Estimation of main greenhouse gases emission from household energy consumption in the West Bank, Palestine

Environmental Pollution 179 (2013) 250e257

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Estimation of main greenhouse gases emission from household energy consumption in the West Bank, Palestine Maher Abu-Madi a, *, Ma’moun Abu Rayyan b a b

Institute of Environmental and Water Studies, Birzeit University, P.O. Box 14, Birzeit, West Bank, Palestine Engineers Association, Ramallah, West Bank, Palestine

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 4 January 2013 Received in revised form 15 April 2013 Accepted 18 April 2013

The main GHGs (CO2, NOx, and SO2) have been quantified based on national energy and population statistics. The results show that the contribution of households’ energy consumption in the West Bank to global CO2 emission is about 0.016%, while contribution of total energy consumption by all sectors is about 0.041%. The results show that wood is the most polluting energy source in terms of CO2 and NOx emission, while electricity is the most polluting source in terms of SO2. Other sources like diesel, kerosene, and LPG that contribute to the GHGs emission are also quantified. The total amounts of CO2, NOx, and SO2 by households in the West Bank are 4.7 million tonne per year, 3.02 thousand tonne per year, and 2.23 thousand tonne per year respectively. This study presents a set of measures that might help in reducing the level of GHGs emission and protect the environment. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Climate change Emissions Residential energy consumption Greenhouse gases CO2 NOx SO2 Air pollution

1. Introduction Energy plays a significant role in economic and social development, and constitutes a major threat to the environment and jeopardises sustainable development. Rapid technological development, improvement in standard of living, and increased population density have increased the concerns over pollutants emission from urban and industrial sources. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are chemicals that pollute the atmosphere and cause global warming. Industrial premises, agricultural activities, transport sector, and household activities are the major contributors to GHGs. In Palestine, energy consumption is a major source of air pollution where households are the main energy consumer, with 60% (20,456 TJ) of the total consumption (33,983 TJ) in 2010 (PCBS, 2011b). The residential, commercial, and agricultural sectors consume 43% of the total energy consumption in the Arab region (Abdel Gelil et al., 2011). The residential sector is where a relatively larger proportion of energy is used in the MENA countries. The share of the residential sector in total electricity consumption is

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Abu-Madi), Eng_abu_rayyan@ yahoo.com (M.A. Rayyan). 0269-7491/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.04.022

about 65% in Yemen, 56% in Saudi Arabia, 47% in Egypt Jordan, and Lebanon, 40% in the UAE, 25% in Tunisia, and 23% in Qatar (Luciani, 2012). This pattern of energy consumption determines the major sources of GHG emissions, and in many instances, informs policy priorities and measures that will be needed to reduce such emissions. According to estimations developed by the International Energy Agency, global electricity generation was responsible for 44.7% of total emissions in 2010 (13,700 million tonne), making of this sector a key component of any effective measure aimed at mitigating climate change (Abdel Gelil, 2011). Climate change may be attributed to changes in atmosphere composition that began with the industrial revolution as a result of human activity (IPCC, 2007). Air pollutants from usage of fossil fuel make clouds that reflect more of the sun’s rays back into the space. This leads to global dimming, whereby less heat and energy reach the earth. Air pollution occurs because of anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel combustion, i.e., natural gas, coal, and oil, to power industrial processes, motor vehicles and other household activities. Combustion puts harmful constituents into the atmosphere such as Carbon oxides (CO and CO2), Nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (Anup, 2005). EIA (2009) showed that 25% of total GHGs emissions in Greensboro in 2007 were from households. The residential sector

