network (PELCAN), Department of Engineering, Pontificia Universidad

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Católica del Perú, Avenida Universitaria 1801, San Miguel, Lima 15088, Peru

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*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

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Abstract

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Cable cars have slowly become a popular means of transport beyond their classical use at

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ski resorts. In Latin America their use has thrived to access archaeological sites in the Andes, but also in urban environments for mass transit. Despite some apparent benefits of

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these systems, the current literature is scarce in terms of quantifying the environmental

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profile of cable cars. Hence, their environmental performance as compared to other means of transport remains essentially unexplored. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to provide a comparative environmental analysis, using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology , of the two existing transport methods to visit the Kuelap Archaeological Complex in northern Peru: a recently built cableway system and the alternative unpaved winding road. An attributional LCA perspective was performed for several impact categories, including global warming and particulate matter formation. In addition, a scenario analysis and an uncertainty analysis, using Monte Carlo simulation, were

Journal Pre-proof conducted to account for deterministic and stochastic results interpretation. Results demonstrated that succulent environmental benefits are attained when cable cars substitute road transport in complex Andean orographic conditions. However, the rebound effects of reducing traveling times significantly, as well as social and biodiversity aspects, should be analyzed in further depth to complement the environmental analysis. Keywords: air quality; climate change; GHG emissions; Life Cycle Assessment;

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Introduction

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1.

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sustainable mobility; sustainable tourism.

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Cable cars are a particular means of transport, since they can be considered landbased infrastructure to aerially transport people for short distances. Initially popular in ski

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resorts in developed nations, this century their use in Latin America and other ermeging

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regions of the world has thrived for tourist or mass transport systems (Tezak et al., 2016; Yáñez-Pagans et al., 2019). In fact, in geographical contexts where road access is difficult

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or unexistent (Brida et al., 2014), and also when reducing travel time is a priority,

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cableways stand out as an attractive option to consider (Nikšić and Gašparović, 2010). Despite the fact that many studies highlighted the benefits of expanding the use of cable cars in Latin America from an environmental perspective (Dávila and Daste, 2012; Garsous et al., 2019); no life-cycle environmental assessment tools have been applied to these systems in order to quantify these impacts. Therefore, there is a lack of information that could enhance decision-making within local governments. In fact, full knowledge of the environmental impacts of transport systems can support regional planning, following

Journal Pre-proof the UN goals, by establishing environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas (UN, 2017). In Peru, for instance, a notable rise in international visitors has occurred in parallel to a significant expansion of the Peruvian middle class, thanks to an outstanding economic growth rate in the early 21st century (UNWTO, 2016, 2019a, 2019b). These two factors combined have made tourism one of the main sources of revenue, after mining and

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agricultural exports. One example of these sites is the Kuelap Archaeological Complex, a

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UNESCO Heritage Site candidate since 2011 (UNESCO, 2019), located in the highlands of

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the region of Amazonas (see Figure 1), a remote area to which paved access by road from

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the Peruvian coast and other Andean cities has only been developed this century. In March

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2017, the first of a number of cable car projects in Peru was inaugurated to communicate the town of Nuevo Tingo and the Citadel through a 20 minute trip that avoids a 90 minutes

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journey along an unpaved winding mountain road. This infrastructure is supposed to trigger

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a significant rise in terms of visitors, not only to Kuelap, but to the entire region. However, the quality of transport infrastructure in the region is still essentially rudimentary, with

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most roads being unpaved and not conditioned for heavy traffic (Perú Cámaras, 2017). Similarly, access by plane for tourists arriving from other cities was inexistent until recently. However, new commercial routes to the airports in Jaén and Chachapoyas have contributed to a higher number of tourists since the cable car system was opened (MINCETUR, 2019a).

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Figure 1. Map representing the two current access routes to the Kuelap

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Archaeological Complex from the town of Nuevo Tingo.

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Despite the evident reduction in terms of safety and time travelled to reach Kuelap,

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the environmental sustainability of this new alternative remains largely unexplored. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) generated for the project covered important issues linked to land use change or impacts to vegetation and landscape (MINCETUR, 2013; Plan COPESCO Nacional, 2015). However, other environmental considerations related to climate change, use of resources or impacts on air quality remain unexplored, as in most EIA studies developed for Peruvian infrastructure (Verán-Leigh and Vázquez-Rowe, 2019). In this regard, studies in other areas of the world have pointed out the importance of transversally mitigating carbon emissions from transport in the tourist sector (Tang et al., 2015).

Journal Pre-proof In this context, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), an internationally standardized environmental management tool, aims to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with a product, process or activity throughout all stages of its life cycle (ISO, 2006a, b). From this perspective, LCA identifies strategies for improvement without burden shifting (Hellweg and Milà i Canals, 2014). Moreover, the methodology provides a complete set of environmental indicators, which provide information on the potential effects of human

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activities on the environmental phenomena of interest. This is crucial to assess the

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environmental sustainability of anthropogenic systems (McBride et al., 2011). In fact, LCA

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studies have been widely recommended in the literature to compare the impact of different

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technologies to achieve similar purposes (EPA, 2006a; Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2019a),

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including tourism sustainability (Filimonau et al., 2011). Therefore, the main objective of this study was to provide a comparative

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environmental analysis, using LCA methodology, of the two existing transport methods to

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visit the Kuelap Archaeological Complex from the town of Nuevo Tingo. The results of the study are intended to support decision-making in Peru, and more broadly, in other countries

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of Latin America and the Caribbean, in which numerous projects to construct cable cars have been put in place or projected in recent years. In this sense, it is expected that stakeholders in the tourism and transport sectors will benefit from the results of the current study. In fact, by considering the hotspots of the system, improvements could be promoted during the design, construction and operation phases of future similar projects. Moreover, considering the lack of life cycle inventory datasets on cableway systems, the methodological framework, especially the life cycle modelling, is of valuable use for LCA practitioners. The paper is structured in three main parts. Section 2 addresses the

Journal Pre-proof methodological framework used to conduct the LCA, together with a thorough description of the production systems under study. Section 3 presents and discusses the main results obtained from the LCA. Finally, Section 4 accounts for the concluding remarks and the future research that could be brought forward based on the results presented. 2.

