Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of malaria in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan

Author’s Accepted Manuscript Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of malaria in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan Amin Shah, Sarvat Rahim

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To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology Received date: 11 August 2016 Revised date: 20 January 2017 Accepted date: 2 February 2017 Cite this article as: Amin Shah and Sarvat Rahim, Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of malaria in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.005 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Ethnomedicinal uses of plants for the treatment of malaria in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan Amin Shah⃰ , Sarvat Rahim Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan ‫٭‬

Corresponding Author’s E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance: To best of our knowledge this is the first quantitative ethnomedicinal study with the aim of documenting the indigenous knowledge and practices of using plants for malarial therapy in Soon Valley, Khushab, Pakistan. In this Valley, malaria is among the major public health problems but, until now, the population still mostly relies on herbal medicine for treatment. Materials and methods: Ethno-medicinal data were documented from 63 informants by using semi-structured questionnaires and interviewing the informants about their knowledge of plants regarding malaria and related symptoms. Documented data were evaluated using the quantitative ethno-botanical indices of frequency citation (FC), relative frequency of citation (RFC), percentage of respondents having knowledge (PRK) and Jaccard index (JI). Results: A total of 70 plant species belonging to 62 genera and 34 families were recorded as antimalarial in the study area. Solanaceae was found to be the most cited family with 7 species, followed by Fabaceae, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae with 5 species each. Ocimum americanum and Solanum incanum were the species with the highest relative frequency of citation (RFC = 0.25 each) and percentage of respondents having knowledge (PRK = 25.4% each), followed by Grewia tenax (RFC = 0.23, PRK = 23.8%), which indicates that these plants are the best species with anti-malarial properties. The most highly cited life form was found to be herbs (56%). The dominant plant part used in preparations were leaves (49%). The main mode of utilization was decoction (47%) followed by infusion (29%). In comparison, maximum similarity index is found in our study with JI (16.83) followed by (13.13). Similarity percentage of plants uses ranges from 0.81 to 16.83 while dissimilarity percentage varies from 0% to 17.65%. Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge seven plant species, viz. Withania coagulans, Fagonia

cretica,

Carthamus

oxyacantha,

Ehretia

obtusifolia,

Helianthus

annuus,

Olea ferruginea and Vitex trifolia, are reported from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria. This first ethno-medicinal study highlights potential sources for the development of new antimalarial drugs from indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants found in the Soon Valley, Pakistan. Such investigations could be a subject for in vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial screening to develope new plant-based antimalarial drugs and can also be evaluated for other biological activities and novel drug discoveries. Keywords: Malaria, Medicinal plants, Solanaceae, RFC, Soon Valley, Pakistan 1. Introduction Malaria is a severe global health issue predominant in the tropics and subtropics and is caused by blood parasites viz. Plasmodium falciparum, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. vivax, and P. knowlesi (Singh, 2011). The disease is prevalent in 104 countries, with significant therapeutic, public and financial implications, and according to an assessment about 3.4 billion people are at the risk of malaria worldwide (Nchinda, 1998; World Malaria Report, 2013). Almost 207 million cases of malaria and 627,000 human deaths were caused by malaria in 2012 (World Malaria Report, 2013). Globally, 90% of all deaths from the disease were recorded in the World Health Organization (WHO) African Region, mainly in children under five years of age (World Malaria Report, 2014). Though there is extensive use of traditional herbal medications in the management of malaria (Gessler et al., 1995), and several hundreds of plants have been claimed to have possible antimalarial properties, there are numerous medicinal plants still to be recognized and assessed for their worth as protection against malaria parasites (Krettli et al., 2001). A significantly high occurrence of malaria continues due to the increasing resistance of mosquito vectors to insecticides (Talisuna et al., 2004) and resistance of parasites, chiefly Plasmodium falciparum, to existing treatments (Le Bras et al., 2006; Wondimu et al., 2007). These problems and the difficulty in generating effectual vaccines emphasize the vital necessity for new antimalarial drugs (Newman et al., 2003; Zirihi et al., 2005). A large number of medicinal plants effective against malaria have been documented in several studies (e.g. Krettli et al., 2001; Asase et al., 2005; Bertani et al., 2005; Zirihi et al., 2005; Tabuti, 2008; Asase and Oppong-Mensah 2009; Nguta et al., 2010; Koudouvo et al., 2011). The estimated number of annual malarial episodes in pakistan is more than 1.5 million (World Health Organization, 2004). Almost 1200 plant species belonging to 160 families are documented as being used against