M. Abu-Madi, M.A. Rayyan / Environmental Pollution 179 (2013) 250e257

in the US accounts for 21e22% of both energy consumption and CO2 emissions (Emrath, and Liu, 2007). The contribution of household energy consumption to GHGs and air pollutant emissions in the Palestinian Territory is a new topic. It’s worth mentioning that Palestinians use their homes longer than other countries due to control and restrictions associated with the current political situation. This leads to increased energy consumption through lighting, heating, cooling, and kitchen appliances. About half of the Palestinian population e mainly in the rural areas, refugee camps, and Bedouins of North and South Governorates e are exposed daily to harmful emissions and other health risks from biomass burning that typically takes place in traditional stoves without adequate ventilation. The majority of individuals exposed to enhanced concentrations of pollutants are women and young children. Future trends of household energy demand in Palestine are primarily affected by household’s type and facility efficiency, urbanisation, and household’s economy. The main energy sources in the Palestinian residencies are electricity, diesel, gasoline, LPG, kerosene and fire wood. These are primarily used for cooking, heating, cooling, lighting, and operating appliances (PCBS, 2008a). This paper aims to analyse and quantify the contribution of household energy consumption to GHGs emission in the West Bank (WB) and to present key measures that play a role in environmental protection. 2. Literature review No previous studies tried to estimate the GHGs emission from using the different energy sources by the Palestinian activities. However, there is enormous interest in reducing the large and inequitable risks associated with household energy usage in international development and global health. At the international level, there are several studies on the subject as addressed below. Complainville and Martins (1994) provided evidence on the reductions of NOx/SOx emissions induced by the adoption of carbon abatement policies. They described the methodology to compute emissions of these pollutants and the way they were introduced in the OECD green model. Tonooka et al. (2003), based on China’s energy statistics, studied the energy consumption of residential housing and analysed in detail by fuel type, urban and rural areas, province, and partly by end use type. Chen et al. (2005) showed a household model for three villages in China where fire wood and coal are the most important energy sources for rural households and analysed the factors that determine the choice of energy source. Tonooka et al. (2006) studied the relationship between income level and priority of energy type use at rural households in the fringes of Xian City. Weber and Matthews (2008) studied residential energy consumption from the standpoint of GHGs emission reduction in addition to the global and distributional aspects of carbon footprint at American households. Kadian et al. (2007) studied the energy-related emissions and mitigation opportunities from the household sector in Delhi. They showed that the use of traditional fuels, like wood, animal waste, and crop residues, in the cities of the developing nations has local environmental impacts due to significant emissions of pollutants such as SO2, NOx and CO. They showed that the generation of electricity and use of fuels like LPG and kerosene have global environmental impacts due to considerable emission of GHGs. Saidur et al. (2007) used a method for estimating the GHGs emission based on daily average usage for the different appliances in addition to the emission factors and fraction of electricity generated by each type of fuel. Anozie et al. (2007) studied the evaluation of cooking energy cost, efficiency, impact on air pollution and policy in Nigeria. Jin et al. (2006) discussed that knowledge

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of risk and hazard associated with energy use may exist in forms other than direct linkages with health, including perceptions about how energy use may affect the quality of air inside homes. Tyler (1996) showed that gains in household income and urban development in many Asian countries have led to significant shifts in household use of fuels. He showed that for electricity use, dramatic increases in household consumption have negative implications for emissions. Kok et al. (2005) estimated the environmental load of household consumption based on inputeoutput energy analysis. Aunan et al. (2009) discussed that the direct effect of absorbing and scattering aerosols on climate is highly dependent on cloud distribution. According to EPA (2009), despite the efforts and the attention to curb the problem of global warming, GHGs continue to grow. According to EPA (2006), over the past few years, permitting authorities, source owners and operators, and few programs have begun using emissions factors for purposes other than generating a national emissions inventory. According to UN-HABITAT (2006), cities in developing countries require a rapid increase in energy production and consumption to accelerate economic development, alleviate poverty, and meet the basic needs of their populations. However, energy-related pollution is already negatively affecting human health and living environments, particularly within informal urban settlements. According to IPCC (2006, 2007), changes in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs can alter the balance of energy transfers between the atmosphere, space, land, and the oceans. A gauge of these changes is called radiative forcing, which is a measure of the influence a factor has in altering the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the earth-atmosphere system. 3. Methodology 3.1. Study area The total area of the Palestinian Territory is 6020 km2 (5655 km2 for WB and 365 km2 for Gaza Strip) (Fig. 1). The WB population is about 2.5 millions living in 11 governorates and distributed over three main regions, North (Jenin, Nablus, Qalqilia, Salfit, Tubas, Tulkarm), Middle (Jericho, Ramallah and Al-Bireh, and East Jerusalem), and South (Beit Lehem and Hebron). The Palestinian Authority retained control over some parts of the WB following the Oslo peace accord in 1994. Currently, only 40% of the WB is effectively under Palestinian control while the rest is under the Israeli control. The study does not include the illegal Israeli Settlements established in the Palestinian Territory after 1967. The number of settlers in the Israeli settlements in the WB exceeded 519,000 in 2010, of which 262,493 settlers are living in East Jerusalem (PCBS, 2011a). The GHGs emissions are calculated only for the Palestinian population of the West Bank, excluding the Israeli settlers. The Palestinian energy sector and all other economic sectors are controlled by Israel, despite existence of a Palestinian Authority. Electricity and the other energy sources, except wood, are imported through Israeli companies and distributed to the Palestinian consumers by national suppliers. The Palestinian energy import represents about 7.3% of the total energy production in Israel (MNI, 2010). The imports of electricity in the Palestinian Territory reached 3865 thousand MWh while production reached 427 thousand MWh most of it from the Gaza Power Plant. The imports reached 512 million litres of diesel, 133 million litres of gasoline, and 122 thousand tons of LPG. Total energy imports in the Palestinian Territory reached 43,147 TJ. Diesel represented nearly 44% of the total energy imports with 18,920 TJ, and electricity represented about 32% of the total energy imports with about 13,913 TJ (PCBS, 2011a). In 2008, electricity consumption in the household sector summed up to about 15.2 billion kWh, comprising approximately 31% of the total electricity consumed in Israel (MNI, 2010). The domestic sector contributes about 32% of the total electricity consumption during summer peak demands, and about 49% of the total electricity consumption during winter peak demands (MNI, 2010). 3.2. Data source The basic raw data were collected from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS, 2011a,b). The collected population statistics included the number of households, population, and energy consumption in the WB (Tables 1 and 2). The PCBS provided the population data for year 2010 based on the latest national census in 2007 (PCBS, 2008a,b,c,d, 2012). The 2007 population census covered all