Materials and Methods

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2.1. Description of the systems under study

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Unpaved road

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The route that communicates the town of Nuevo Tingo and the archaeological site

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has a total length of 33.13 km and is a section of the regional road AM-111. It was constructed between 1982 and 1986, and not only allows access to the site, but also to a

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number of small villages that have thrived with the arrival of an increasing number of

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tourists in the past two decades. Currently, the road remains unpaved, although the surface course is periodically replenished when maintenance is performed. However, the latest

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integral maintenance to the road was concluded in 2007, despite the fact that maintenance

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for these types of roads is recommended every 4 years. Moreover, the report of the latest maintenance projected in 2018, describes a situation in which most drainage systems are deficient due to the lack of ditches and sewers that cause erosive runoff to the pavement. Cableway system The cableway system communicates the town of Nuevo Tingo and the archaeological site by a 4 km line. It was built in the period 2015-2016 and inaugurated for tourists in March 2017. Visitors arrive at the boarding platform (1900 masl) where they purchase their tickets. Thereafter, they are sent by bus for 3.13 km to the departure platform

Journal Pre-proof (2270 masl), where they get into one of the cabins. From there, a 4 km cableway ride to the arrival platform (2940 masl) awaits, which takes approximately 20 minutes. Finally, after a 10 minute walk, visitors arrive at the heritage site. Table 1. Description of the main characteristics of the cableway system and the Nuevo Tingo - Kuélap road

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Cableway system

Value 33.13 km Hilly 6.6 m 20 - 25 km/h 15 cm 3.13 km of road stretch and 4 km of line 0 – 6 m/s 1000 passengers/hour/direction Monocable: carrying and hauling rope Continuous movement

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Parameters Total length Topography Mean width Guide speed Depth of gravel layer Total length Line speed Design capacity Main cable Operation mode

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Structure Unpaved road

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2.2. Goal and scope

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This study was performed using LCA methodology as the main framework,

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following the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards (ISO, 2006a, b). The perspective used for the life cycle modelling was retrospective (i.e., attributional), although some consequential (i.e., prospective) discussion is provided. In this context, a comparative study was established between two different types of transport infrastructure used to access the Archaeological Ruins of Kuélap (6°25′S; 77°55′W), in the region of Amazonas, in NorthCentral Peru, with the aim of determining which system has a better environmental profile based on the impact categories selected (see Section 2.5). Therefore, the function of both systems is that of transporting tourists from the town of Nuevo Tingo, where the boarding platform of the cable car system is located, to visit the ruins. In order to establish an

Journal Pre-proof appropriate mathematical relation to report the environmental impacts, a functional unit (FU) of one tourist in a round trip to the arrival platform of the archaeological site from the boarding platform was set. In other words, the boarding and arrival locations were the same for both systems to guarantee the same geographical boundaries. The system boundaries were chosen in order to include all processes necessary for the operation of the system (see Figure 2). Thus, the following life-cycle stages were taken

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into consideration: construction, operation and maintenance. End-of-life activities in terms

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of decommissioning the infrastructures assessed were excluded from these boundaries for

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two main reasons. On the one hand, to date, the technical characteristics of any future road

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that will replace the current one in the future are unknown. Therefore, the procedures for

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the final disposal of waste, such as the material to be removed, are yet to be determined. On the other hand, for the cable car, uncertainty remains regarding the final disposal

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procedures that will be adopted once the system needs to be replaced.

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In relation to the lifetime of both infrastructures, different considerations were

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taken. In the case of the road, this time is different from that of any other product since there is no definite end-of-life (Stripple, 2001). In this sense, for the analysis, it was considered that in general the characteristics of the road do not vary significantly over a period of 20 years. Additionally, when analyzing the cableway system, a period of 50 years was considered for the buildings and 20 years for the electromechanical work, since it is the concession period and it was also used in a previous database inventory (Messmer and Frischknecht, 2016). For the construction phase, the reference year for data collection was 2017. In contrast, data for the operation were collected between August 2017 and July

Journal Pre-proof 2018. The reason for this is that a 5 month period after inauguration was considered as an

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appropriate time when the tourist flow is considered to stabilize.

Figure 2. Graphical representation of the system boundaries of the two alternative systems: A) Nuevo Tingo – Kuélap road and B) cableway system.

Journal Pre-proof 2.3. Data collection and Life Cycle Inventory Primary data for the construction and maintenance of the cableway system and the unpaved road were obtained from multiple sources in order to construct the foreground system of the analyzed alternatives. On the one hand, data referring to the construction of the cableway in the period between the years 2015 - 2017 were obtained mainly from the technical file provided by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism (MINCETUR, 2017).

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Furthermore, technical staff from the company that currently manages the cableway system

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was contacted. After one first meeting in the city of Lima with the project manager, a

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questionnaire was prepared and sent out in order to obtain the general details of the project.