malaria and fever globally (Willcox and Bodeker, 2004). Worldwide, traditional pharmacopeias have played a vital role in the discovery of new molecules of therapeutic interest and introduced two-thirds of all drugs in the past 30 years (Newman & Cragg, 2010). With the emergence of resistance of the most prevalent malarial parasite, P. falciparum, to conventional synthetic drugs such as quinine, artemisinin, etc. this traditional ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological knowledge is very helpful to target plants for the discovery of new bioactive substances for new antimalarial drugs. So far only a limited number of studies (e.g. Ahmad et al., 2008; Ahmad et al., 2009 ; Ahmad et al., 2012; Qureshi et al., 2011) have been conducted in Soon Valley on the traditional uses of medicinal plants in general and were not relevant to malaria. The authors performed ethnomedicial surveys of anti-malarial plants across the Valley and applied quantitative ethnobotanical approaches to study these plants for the first time. The aim of the study was to collect comprehensive data and information on the medicinal use of anti-malarial plants from ethnic communities and traditional healers of Soon Valley, district Khushab, Pakistan, before it was lost. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Study site The study area (Soon Valley) is one of the eye catching valleys of Pakistan. It is located at 71°55′0.95″E longitude and 32°33′2.52″ N latitude, in the north-west of Khushab district, Central Punjab, Pakistan. The Valley stretches over 780 km², starting from village Jabah (391 meter) and ending at the top of Sakesar which is the highest peak of the Salt range with a height of 1527 meter above sea level. The climate of the Valley is dry, cold in winter with minimum temperature of 1°C in January and hot in summer with maximum temperature of 36°C in June. The Valley receives relatively low annual rainfall of 51 cm. This geographical position and variable climatic conditions impart to the valley unique characteristics that support a rich biodiversity and have resulted in the plant life of the Soon Valley being one of the most interesting in the region (Afzal et al., 1999). Because of varied altitudinal gradients and climatic conditions, the Valley harbors rich and diverse types of plant biodiversity and provides a potential source of medicinal plants. Naushehra, Khatwai, Bhuki, Khurra, Dharnal, Shakar Kot,

Mardwal, Kufri, Angah, Uchhali, Khabaiki, Khewa, Sabhral, Uggali, Bagh Shams ud Din, Sodhi, Koradhi, Phulvarri, Chitta and Jabah are the known towns/ villages in Soon Valley. Kanhati Garden, Sodhi Garden, Navarri Garden and Bagh Shams ud Din are the biodiversity hot spots. Uchhali, Khabaiki and Jahlar Lakes are masterpieces of nature that host diverse aquatic life. The wonderful waterfall of Daep Sharif (Kufri) of the Valley is full of ferns and mosses. Sakesar Mountain is a biodiversity hot spot with evergreen forest of Olea ferruginea, together with Acacia modesta in its foothills. The flora of the Valley is distinguished by the presence of valuable medicinal plant species like Nannorrhops ritchiana, Grewia villosa, Buxus papillosa, Verbascum thapsus, Rhazya stricta, Ajuga bracteosa, Silybum marianum, Salvia moorcroftiana, Ceratonia siliqua, Ephedra spp., Ziziphus spp., Clematis grata, Capparis decidua, Justicia adhatoda, Peganum harmala, Artemisia scoparia, Tecomella undulata, Phoenix sylvestris, Hibiscus mutabilis and Verbena tenuisecta etc., in addition to the anti-malarial plants. The land of Soon Valley is quite fertile and mostly rain-fed and is known for cultivation of vegetables throughout the area. The majority of people serve in the armed forces, while others earn their livelihood by rearing livestock such as goats and cattle, and some are associated with other forms of agriculture. The native residents are ethnic Awans with the sub-casts Majhial, Kroge, Bazrals, Chhatal, Phatwal and Mianwaddal (Fig. 1). 2.2. Ethnobotanical data collection The survey was carried out from May 2011 to August 2012 to collect information on ethnomedicinal plants. A total of sixty-three (63) informants including 8 traditional healers (Hakeems) who agreed to participate in the survey were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Questions were related to medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria and related symptoms, the plant parts used, modes of preparation and administration of herbal remedies, the availability of plant species collected and the place (habitats) from which the species are harvested. Interviews were conducted orally in order to accommodate low levels of literacy. A demographic structure of the study population was made, and the respondents frequently went with the investigators to the field to collect plant material. In order to confirm the pharmacological relevance of gathered information, a literature review was also carried out. Data collected from literature included ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical constituents and antiplasmodial activity of the documented species.