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Fig. 1. Map of the West Bank with the three main regions.

individuals existed in the country on the reference night (30/11-1/12/2007). It also covered all Palestinians who were temporarily absent for less than one year. The collected data are based on two national energy balance surveys conducted in the Palestinian Territory in 2010, in January and July by PCBS, covering the major energy sources; electricity, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, and wood for the three regions of the WB. The raw energy statistics were collected by the PCBS through random questionnaire surveys that targeted about 2363 (completed questionnaires) households and 2876 households distributed according to locality type (urban, rural, and refugee camps) in the Palestinian Territory for the months of January and July, respectively. The collected data was verified through comparison with the national energy balance (PCBS, 2011b). The Gaza Strip was excluded from the study because of its unique and complicated situation in terms of energy supply and consumption. Moreover, no data is available on the energy consumption by the Israeli Settlements in order to estimate and compare the GHGs emissions.

3.3. Estimation of energy consumption The average household consumption of kerosene, diesel, and gasoline was converted from litres to kilograms by multiplying with the equivalent weight of each energy source; 0.81, 0.87, and 0.74 kg/litre (tonne/m3), respectively (Table 2) (PCBS, 2008b, 2012). The monthly household energy consumption was calculated in gigajoules (GJ) and Terajoules (TJ) based on the calorific values of each energy source given in Table 3. The energy consumption of the households in the WB was calculated for winter (January) and summer (July). 3.4. Estimation of GHGs emission The specific GHGs emission factors associated with household energy consumption in the WB were collected from literature (Complainville and Martins,

M. Abu-Madi, M.A. Rayyan / Environmental Pollution 179 (2013) 250e257 Table 1 The WB population by geographical region in 2010 (PCBS, 2010a,b). Region North Middle South Total WB

Average household size

Households

5.39 5.24 5.94 5.50

184,651 139,078 132,869 456,599

Table 3 Calorific value per unit of different energy sources (Tonooka et al., 2003). Population

Energy sources

Unit

Value

995,269 728,770 789,244 2,513,283

Wood LPG Gasoline Kerosene Diesel Electricity

kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kWh

16,726 50,179 43,970 43,073 42,500 3596

1994; Tonooka et al., 2003) for the different energy sources (Table 4). The Palestinian household energy consumption (GJ) was multiplied by the specific GHGs emission factor for each source of energy as shown in Eqn. (1) and Table 4. Different sets of results are generated and compared with global averages. Ey ¼

X

253

H$f $Xi $ai $ei

(1)

Where, Ey ¼ Total GHG emissions (kg). y ¼ Type of the GHGs (CO2, NOx, SO2). H ¼ Total number of household households. i ¼ Energy source. Xi ¼ Average household energy consumption (litre/household or kg/household or kWh/household). ci ¼ Equivalent calorific value per unit of each energy source (GJ/kg or kJ/kWh). ei ¼ Emission factor from unit of energy consumption (kg/kJ or kg/GJ) f ¼ Units conversion factor.