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Thereafter, the data obtained were completed with the information gathered in a field trip

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organized in November 2017, in which maintenance staff was interviewed. Data provided by the company included details of all the construction process of the cable car system and

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operation and maintenance details, such as the use of buses or electricity consumption. In

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terms of the number of users of the cableway, these were provided by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism for the period 2017-2018 (MINCETUR, 2019b), as well as

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visitor projections for the upcoming years (MINCETUR, 2016). On the other hand, information regarding the unpaved road that communicates Nuevo Tingo and the archaeological site were obtained from different sources. In the first place, regarding road construction, no technical data were available. Therefore, a redesign of the section with the use of the CIVIL3D software had to be generated in order to estimate the main inventory materials (Autodesk, 2018). Thus, the modelling followed the original route based on data gathered from the National Geographic Institute of Peru (IGN, 2018. For most of the required parameters, the guidelines of the Geometric Road Design

Journal Pre-proof Manual (MTC, 2014) were adopted. For those remaining, the technical characteristics were replicated from those described in the maintenance technical file (DRTC-Amazonas, 2018). Traffic data were obtained from the first traffic study for the cableway implementation project (MC, 2008) due to the absence of tolls in the area. Additionally, the maintenance technical file was obtained from local transport authorities in Amazonas (DRTCAmazonas, 2018). The field trip in November 2017 was also useful for verifying the current

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physical conditions of the road. It is important to mention that the 3.13 km road of the

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cableway system to the boarding platform is the beginning of the 33.13 km unpaved road.

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For the background system, most secondary data were retrieved from the ecoinvent

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v3.4 database (ecoinvent, 2019), but certain specific data were adapted, as shown in Table

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2, using information gathered from local sources, Peru LCA, the national Peruvian life cycle assessment database (Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2019b, c), and the technical sheets of the

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electromechanical equipment (Sigma Cabins, 2017). The modelling of construction and

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traffic emissions followed the ―Guide to the Inventory of Emissions of Air Pollutants" of the European Monitoring and Evaluation Program of the European Environment Agency

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(EMEP- EEA, 2016). For the machinery used in the construction of the unpaved road preEURO emission standards were considered, whereas EURO III standards were considered for road use, as well as for the construction and operation of the cableway. Particulate matter emissions generated by mobile sources include re-suspension particles of road dust and wear of brakes and tires. More specifically, brake and tire wear particles were calculated according to Garg et al. (EPA, 2014), while the EPA AP. 42 (2006b) was used for the re-suspension material estimation. Technical data regarding the construction machinery were obtained from the corresponding publication by the Peruvian Chamber of

Journal Pre-proof Construction (CAPECO, 2011). Finally, it should be noted that transport of raw materials was included in the modelling. Therefore, air, marine and terrestrial freighting of the electromechanical system imported from France, as well as terrestrial transport for other construction materials in both systems were included within the system boundaries. Table 2. List and description of the main dataset modifications obtained from the

Diesel, emissions, construction and maintenance phase, unpaved road

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Diesel, emissions, operation phase, unpaved road Transport, freight, lorry 16-32 t, EURO 3 Transport, freight, sea, transoceanic ship

Passenger cars (PC) and light commercial vehicles (LCV) were modelled based on the amount of vehicles registered in one of the first traffic studies prepared for the cableway system in 2008. Diesel B5 is the main type of diesel used in Peru. This blend has a 5% content of sugarcane-based bioethanol, which was assumed to be of Brazilian origin. Diesel emissions for heavy-duty vehicles used in the construction and maintenance stages were modeled using the EEA/EMEP guidelines for the calculation of combustion emissions (EEMP/EEA, 2016). Pre Euro and Euro III emission standards were assumed for construction and maintenance machinery, respectively. Diesel emissions for vehicles used in the use phase were modeled using the EEA/EMEP guidelines for the calculation of combustion emissions (EMEP/EEA, 2016). Euro III emission standards were assumed. An average load factor of 5.79 t was assumed for every lorry used in the transportation of materials. Maritime transport of the electromechanical equipment was modelled based on distances from SeaRoutes (Maritime Data Systems, 2017).

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Diesel, production

Action taken The electricity grid for Peru was adapted to the year 2016 based on the mix reported by Vázquez-Rowe et al. (2015). The electricity grid for the region of Amazonas was based on the report given by the Peruvian National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI) in 2014.

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Dataset Electricity, high voltage, production mix (Peru) Electricity, high voltage, production mix (Amazonas) Vehicle, operation, unpaved road (traffic)

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ecoinvent® v3.4 database that were performed to be included in the life cycle inventory.

Tables 3 and 4 present the Life Cycle Inventory for the unpaved road and the cable cars, respectively, with all data referred to the FU. The full inventory for the cable car system can be seen in the EcoSpold file available in the Supplementary Material. Table 3: List of the main Life Cycle Inventory items for the 33.13 km unpaved road under analysis. Data referred to the functional unit: one tourist in a round trip.

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m3 m3 bag m3 m3 kg

Inputs Diesel B5

kg

Construction phase Outputs 6.79E-02 Emissions to air 2.85E-04 Carbon dioxide 6.13E-04 N2O 2.23E-05 Nitrogen oxides 7.16E-03 PM2.5 (fuel emissions) 1.24E+00 PM2.5 (road emissions) PM2.5 (tire emissions) Use Outputs 1.19E+00 Emissions to air Carbon dioxide N2O Nitrogen oxides PM2.5 (fuel emissions) PM2.5 (road emissions) PM2.5 (tire and brake emissions) Maintenance Outputs 1.13E-01 Emissions to air 7.43E-02 Carbon dioxide N2O Nitrogen oxides PM2.5 (fuel emissions) PM2.5 (road emissions) PM2.5 (tire emissions)

Inputs Gravel Diesel B5

kg g g g mg mg

3.89E+00 1.10E-01 4.74E+01 1.94E+00 2.43E+04 5.14E-01

kg g g g mg

3.76E+00 1.44E-01 1.61E+01 5.04E+00 1.84E+05

mg

1.18E+02

kg g g g mg mg

2.33E-01 2.23E-03 2.10E+00 4.53E-02 2.85E+04 6.03E-01

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Inputs Gravel Coarse sand Portland cement Gravel and sand Water Diesel B5

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m3 kg

Table 4: List of the main elements of the life cycle inventory for the cableway system.