2.3. Plant collection, identification and preservation Plants mentioned by respondents were collected with their assistance from fallow land, fields and home gardens in the study area (Table 2). Plants were identified following the Flora of Pakistan (Nasir and Ali, 1970-2001). The list of plant species used to cure malarial disorders in the area was checked and updated after verification from the online website of The Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org; accessed 3 April, 2014). Voucher specimens were preserved and deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Sargodha for their taxonomic identification by comparison with specimens in the herbarium and for future reference. The voucher numbers are given in the brackets after the botanical name of the taxa (Table 2). 2.4. Data analysis The following parameters were used to analyze the data on medicinal plants used for malarial symptoms among the indigenous population of the study area. 1. Taxonomic diversity, preparation, application and parts of the plant used. 2. The percentage of respondents who have knowledge regarding the use of a species in the treatment of malaria was estimated using the formula (PRK): (number of people interviewed citing species/total number of interviewed people using plants) ×100 (Al-Adhroey et al., 2010). 3. RFC was calculated using the standard method of Vitalini et al. (2013), which is RFC=FC/N (0
3. Results and discussion 3.1. Demographic data An ethnomedicinal survey was carried out among 63 informants, including 8 traditional healers, who were fully aware and had good knowledge about malaria and antimalarial plants, including 25 women and 38 men. This meant that 39.6 % of informants were female and 60.3 % were male.The majority of informants (63.4%) were inexperienced in medicinal plant preparations and experience of medicinal plant preparation was mainly confined to traditional healers and some old age people (36.5%). Informants were classified into six groups on the basis of age 25-34 (7.9%), 35-44 (15.9%), 45-54 (17.5 %), 55-64 (23.8%), 65-74 (20.6%), 75 and above (14.2%). On the basis of educational level, traditional knowledge regarding malaria is more prevalent among illiterate people 33.3% followed by graduate and above 26.9%, (10 years education) 17.4%, middle 11.1%, primary 4.76%, (12 years education ) 1.6%, It was observed that the informants could readily differentiate malaria on the basis of its usual clinical signs and symptoms, i.e. recurrent fever, headache, nausea and vomiting, chills, poor appetite, muscle and body pain and fatigue. Knowledge of plant uses was mostly received from older family members and society (Table.1). 3.2. Plants used for malaria and related symptoms A total of 70 plant species belonging to 62 genera and 34 families were recorded to be used in anti-malarial remedies (Table. 2). Analysis of the medicinal plant diversity revealed Solanaceae constituted the most dominant

that

family with seven plant species, followed by

Fabaceae, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae (5 species each), Apiaceae (4 species), Asteraceae, Amaranthaceae, Poaceae and Myrtaceae (3 species each), Meliaceae, Brassicacaeae, Capparidaceae, Boraginaceae, Lythraceae, Malvaceae, Euphorbiaceae (2 species each), while the remaining 18 families are represented by one species each. The most frequently used families, such as Solanaceae, Fabaceae, Rutaceae and Lamiaceae, indicate the importance of these families as sources of bioactive compounds like alkaloids, terpenoids, coumarins, flavonoids, chalcones, quinones and xanthones that possess anti-malarial properties and thus play significant roles in anti-plasmodial activity (Saxena, 2003; Rukunga and Simons, 2006) (Fig. 2).