4. Results and discussion 4.1. Household energy consumption The first set of results quantified the monthly and annual household energy consumption for the WB in 2010 (Tables 5 and 6). The results are presented for January and July as the minimum and maximum consumption months, respectively and for the entire year 2010. The results are also presented for the three main regions of the WB; North, Middle, and South. It is found that the total energy consumption by households of the different regions of the WB in 2010 was 43,393 TJ from all sources as shown in Fig. 2 (Table 6). The results show a significant difference in energy consumption between January and July that was 3449.7 TJ/month and 3782.6 TJ/month, respectively. This variation is attributed to the difference in climatic and weather conditions, as January is the coldest month and July is the hottest. This governs the energy consumption for heating in winter and cooling in summer. Wood dominates the energy consumption in terms of total calorific value (GJ or TJ) with about 35% of the total. The consumption of gasoline and diesel represents about 17.5% each. It seems that wood is used more often in the Middle and South of the WB compared with the North. Diesel and gasoline are used in the

Middle of the WB much more than in the North and South. It is worth mentioning that the economic conditions in the Middle of the WB are better than the other regions. The results also show that LPG consumption represents about 12% of the total annual consumption. Although the households consume more than 50% of the total electricity used in the Palestinian Territory (Tartir, 2010; PNA, 2012), electricity represents only about 11% of the total consumption in terms of GJ. This is attributed to its relatively low equivalent calorific value when compared with wood and fossil fuels. Almost all households are connected to the electricity network (99.8%) in 2010, which is a significant increase since 1996 where it was 94.2% (PCBS, 1998, 2011a,b). There is low variation in electricity consumption between the different regions of the WB. However, electricity consumption is July is higher than that in January, which means that it used for cooling and air conditioning more than space and water heating. Finally, kerosene represents about 7% of the total energy consumption, which is used for cocking as well as for heating. The given data of the household energy survey indicates that the households in the Palestinian Territory depend on the electricity and liquefied petroleum gas in addition to other fuel types as a main energy sources for heating, air conditioning, lighting, preparing food (cooking), baking, water heating and for other uses of household appliances. 4.2. GHGs emissions The study quantified the amounts of major GHGs emitted from the Palestinian household energy consumption in the WB. The results shown in Tables 7e9 and Figs. 3 and 4 which present the total amounts of main GHGs (CO2, NOx, and SO2) emissions from household energy consumption in the WB estimated for January 2010 (minimum), July 2010 (maximum), and year 2010, respectively. The results show that wood is the most polluting energy source in the WB. Wood contributes with about 34% of CO2 emissions, 45% of NOx emissions, and 26% of SO2 emissions (Figs. 3 and 4). As previously mentioned, wood is used in the South and Middle governorates of the WB more than in the North. Due to increasing prices of fossil fuels, many people are shifting towards wood

Table 2 Average consumption (per household per month) of different energy sources in the WB, in 2010. Source

Wood (kg) LPG (kg) Kerosene (litre) Kerosene (kg) Diesel (litre) Diesel (kg) Gasoline (litre) Gasoline (kg) Electricity (kWh) a

North

Middle

South

Total WB

Jan.

July

2010a

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

83 18 12 9.7 1.0 0.9 7 5.2 225

52 15 20 16.2 53 46.1 64 47.4 252.0

67.5 16.5 16.0 13.0 27.0 23.5 35.5 26.3 238.5

360 24 19 15.4 9.0 7.8 32 23.7 262

60 16 18 14.6 110 95.7 92 68.1 294.0

210.0 20.0 18.5 15.0 59.5 51.8 62.0 45.9 278.0

390 27 20 16.2 6.0 5.2 14 10.4 214

118 16 0 0 51 44.4 53 39.2 260.0

254.0 21.5 10.0 8.1 28.5 24.8 33.5 24.8 237.0

277.7 23 17 13.8 5.3 4.6 17.7 13.1 233.7

76.7 15.7 12.7 10.3 71.3 62.1 69.7 51.6 268.7

177.2 19.3 14.8 12.0 38.3 33.4 43.7 32.3 251.2

Estimations are based on the basic statistics of PCBS (2010a,b).