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Construction and maintenance of the 3.13 km unpaved road were not included, as those were scaled from those of the 33.13 km road. Data referred to the functional unit: one tourist in a round trip.

Inputs Diesel (machinery) Helicopter flight Platforms Concrete Cyclopean concrete Reinforced concrete Reinforced steel Wood Bricks

kg hr m3 m3 m3 kg m3 kg

Construction Outputs 1.67E-02 Emissions to air 2.22E-04 Carbon dioxide N2O 2.47E-05 Nitrogen oxides 1.23E-04 Particulates PM2.5 1.39E-04 1.27E-02 3.06E-05 2.39E-02

g g g g

5.24E+01 5.01E-04 4.73E-01 1.02E-02

Inputs Electricity Diesel for buses

kg m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg ktkm ktkm

2.01E-01 5.06E-04 2.78E-03 7.32E-04 5.14E-04 9.54E-04 5.31E-04 9.36E-05 9.36E-05 1.06E-04 1.65E-03 2.19E-04

Use Outputs 2.84E+00 Emissions to air 2.47E-01 Carbon dioxide N2O Nitrogen oxides PM2.5 (fuel emissions) PM2.5 (road emissions) PM2.5 (tire and brake)

kg g g g mg mg

7.76E-01 8.21E-04 7.70E+00 1.70E-01 8.15E+03 8.04E+00

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kWh kg

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2.32E-05 2.47E-03 6.30E-05 3.71E-05 4.78E-05 1.89E-04 1.91E-05 1.30E-05

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m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg ktkm

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Cement mortar 1:5 Ceramic tiles Vynilic flooring Polypropylene Latex paint Polyvinylchloride Copper Transport freight lorry Cableway Steel Concrete 280 kg/cm2 Polyethylene Aluminum Cooper Polyethylene HDPE Flat glass Alkyd paint Rock wool Lead at regional stage Transoceanic freight Transport freight lorry

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2.4. Limitations and assumptions A set of limitations have been identified in the current study. In the first place, it is necessary to emphasize that the life cycle modelling presents certain limitations from a temporal perspective. For the construction and use of the road, the data for the years 1985 and 2008 were considered respectively, while for the construction of the cable car system, the year 2017 was considered. However, it should be noted that the background data used from ecoinvent v3.4 considers the most recent information available. Similarly, the

Journal Pre-proof modification of datasets shown in Table 2 implies the modelling of systems that represent the best available technology in Peru in recent years. Consequently, although pre-Euro emissions were assumed for exhaust emissions from heavy-duty vehicles, the environmental impacts derived from the modelling of the construction of the road may be over- or underestimated for certain processes. Secondly, for the wear of brakes and tires, only the traffic in the use phase of the

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road was considered for two main reasons. On the one hand, this flow it is considerably

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greater in volume than the heavy-duty machinery in the construction phase. On the other

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hand, it was not possible to model the conditions in which this machinery was operating

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prior to the construction of the road.

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A third limitation was linked to the fact that on some occasions, weather, namely gales or thunderstorms, may interfere with the operation of the cableway system. The

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model constructed does not account for these disruptions in the service, or for any

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maintenance that may be linked to damage in the infrastructure.

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Finally, it should be noted that the use of explosives in the earthmoving stage was not modeled. This was due mainly to the fact that there was no data available describing its use in the project. However, it should be noted that, according to the literature, the production of explosives is high in GHG emissions (Liljenström, 2013), and their use may reach up to 7% of GHG emissions in the excavation processes (World Bank, 2010). 2.5. Life Cycle Impact Assessment A total of six different impact categories were selected to analyze the environmental profile of the two production systems. All six are midpoint indicators, representing the net

Journal Pre-proof emissions or consumption of resources in the exchange between nature and the technosphere. Endpoint impact categories were excluded from the assessment as a way to reduce the uncertainty of the results reported. First of all, the Global Warming Potential (GWP) category from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was selected to account for the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A 100 year consensus perspective (i.e., hierarchic) was chosen (IPCC, 2013). Secondly, a set of 5 additional categories were

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computed using the ReCiPe 2016 assessment method: Fine Particulate Matter Formation

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(FPMF), Photochemical Oxidant Formation (POF), Terrestrial Acidification (TA),

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Freshwater Eutrophication (FE) and Fossil Resource Scarcity (FRS) (ReCiPe, 2016).

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The rationale behind the selection of these categories was based on several

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discussion meetings performed during the project. On the one hand, beyond climate change impacts, it was considered important to account for emissions to air and water. Therefore,

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air quality categories (i.e., FPMF, TA and POF) were selected. Considering that there were

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no reports of illegal or informal use of cooling agents in the foreground system, ozone layer depletion impacts were excluded from the scope of the study. Similarly, ionizing radiation

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was not included considering that Peru’s electricity mix does not include any nuclear power. Having said this, it should be noted that most of the machinery used in the cable car system was imported from France, so impacts in this category may be significant in the background system. One single category (i.e., FE) was computed to account for waterrelated emissions. On the other hand, FRS was included as a resource depletion category based on the hypothesis that the migration to cable car systems will reduce these impacts significantly. Finally, the computation of results was performed using the SimaPro v8.4.0 Analyst software (PRé Consultants, 2018).