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The results show substantial differences in CO2 emission from wood, LPG, and kerosene in January compared to July, which is mainly due to using these sources for space heating. In July, the CO2 emissions from diesel, gasoline, and electricity are much higher than that in July. However, the total CO2 emissions from all energy sources are very close in both months, meaning that there is a trade off between energy consumption and CO2 emissions for specific energy sources in each month. The total amount of NOx emission is about 3024 tonne/year in 2010 (Table 9). The estimated NOx emission from the entire energy consumption in the WB is 7957 tonne/year in 2010. Wood and LPG are main sources of NOx emissions in the WB with distinct difference between emissions in January and July (Tables 7 and 8). Wood and LPG contribute with about 45% and 29%, respectively, of the total annual NOx emissions in the WB (Figs. 3 and 4). This is mainly due to the increased use of wood and LPG for space heating in winter, and the equivalent NOx emission from these sources is relatively high. Besides, electricity is least energy source contributing to NOx emission in the Palestinian Territory (Figs. 3 and 4). Due to their excessive consumption of wood and LPG, the Middle and Southern governorates produce more NOx than the Northern ones. The estimated emissions of NOx from household energy consumption in the WB are 1.1 kg/person/year. The estimated emissions of NOx from energy consumption in the WB from all sectors are 3.17 kg/person/year. The world emissions of NOx were about 85 million tonne in 2010 (Cofala et al., 2012). Thus, the contribution of residential energy consumption in the WB to global NOx emission is about 0.0036%, while the total contribution of energy consumption is about 0.0094%. The total amount of SO2 emission is about 2227 tonne per year in 2010 (Table 9). The estimated SO2 emission from the entire energy consumption in the WB is 5859 tonne per year in 2010. Electricity, wood, diesel, gasoline contribute to the total emissions with about 32%, 26%, 20%, 18%, respectively (Fig. 3). The world emissions of SO2 were about 122 million tonne in 1990 and about 97 million tonne in 2001, and 85 million tonne in 2010, which was mainly due to strict controls implemented in Western Europe, and also due to economic restructuring in Central and Eastern Europe and in Russia and Newly Independent States (Cofala et al., 2006,

Table 4 Emission factor by energy source (Tonooka et al., 2003). Energy source

CO2 (kg/GJ)

NOx (kg/GJ)

SO2 (kg/GJ)

Wood LPG Gasoline Kerosene Diesel Electricity

106.8 59.0 69.3 64.4 74.1 307

0.091 0.170 0.038 0.050 0.040 0.004

0.038 0.001 0.051 0.032 0.06 0.144

burning for cocking and winter heating. This practice has severe impacts on the environment due to air pollution, GHGs emissions, and due to deforestation which is happening in the WB under no excuse to secure sufficient wood, especially in winter by the households that cannot afford other energy sources. Therefore, an immediate action is needed to reduce reliance on wood as a major source of energy in the WB, and thus reduce CO2 emission. Other measures must be considered to reduce the use of wood relative to other energy sources, such as improving the access and affordability to alternative energy sources. The estimates show that the total annual amount of CO2 emission from households’ energy consumption was 4.7 million metric tonne/ year in 2010. As previously mentioned, the households consume about 38% of the total energy consumption in the Palestinian Territories. This means that the total CO2 emission from the entire energy sector in the WB would be around 12.4 million metric tonne/year. The world emission of CO2 was about 29,888 million tonne/year (Wikipedia, 2012). Thus, the contribution of households’ energy consumption in the WB to global CO2 emission is about 0.016%, while the total contribution of energy consumption is about 0.041%. The total annual amount of CO2 emission from household energy consumption was 1.88 tonne/household/year. Total annual amount of CO2 emission from household energy consumption was 0.33 tonne/ person/year. The total amount of CO2 emission from the entire energy sector in the WB would be around 4.92 tonne/person/year, which is very close to the world’s average (4.9 tonnes/person/year). In terms of geographical distribution, the Northern governorates see to be less polluting that the Middle and the South, which is attributed to less reliance on wood as a source of energy.

Table 5 Total consumption (metric tonne) of household energy in the WB in January, July, and annual 2010. Source

North

Wood (tonne) LPG (tonne) Kerosene (tonne) Diesel (tonne) Gasoline (tonne) Electricity (1000 kWh)

Middle

South

Total WB

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

15,326 3324 1795 161 957 41,547

9602 2769 2991 8514 8745 46,532

149,567 36,561 28,717 52,049 58,209 528,471

50,068 3338 2140 1089 3293 36,439

8345 2225 2028 13,309 9469 40,889

350,477 33,379 25,009 86,393 76,571 463,965

51,819 3588 2153 694 1377 28,434

15,679 2126 0 5895 5211 34,546

404,986 34,280 12,915 39,534 39,526 377,880

117,213 10,249 6088 1943 5626 106,419

33,625 7121 5019 27,719 23,425 121,967

905,030 104,220 66,641 177,976 174,306 1,370,317

Table 6 Total consumption (TJ) of household energy in the WB during January, July, and annual, in 2010. Source

Wood LPG Kerosene Diesel Gasoline Electricity

North

Middle

South

Total WB

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

Jan.

July

2010

256.3 166.8 77.3 6.8 42.1 149.4

160.6 138.9 128.8 361.9 384.5 167.3

2501.7 1834.6 1236.9 2212.1 2559.5 1900.4

837.4 167.5 92.2 46.3 144.8 131.0

139.6 111.7 87.3 565.7 416.3 147.0

5862.1 1674.9 1077.2 3671.7 3366.8 1668.4

866.8 180.0 92.7 29.5 60.5 102.3

262.2 106.7 0 250.6 229.1 124.2

6773.8 1720.2 556.3 1680.2 1737.9 1358.9

1960.6 514.3 262.2 82.6 247.4 382.7

562.4 357.3 216.2 1178.1 1029.9 438.6

15,137.6 5229.7 2870.4 7563.9 7664.3 4927.7

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Fig. 2. Percentage of use per energy source with respect to the annual household energy consumption in GJ in the West Bank in 2010.

Table 7 Total monthly amounts of CO2, NOx, and SO2 emissions from each energy source in the WB, in January 2010. Region

Wood

LPG

CO2 emissions (tonne/month) North 27,377.5 9840.1 Middle 89,438.6 9882.0 South 92,566.3 10,620.9 Total CO2 209,382.4 30,343.0 (tonne/year) NOx emissions (tonne/month) North 23.3 28.4 Middle 76.2 28.5 South 78.9 30.6 Total NOx 178.4 87.4 (tonne/year) SO2 emissions (tonne/month) North 9.74 0.17 Middle 31.82 0.17 South 32.94 0.18 Total SO2 74.50 0.51 (tonne/year)

Kerosene Diesel

Gasoline Electricity

4978.6 5937.3 5970.8 16,886.7

505.9 3429.5 2184.2 6119.7

2914.6 10,035.3 4194.4 17,144.3

45,866.2 40,227.1 31,390.4 117,483.6

3.87 4.61 4.64 13.11

0.27 1.85 1.18 3.30

1.59 5.50 2.30 9.40

0.59 0.52 0.41 1.53

2.47 2.95 2.97 8.39

0.41 2.78 1.77 4.96

2.15 7.39 3.09 12.62

21.51 18.87 14.72 55.11

Table 8 Total monthly amounts of CO2, NOx, and SO2 emissions (from each energy source in the WB, in July 2010). Region

Wood

LPG

CO2 emissions (tonne/month) North 17,152.1 8200.1 Middle 14,906.4 6588.0 South 28,007.2 6293.9 Total CO2 60,065.8 21,081.9 (tonne/year) NOx emissions (tonne/month) North 14.62 23.63 Middle 12.70 18.98 South 23.86 18.14 Total NOx 51.18 60.75 (tonne/year) SO2 emissions (tonne/month) North 6.10 0.14 Middle 5.30 0.11 South 9.97 0.11 Total SO2 21.37 0.36 (tonne/year)

Kerosene

Diesel

Gasoline Electricity

8297.70 5,624,808 0.0 13,922.5

26,813.5 41,915.9 18,566.1 87,295.5

26,647.3 28,851.5 15,878.9 71,377.8

51,370.1 45,140.3 38,137.9 134,648.3

6.44 4.37 0.0 10.81

14.47 22.63 10.02 47.12

14.61 15.82 8.71 39.14

0.67 0.59 0.50 1.75

4.12 2.79 0.0 6.92

21.71 33.94 15.03 70.69

19.61 21.23 11.69 52.53

24.10 21.17 17.89 63.16

2012; Klimont et al., 2013). Thus, the contribution of households’ energy consumption in the WB to global SO2 emission is about 0.0018%, while the total contribution of energy consumption is about 0.0048%. The Middle governorates contribute with more emissions than the Northern and Southern ones, due to their high electricity consumption. The SO2 emission in July is much higher than that in January also due to distinctive use of electricity for space cooling during summer time. The estimated emissions of SO2 from household energy consumption in the WB are 0.89 kg/person/year. The estimated emissions of SO2 from energy consumption in the WB from all sectors are 2.33 kg/person/year. The results also show that CO2 dominates the GHGs emission in the WB. The amount of CO2 emission is 21 times higher than the amount of NOx emitted from the households’ energy consumption in the WB in 2010. The amount of SO2 emission is very small compared with the other GHGs (CO2 and NOx). In mid March 2012, the Palestinian Ministerial Cabinet signed two strategies of importance to sustainable development; one for renewable energy and one for rationalisation of energy use. The former strategy aimed at increasing the source of renewable energy to 25% in 2020. Recently, the share of renewable energy to the total