Journal Pre-proof 2.6. Scenario and uncertainty analysis A scenario analysis was conducted for the two systems in order to account for the potential variability of the life cycle inventory data in some cases and in others to assess the accuracy of the data used. Regardless of the two baseline scenarios for the unpaved road (A1) and the cableway system (B1), eight alternative scenarios were modelled, as shown in Table 5. These were divided into three main groups. Firstly, some of these scenarios reflect

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a higher or lower arrival of tourists to the archaeological site (i.e., A2 for the road and B3-

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B5 for the cable car). In the case of the cableway, this set of scenarios considers the

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estimations made by the Peruvian government and provides an idea of how the

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environmental performance will evolve in the future. Secondly, as the environmental load

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of the cable car depends directly on the electric mix used, it was relevant to evaluate the effects of a change in this component. This meant analyzing the consequences of using the

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national electricity mix rather than the regional one (i.e., B2). Finally, considering expected

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stricter legislation in terms of emission standards, which are already implemented in other countries, a third group of scenarios models the use of EURO IV, VI and electric buses

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along the 3.13 km unpaved road to the departure platform (i.e., B6-B8). Table 5. List and description of the alternative scenarios modeled for the system analyzed.

Journal Pre-proof Scenario

Description

Observations Road scenarios

A1

Baseline scenario: Nuevo Tingo – Kuelap unpaved road

Main scenario under study. Data representative of the road in year 2008.

A2

Change in the number of passengers considering 2016 as the year of analysis

No traffic data were available for years later than 2008. Therefore, this scenario assigns the impacts according to the number of visitors in that year, which was almost 5 times higher than that reported in 2008.

Cableway scenarios Baseline scenario: Cableway system

Main scenario under study. Data representative for the period August 2017 – July 2018.

B2

Use of the national electricity matrix

This scenario implied changes in the electrical matrix used for the cableway system. The national grid was used instead of the regional one.

B3

Decrease of 15% in tourist flow

This scenario considered a 15% reduction in tourist flow with respect to scenario B1.

B4

Increase of 15% in tourist flow

This scenario considered a 15% increase in tourist flow with respect to scenario B1 based on official estimates for the next few years (MINCETUR, 2016).

B5

Increase of 30% in tourist flow

This scenario considered a 30% increase in tourist flow with respect to scenario B1 based on official estimates on the projected tourist flow in Peru for the next few years (MINCETUR, 2016).

B6

Use of buses with EURO IV regulations on the 3.13 km unpaved road

This regulation has been adopted in the country for importing vehicles as of April 2018 (MINAM, 2018).

B7

Use of buses with EURO VI regulations on the 3.13 km unpaved road

EURO VI emission regulations are currently in use in the European Union and in the future this emission standard is likely to be used in Peru.

B8

Use of electric buses along the 3.13 km unpaved road

This scenario considers the replacement of diesel buses with electric buses.

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B1

An uncertainty analysis was also conducted for GWP using a Monte Carlo (MC) simulation. MC uses repeated random sampling to generate simulated data to use with a mathematical model, allowing a computation of product results while accounting for variability in the inventory values. In this case, the procedure consisted in generating pseudo-random values (1,000 iterations) for each data point, following their probability distribution calculated with the Pedigree matrix (Weidema, 1998). This matrix codifies a set of qualitative parameters (i.e., reliability, integrity, temporal correlation, geographic

Journal Pre-proof correlation, technological correlation) into a quantitative geometric variance that allows computing a lognormal distribution for data points that were not obtained through sampling or direct measurement (Ciroth et al., 2016). In fact, ca. 74.8% of process units available in the ecoinvent® database include a lognormal distribution, while most of the remaining units lack any sort of distribution. Results and discussion

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3.1. Results for the unpaved road

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The results obtained for the environmental profile of the unpaved road show that for

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most categories, except FPMF, road construction represented the highest percentage of impact in the categories. For instance, in terms of GHG emissions, the total impact of the

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road per FU was of 11.8 kg CO2eq. The construction of the road represented approximately

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47% of that impact (see Figure 3), plus an additional 13% linked to the recurrent maintenance of the road. For the construction stage, 90% of GWP environmental impacts

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were linked to the great magnitude of earthworks needed to construct the road itself, given

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the extremely rugged conditions of the terrain. More specifically, the emissions derived mainly from fossil fuels combustion by the machinery used. In contrast, the operation of the road represents 40% of the total impact, which was mainly linked to the combustion of fossil fuels from traffic.

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Figure 3. Relative environmental impact values per subsystem for selected impact

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categories in the unpaved road that communicates the town of Nuevo Tingo and the

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Archaeological Complex at Kuelap (Scenario A1).

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These results are in line to those reported by Larrea-Gallegos et al. (2017) for the Peruvian Amazon basin, in the sense that unpaved roads in Peru tend to have a higher

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contribution in total GHG emissions linked to the construction and maintenance stages as

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compared to the operation due to the low average annual daily traffic (AADT) values reported for this type of infrastructure. This contrasts with paved roads with moderate or high AADT values, in which the operation represents the highest relative contributions (Mroueh et al., 2000; Verán-Leigh et al., 2019). Therefore, controlling emissions occurring in the construction stage is a critical step in the environmental management of unpaved roads (Ahn et al., 2009). For the air quality impact categories, in the case of the OF category, the result is a consequence of the emission standards adopted. For the construction, executed in 1985,

Journal Pre-proof machinery emissions were modeled without any regulation, that is, at a pre-EURO level. In contrast, for the year under analysis of the use phase –2008–, EURO III standards were considered. The latter had already regulated emissions in terms of nitrogen oxides (EPA, 2006b), a determining factor in the OF category (ReCiPe, 2016). For the FPMF category, the operation of the road was responsible for the greatest impact with values up to 80%. This impact was largely attributable to the re-suspension particles. In fact, particle

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emissions from the re-suspension of road surface material and tire and brake wear were

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responsible for 96% of total impacts in this category. Dust generated by vehicular traffic on

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unpaved roads is a significant source of particulate material (Watson et al., 2000, Kavouras

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et al., 2016) and, consequently, affects air quality (Choobari et al., 2014). For the reduction of these emissions on these types of roads, the use of chemical binding agents is

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recommended (Jones et al., 2013). Also, given that the emission rates of particulate matter

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are, among other factors, depending on the moisture content of the road surface

2000).