Table 9 Total annual amounts of CO2, NOx, and SO2 emissions from each energy source in the WB, in year 2010. Region

Wood

LPG

CO2 emissions (tonne/year) North 267,178 108,241 Middle 626,070 98,820 South 723,441 101,489 Total CO2 1,616,689 308,550 (tonne/year) NOx emissions (tonne/year) North 227.7 311.9 Middle 533.5 284.7 South 616.4 292.4 Total NOx 1377.5 889.0 (tonne/year) SO2 emissions (tonne/year) North 95.1 1.8 Middle 222.8 1.7 South 257.4 1.7 Total SO2 575.2 5.2 (tonne/year)

Kerosene Diesel

Gasoline Electricity

79,658 69,373 35,825 184,855

163,917 272,072 124,502 560,491

177,371 233,321 120,440 531,132

583,417 512,204 417,169 1,512,791

61.9 53.9 27.8 143.5

88.5 146.9 67.2 302.6

97.3 127.9 66.0 291.2

7.6 6.7 5.4 19.7

39.6 34.5 17.8 91.9

132.7 220.3 100.8 453.8

130.5 171.7 88.6 390.9

273.7 240.3 195.7 709.6

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Fig. 3. Contribution of different energy sources to GHGs emission in 2010 in the West Bank: (a) CO2, (b) NOx, (c) SO2.

consumption is about 16% (PCBS, 2012). The PCBS (2010b) reported that about 64.6% of the Palestinian households utilise solar energy to heat water, 18.6% depend on electricity as a main source for water heating, and 14.1% depend on LPG as a main fuel for water heating in July 2010 (PCBS, 2010a). This means that using renewable energy such as solar energy, especially for water heating would decrease electricity and LPG consumption and have significant reduction in GHGs emission. Wood is the most polluting energy source in the WB in terms of CO2 emission and plays a significant role in terms of NOx and SO2 emission. Electricity is the most polluting energy source in the WB in terms of SO2 emission and plays a significant in terms of CO2 emission. LPG plays a significant role in terms of NOx emission and contributes largely to CO2 emission with less impact on SO2. Diesel, gasoline and kerosene also contribute to GHGs emission with less extent than the other energy sources. The following measures could reduce energy consumption and reduce GHGs emissions: (i) increasing reliance on solar energy for different purposes, especially for water heating (ii) replacing the conventional bulbs new ones that have an energy star, (iii) reducing the time use of lights, (iv) adoption of environmental friendly building codes that maximise the presence of natural light in the house and reduce energy needs, (v) replacing electric equipments with new ones that carry better energy saving rank, (vi) avoiding unnecessary operation of electric equipments at homes, (vii) sealing and insulating any ducts in attics and crawlspaces to improve the efficiency of space heating and cooling inside the houses, (viii) isolation of houses and the use of double glass windows, (ix) adjusting the required temperature of the air conditioning and central heating systems in the house to a modest level, (x) reduce the time use of winter heating through better clothing and sealing of windows, (xi) adoption of incentive systems for reducing energy consumption, and (xii) adopting strict policies against trees cutting and trade of wood for burning purposes. 5. Conclusions

Fig. 4. Total annual amount of emissions from each energy source in the West Bank, in 2010: (a) CO2, (b) NOx, (c) SO2.

Energy consumption by the Palestinian households constitutes a major proportion of the total energy used and thus contributes largely to greenhouse gases emission. The main energy sources in the Palestinian Territory are electricity, LPG, diesel, gasoline, wood, and kerosene. The most polluting energy sources that produce most of the CO2 and SO2 emissions in the West Bank are wood and electricity. The use of LPG, diesel, gasoline, and kerosene also contribute to the GHGs emission. The total amount of CO2 emissions produced by the household energy consumption in the WB is about 4.7 million tonne per year in 2010, which represents 0.016% of the total global emissions. The total amounts of CO2 emissions from the entire energy consumption by all sectors is about 12.4 million tonne per year in 2010, which represents about 0.041% of the global total emissions.