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(Etyemezian et al., 2003), water spray is suggested during the dry season (Watson et al.,

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Regarding the remaining impact categories (i.e., FRS, TA and FE), the main impacts were a result of the fuel production used by machinery in the construction and maintenance stages, as well as the vehicles in circulation in the use phase. Overall, the aforementioned results suggest the importance of construction and maintenance strategies in unpaved roads in Peru regardless of the geoclimatic conditions (Andean or Amazonian), which depicts an important aspect to be considered in the decision-making processes of road construction (Araújo et al., 2014) and, therefore, critical information to be included in EIA projects (Finnveden and Moberg, 2005).

Journal Pre-proof 3.2. Results for the cableway system The results obtained for the cableway system show that for all the analyzed categories, except for FE, the environmental impacts were mainly linked to the operation of the system. This phase in particular represented at least 50% of environmental impacts of the cableway system. Interestingly however, the highest impact was not linked to the use of electrical energy for cabin operation. In fact, the operation of the cable cars presented a low

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relative contribution, not exceeding 5% of total environmental burdens in all the analyzed

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categories. These results derive mainly from the adoption of the regional electricity mix,

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which is primarily composed of hydraulic energy – 97% (INEI, 2014). In contrast, bus

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operation along the road section that communicates the boarding and departure platforms

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(see Figure 4) constituted the most relevant impact in all categories expect for FE. For the latter, the construction of the line presented the greatest impact, approximately 85%, mainly

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as a result of the phosphorus content in the tailings generated for the production of copper,

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cement and steel, which are used as raw material for the fabrication of the cabins, steel

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towers, footings and the motor stations.

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Figure 4. Relative environmental impact values per subsystem for selected impact

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categories in the cableway system that communicates the town of Nuevo Tingo and the

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Archaeological Complex at Kuelap (Scenario B1).

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When the impact categories are analyzed independently, the environmental impact in terms of GHG emissions per FU added up to 2.12 kg CO2eq. Approximately 46% of

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these impacts are linked directly with the bus ride that the visitors must make from the boarding platform to the departure platform. An additional 4% of the total impact was linked to the operation of the cableway (i.e., electricity to power the line), whereas the remaining fraction (ca. 50%) is linked to the construction of a wide array of infrastructure, including the line, the platforms, the machinery to power the system, as well as the construction and maintenance of the 3.13 km road. More specifically, the production of steel for the cable car towers, as well as the concrete used in their footings and pedestals, as well as in the buildings, represent the highest impacts in this block. In fact, a potential

Journal Pre-proof solution to tackle the environmental impacts of concrete production is the use of added cements (e.g., pozzolana, steel slag or rice husk ash), which have a substantially lower environmental impact than Portland cement (Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2019c), and are considered in Peruvian Nationally Determined Contributions - (NDC) to mitigate GHG emissions. For air quality impact categories, the results show a higher relative contribution of

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the bus operation system as compared to the GWP category. In the case of FPMF the

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exhaust, brake and tire wear emissions accounted for over 80% of the total impact, whereas

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in the case of ozone formation this contribution was approximately 70%. For FRS and TA

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these results, although above 50%, were somewhat lower, given the higher contribution of

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the activities linked to the construction of the line. Finally, other activities, such as the construction of the platforms, the machinery for the cableway or the construction of the

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unpaved road only represented minor environmental impacts thanks to their extended

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lifetimes. In all these activities, most impacts were related to the production of energy

machinery.

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intensive materials, such as steel or concrete, as well as combustion emissions from

When comparing these results with other available literature, Dou and colleagues (2012) compared the impact of reaching Mount Hengshan in China by highway or by cable car, showing that the impact of the highway is ca. 2.5 times higher than the cableway. However, as noted by Erharter and Dörfler (2017), the impact of any cableway system is going to be highly dependent on the characteristics of the regional or national electricity mix. In this sense, the regional mix in Amazonas allows a relatively low contribution of the operation of the cableway system to Kuelap. Anyhow, when the national mix is assumed

Journal Pre-proof the environmental gains with respect to the unpaved road are still high. Regarding the electricity consumption per passenger, results in the current study were in a similar order of magnitude (i.e., 0.355 kWh/pkm) to those reported by Messmer and Frischknecht (2016), 0.307 kWh/pkm. 3.3. Comparative analysis of the two systems

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A deterministic comparison between the results of both systems indicates that the

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environmental impacts of performing a round trip by cableway imply substantial reductions with respect to the journey along the unpaved road (see Figure 5). In fact, the GHG

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emissions added up to 2.12 kg CO2eq, an order of magnitude less than for the road (11.8 kg

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CO2eq), which represented a difference close to 80%. As stated by Pan et al. (2016), energy

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use and associated GHG emissions in tourism-related actives are attributed to three major subsectors: transport, accommodation and activities. Therefore, judging from the results

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obtained herein, cableways appear as an adequate option to tackle the GWP related to the

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transport in the tourism sector. Similar results were obtained for FPMF, a category where

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the difference was 95%. The same trend followed the results for the other categories analyzed: OF, TA and FRS, with variations in the range of 80 and 90%. The substantial mitigations attained in terms of air quality categories (i.e., FPMF and OF) have a close relationship with SDG 11, fostering a reduction in the environmental impacts for human settlements in the vicinity (UN, 2017). The only impact category that behaved in a different manner was FE, since it is the only category in which the impacts of the cable car alternative were slightly higher (i.e., 3%) to those of the road trip. This occurs mainly due to the high emissions of phosphorus

Journal Pre-proof generated in the production of copper, cement and steel to produce the main infrastructure: cabins, steel towers, footings and the motor stations. Moreover, a stochastic analysis was performed through the use of MC simulation. The results for scenario B1 (i.e., cableway system), 2.12±0.12 kg CO2eq per FU, showed to be in 100% of the iterations below those for the baseline road scenario (A1), which presented an impact in terms of GHG emissions of 11.80±0.63 kg CO2eq per FU. Hence,

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this perspective allows stating the high level of significance between the two scenarios,

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which advocates clearly for the shift to cable car systems under these conditions.

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When the results are extrapolated to the total number of visitors per year, scenario

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A1 (i.e., unpaved road) adds up to a total of 205 t CO2eq in 2008, a value that had risen to

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391 t CO2eq by 2016 (Scenario A2), the last year in which the cableway system was not available to the public. This rise was linked mainly to an increase in the number of visitors

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from 17,396 (2008) to 56,010 (2016). In contrast, for the cableway system (Scenario B1),

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total GHG emissions added up to 278 t CO2eq between August 2017 and July 2018,

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representing a reduction of 29% as compared to year 2016, despite an increase in affluence of 134% (i.e., 131,294 visitors). Based on these results, and considering the current importance that is given in decision-making to GWP and air quality categories (Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2019a), the preference for a cable car system appears as a robust alternative to the prevalence of the existing unpaved road in Kuelap from an attributional LCA perspective. Emissions, except for FE, are significantly lower and on-site exhaust emissions, as well as those linked to the unpaved road, are reduced to a minimum. However, these results must be interpreted with

Journal Pre-proof care in a wider scope of sustainable development. In the first place, despite the notable improvements in environmental impacts within the system boundaries, the construction of means of transport that improve the accessibility of remote archaeological sites tends to create an exponential growth in the number of tourists arriving to these areas (Yfantidou and Matarazzo, 2017). This trend has already been identified in the Kuelap area, and magnified by the construction of two airports for commercial flights in the vicinity, Jaén

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and Chachapoyas (MINCETUR, 2019a). In this sense, a system expansion, accounting for a

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consequential perspective, to account for the additional environmental impacts of new

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aviation routes for tourists to visit these areas would probably reverse the succulent

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mitigations observed in this study. Having said this, despite this limitation, the current results should be seen as a net mitigation within a constrained geographical system, and

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may be used to promote improvements in the execution and operation of similar transport

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projects that may be developed in the future. In relation to this line of thought, the reduction in time for tourists to visit the archaeological site makes it feasible for them to visit other

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neighboring tourist destinations on the same day, generating a rebound effect of

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environmental impacts (York and McGee, 2016), not only in terms of greater affluence to these destinations (e.g., the waterfall at Gocta or the sarcophagi at Karajía), but also in terms of environmental impacts, since these are only accessible through rugged unpaved roads in the same way as Kuelap in the past. Secondly, the social aspects linked to a lower flow of traffic along the Nuevo Tingo to Kuelap road due to the construction of the cable car system must be analyzed in future research. The villages along this road had thrived with the increasing number of tourists arriving at Kuelap, but the construction of the cableway has probably reduced economic

Journal Pre-proof revenue abruptly, with evident consequences in terms of demographic decline and loss of welfare services. In this context, it is important to bear in mind that Peru plans to implement similar infrastructure in other areas of the country. On the one hand, there is a project to build a cable car to the Archaelogical Park of Choquequirao, in a clear move by Peruvian authorities to expand the use of cable car systems to improve the accessibility to remote

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archaeological sites (ProInversión, 2019). In fact, the construction of this cable car is

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currently seeing as a strategy to reduce the flow of tourists to the overcrowded sanctuary at

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Machu Picchu (Magro-Lindenkamp and Leung, 2019; Pinedo, 2018). On the other hand,

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although the use of cable cars in urban environments as an alternative to mass transit in

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Latin America has experienced substantial development this century, with their implementation in Medellin, La Paz or Caracas, their analysis from an environmental

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perspective in the literature is scarce (Dávila and Daste, 2012; Garsous et al., 2019).

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Therefore, life-cycle studies to understand the benefits or drawbacks of urban cable cars in terms of GHG and exhaust emissions, noise or land occupation (Tezak et al., 2016), among

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other environmental impacts have been developed. For instance, the recent proposal to construct several cableway systems in certain impoverished districts in the city of Lima will definitely have environmental consequences on the chaotic transportation system of the city (Verán-Leigh et al., 2019).

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Figure 5. Comparative representation of the relative environmental impact values per each

3.4. Scenario analysis results

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system for the selected impact categories.

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When extending the results analysis reported per FU to the remaining scenarios, it is

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also evident that the cableway system is an appropriate option to reduce environmental

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impacts as compared to the unpaved road (see Table 6). Within the alternative scenarios for the cableway system, the results determined that for GWP, the responsible for the highest environmental impact was scenario B2. More specifically, the assumption that electricity use follows the average grid from the national electricity matrix implies a 30% increase in GHG emissions as compared to the baseline scenario, considering the higher dependence of national electricity on fossil fuels. However, the impact would still be substantially lower than that of the unpaved road, even if a higher number of occupants in vehicles is considered (Scenario A2). It should be noted that the Peruvian electricity matrix is mainly

Journal Pre-proof composed of natural gas and hydropower (OSINERGMIN, 2014) and, consequently, has a low environmental impact (Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2015). Table 6. Environmental impact results reported per passenger on a round trip to the archaeological site at Kuélap. POF (HH) g NOxeq 89.2 41.6 12.1 12.6 12.7 11.6 11.3 8.80 4.88 3.65