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Therefore, despite of its small size, the Palestinian Territory contributes largely to the CO2 emissions. The contribution NOx from residential energy consumption in the WB represents about 0.0036% to the total global emissions. The entire energy consumption in the WB contributes with about 0.0094% to the total global NOx emissions. The contribution SO2 from residential energy consumption in the WB represents about 0.0018% to the total global emissions. The entire energy consumption in the WB contributes with about 0.0048% to the total global SO2 emissions. Reducing energy consumption from the different sources necessitates that local authorities adopt new strategies and incentive systems that promote the use of renewable energy sources such as solar energy and wind energy. Non-governmental organisations and aid agencies need to support initiatives that raise public awareness and promote renewable energy projects. The construction of windmills and import of solar panels (on large scale) might be hampered by Israeli restrictions. Therefore, the Palestinian Authority is recommended to improve diplomacy and reach a specific agreement with Israel to allow that application of clean energy in the WB. Finally, research institutes need to exert more research effort on the various aspects of environmental degradation resulting from energy consumption. This includes quantifying the amounts of GHGs emission and other air pollutants from the energy sector in the Palestinian Territory as well as its impacts on the environment and public health. References Abdel Gelil, I., November 2011. Regional Report on Efficient Lighting in the Middle East and North Africa. UNEP/GEF Enlighten Initiative, Efficient Lighting for Developing and Emerging Countries. Abdel Gelil, I., Farid Chaaban, F., Dagher, L., 2011. Arab green economy report (Chapter 3 e Energy). In: Abaza, Hussein, Saab, Najib, Zeitoon, Bashar (Eds.), Arab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED). Published with Technical Publications and Environment & Development Magazine, Beirut, Lebanon. Anozie, A.N., Bakare, A.R., Sonibare, J.A., Oyebisi, T.O., 2007. Evaluation of cooking energy cost, efficiency, impact on air pollution and policy in Nigeria. Energy 32, 1283e1290. Anup, S., 2005. Global Dimming. http://www.globalissues.org/issue/178/climatechange-and-global-warming (accessed 28.04.12.). Aunan, A., Berntsen, T.K., Myhre, G., Rypdal, K., Streets, D.G., 2009. Radiative forcing from household fuel burning in Asia. Atmospheric Environment 43, 5674e5681. Chen, L., Heerink, N., Berg, M.V.D., 2005. Energy consumption in rural China: a household model for three villages in Jiangxi Province. Ecological Economics 58, 407e420. Cofala, J., Amann, M., Mechler, R., 2006. Scenarios of World Anthropogenic Emissions of Air Pollutants and Methane up to 2030. Interim Report: IR-06e023. June, 2006. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria. Cofala, J., Bertok, I., Borken-Kleefeld, J., Heyes, C., Klimont, Z., Rafaj, P., Sander, R., Schoepp, W., Amann, M., September 2012. Emissions of Air Pollutants for the World Energy Outlook 2012 Energy Scenarios. Draft Final Report, Submitted to the International Energy Agency, Paris, France. IIASA Contract No. 12e129. Available at: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/energymodel/ documentation/IIASA_WEO2012_air_pollution.pdf. Complainville, C., Martins, J., 1994. NOx/SOx Emissions and Carbon Abatement. OECD Economics Department. Working Papers No. 151. OECD Publishing. Available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/345333447174. EIA, Energy Information Administration, 2009. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2008. Report No. DOE/EIA-0573(2008). Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Available online at: http://205.254.135.7/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.html (accessed 30.01.12.). Emrath, P., Liu, H.F., 2007. Residential Greenhouse Gas Emissions. In: Special Studies, April 30, 2007. The Economics Publication for Housing Industry. National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Center, USA. EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March 22, 2006. Evaluation Report: EPA Can Improve Emissions Factors Development and Management. P-00017, Office of Inspector General. http://www.epa.gov/oig/reports/2006/20060322-2006-P00017.pdf (accessed 10.04.12.). EPA, U.S Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Inventory of U.S Greenhouse Gas Emission and Sinks 1990e2007. ES-1eES-21. IPCC, Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change, 2006. General Guidance and Reporting, 2006 (Chapter 3). In: IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas

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Maher Abu-Madi is an Associate Professor in Environmental and Water Studies at Birzeit University. He is a member of several environmental committees at national and international level. He is the Research Coordinator of the Global Partnership Water Education and Research which is based in the Netherlands.

Mamoun Abu Rayyan is a Civil Engineer with MSc. in Water and Environmental Engineering, working at the Palestinian Engineers’ Association as a Director of Planning and Development Department and now he is the Operator of the Palestinian Higher Green Building Council.