POF (Eco) g NOxeq 90.4 42.2 12.3 12.9 13.0 11.8 11.4 8.96 5.05 3.77

TA g SO2eq 74.4 40.1 10.6 11.2 11.3 10.1 9.68 9.41 7.99 3.99

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FPMF g PM2.5eq 238 207 12.4 12.8 12.8 12.1 11.9 12.0 11.6 10.3

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GWP kg CO2eq 11.8 6.97 2.12 2.74 2.32 1.97 1.86 2.12 2.13 1.20

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Scenario A1 A2 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8

FE g P eq 0.390 0.187 0.409 0.423 0.478 0.358 0.319 0.409 0.409 0.393

FRS kg oil eq 3.66 2.16 0.549 0.781 0.592 0.517 0.493 0.549 0.549 0.260

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GWP= Global Warming Potential; FPMF= Fine Particulate Matter Formation; POF (HH)= Photochemical Oxidant Formation: Human Health; POF (Eco)= Photochemical Oxidant Formation: Ecosystem Quality; TA= Terrestrial Acidification; FE= Freshwater Eutrophication; FRS= Fossil Resource Scarcity.

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Scenarios B3-B5 show that as the number of passengers transported by the cable car increases, the environmental impact per capita decreases even if a larger number of bus

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trips were considered in the 3.13 km road. Interestingly, approximately half of the

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environmental impact for Scenario B1 is attributable to bus emissions along the 3.13 km unpaved road in all impact categories, except for FE. Therefore, scenarios B6 and B7 were proposed, considering the most recent emission standards applicable in Europe, but not yet enforced in the Peruvian automotive sector. As observed in Table 6, air quality categories, namely photochemical oxidant formation (POF), would experiment notorious reductions in environmental burdens, due to stricter regulations linked to the emission of nitrogen oxides. In this regard, B6 generated impacts 27% lower, whereas with B7 the difference was as high as 60%.

Journal Pre-proof Finally, when evaluating the use of electric buses rather than fuel-based buses, the impact in all categories was significantly reduced. For instance, in GWP, impacts decreased from 2.12 kg CO2eq in B1 to 1.20 kg CO2eq, whereas for FRS the difference with the baseline was close to 53%. To date, Peru's first electric bus destined for district transportation is already in operation (MSI, 2018). Hence, it is considered that this would be the most viable alternative in the medium term. However, it is important to consider that

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electric vehicles generate a greater impact in their manufacturing stage, which increases the

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impact in terms of toxicity, freshwater eutrophication or metal depletion (Hawkins et al.,

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2013). Nevertheless, the computation of these materials was out of scope within the current

Conclusions

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4.

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analysis, being, therefore, a limitation of the study.

In the current study, the environmental trade-offs of comparing a cableway system

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with the use of an unpaved road that previously offered access to the archaeological

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complex at Kuelap, were evaluated. The results obtained, beyond providing a novel and

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detailed life cycle modelling of cableway systems, demonstrate that the newly implemented cableway system provides a significant reduction in environmental impacts for all the impact categories analyzed, except FE. Interestingly, these reductions are accompanied by a drastic reduction of on-site exhaust and re-suspended emissions, which imply an important step forward in the mitigation of air quality and climate change emissions that affect the neighboring human settlements. Therefore, we consider that the use of cableways to access archaeological sites in the Andes, where orography tends to impede access to many areas, may appear as an environmentally-sustainable option, reducing impacts considerably when

Journal Pre-proof compared to travelling through winding unpaved roads. Nevertheless, the perspective used in this study is perfectly applicable to other geographic contexts throughout the world. Despite the promising results, these should be interpreted with care. Firstly, the cable car system does not only proof attractive in terms of environmental impacts, but also considering time. Access to Kuelap for tourists used to be a full day trip, but with current transportation times, it is possible to include additional activities. While this is attractive for

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tourists, it may be generating increased environmental impacts elsewhere, not only in terms

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of climate change, but also damages to the ecosystem. Therefore, the assessment of

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rebound effects and sustainability-oriented interventions in other touristic areas of

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Amazonas will be necessary to consolidate mitigation actions. Secondly, improved access

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to remote and vulnerable archaeological sites in the Andes may enhance the degradation of these sites if not managed properly through limiting the daily allowance of tourists or other

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mitigation measures. A third point of discussion is the fact that the analyzed impact

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categories in this LCA study focus mainly on human health-related environmental interventions. Although the categories liked to ecosystem damage also suggest an important

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environmental benefit of using the cableway system, the study drops short of including local, site-specific ecological impacts. Finally, another issue that is pending for future outlook is the fact that increased access to archaeological sites in the Andes is contributing to an increase in air traffic, an important source of GHG emissions. Consequently, this publication intends to contribute to visualize the environmental benefits of promoting cableway systems in Andean archaeological sites, as well as help towards the promotion of sustainable tourism practices in the region. In this context, we

Journal Pre-proof argue that the use of LCA can be coupled to studies on climate change vulnerability and landscaping to enhance the decision-making process when promoting sustainable tourism. Acknowledgements Karen Biberos thanks the Dirección de Gestión de la Investigación (DGI) at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú for partially funding this project. The authors would like to

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thank Julio Yépez, from Telecabinas Kuélap, for sharing valuable data for the study.

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Professors Ramzy Kahhat, Félix Cabrera and José Reyes are also thanked for valuable scientific exchange. Kurt Ziegler-Rodriguez is thanked for support with the production of

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the EcoSpold dataset for cable cars.

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Disclosure statement

References

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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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There is a lack of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of cableway systems for transportation LCA is used to analyze the environmental profile of the cable car in Kuelap, Peru. The environmental results are compared to an unpaved road, the previous alternative. Deterministic and stochastic results suggest environmental gains with the cable car. Rebound effects due to traveling time reductions should be analyzed further.

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