3.3. Life Form, Part used and mode of utilization of medicinal plants

The life form most frequently used against different symptoms of malaria was found to be herbs (56%), followed by shrubs (27%) and trees (17%). The reason for the dominance of herbs is their better adaptation and acclimatization to the topographic and climatic conditions in the study area, as compared to shrubs and trees (Giday et al., 2003; Mesfin et al., 2012; Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005; Uniyal et al., 2006). It is reported by informants mostly herbs are used because of their potency and fast regeneration in study area as compared to other life forms. The high percentage of herbs is also reported in some other studies (Megersa et al., 2013; Upadhyay et al., 2010; Parveen et al., 2007). In the study area, leaves were the dominant plant part used (50.6%), followed by fruits (17.3%), whole plant (12%), seeds (10%), flower and peel (4% ), stem (3%) and root (1%) (Fig.3). This is because they are easy to collect them from herbs, rather than aerial parts of trees. Moreover herbs can be easily grown on the roadside, in home gardens, on farmland and in wild habitats and are more common in the study area as compared to other life forms such as trees, shrubs and climbers (Megersa et al., 2013). The frequent use of leaves is in agreement with other studies (Asase et al., 2010; Nguta et al., 2010; Koudouvo et al., 2011, Asase et al., 2012; Asase and oppong-Mensah., 2009; Nadembega et al., 2011). The preference towards leaves may be linked to the fact that leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of plants and act as their reservoirs for photosynthates or exudates which contain bioactive secondary compounds. These compounds protect against herbivores and some are of medicinal value to the human body (Balick & Cox, 1996; Ghorbani, 2005; Bhattarai et al., 2006). Additionally, the use of leaves is less deleterious to the survival of a plant species as compared to the use of other parts (e.g. roots, stem, bark), or the use of entire plants (Abebe and Ayehu, 1993; Giday et al., 2003; Zheng and Xing, 2009). Moreover, leaves are collected more easily than other parts of plants (Giday et al., 2009). The most important and diverse biopotency has been observed in alkaloids, quassininoids, sesquiterpene, lactones, coumarins, triterpenoids, limonoids, and quinolone alkaloids (Saxena et al., 2003). The components with antiplasmidial activity may be present in leaves. Leaves of Lantana camara have been reported to contain quinine like alkaloid lantanine (Burkill, 2000) is an example indicating that leaves extract of cited plant species could be tested for effective antiplasmodial constituents. The frequent use of fruit (17.3%) after leaves may be due to the accumulation of bioactive compounds in higher proportions than in other parts (Srithi et al., 2009). It is noteworthy that inhabitants of some areas of the Valley like Jahlar and Koradhi frequently prefer to use a plant whole, to overcome fatigue, muscle and body pain. However, the

majority of the herbal preparations identified in this study involved decoction (47%), followed by infusion (29%), powder (7%), raw (6%), juice (6%), cooked (3%), latex (1%) and oil (1%) (Fig. 4). Boiling the plant material and then drinking the extract is preferred. It is commonly observed that on heating various biological reactions are accelerated resulting in extraction of many active compound. (Zhang et al., 2005; Han et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2008; Al-Adhroey et al., 2010). These active compounds may be the reason of combating the pathogen and ultimately curing of the disease of malaria. Mostly dried plant material was used for herbal remedies in the study area. Decoctions were usually made by boiling plant material for a minimum of one and maximum of two hours. Local wood of Dodonaea viscosa , Prosopis juliflora, P. glandulosa is usually burnt for this purpose. Change in colour of the solvent(water in the current study) indicates “full dissolution of active ingredients into the solvents” that are then effectively used against the disease. Infusion is the second ranked mode of utilization of the medicinal plants in the study area. People of the Valley prefer fresh and uninfected leaves for making infusions. The users believe that this method of preparation results in more efficacious herbal recipes as many compounds that play a key role in the remedy of the disease are not denatured by heat (Idow et al., 2010 ; Dike et al., 2012).

3.4. Quantitative Data Analysis of Anti-malarial Plants 3.4.1. Relative Frequency Citation (RFC) and PRK values of cited taxa Relative frequency citation (RFC) unravels the local importance of each plant species used by the indigenous people of the area. It is calculated from Frequency of Citation (FC, the number of informants mentioning the use of plant species) divided by the total number of informants (N) who shared their wealth of knowledge in the survey (Tardio and Pardo, 2008) in the Relative frequency citation (RFC) and Percentage of respondents interviewed with knowledge (PRK) about medicinal flora used to treat malaria are mention in Table 2. Relative frequency citation was deliberated to determine the most common occurring medicinal plants used for malarial disorders. Ocimum americanum and Solanum incanum were the species with high relative frequency of citation (RFC= 0.25 each) and percentage of respondents

having knowledge

(PRK=25.4% each), followed by Grewia tenax (RFC= 0.23, PRK=23.8%) which indicates that these plants are the best plant species with anti-malarial properties and are widely used to treat

malaria in the Valley (Table 2). The highest value of RFC and PRK narrates the fact that these plants were well known to maximum number of the informants and also effective in curing malarial symptoms respectively. In our study RFC value ranges from 0.01 to 0.25. It was observed that people living in the study area were not fully aware about the medicinal worth plant species like, Trachyspermum ammi, Centella asiatica, Ehretia obtusifolia, Fagonia cretica, Grewia tenax, Ocimum americanum, Peganum harmala, Ricinus communis, and Withania coagulans. Though these taxa are abundantly flourishing in other regions of the country as well as globally but are rapidly going toward decline and consequently vanishing from the Soon Valley, because of their unscientific use. The poor educational background is the major reason that directly affects the learning system in this concern. The study is in agreement with Asase et al., (2005). The high values of RFC and PRK (Table 2) can assist in identifying the species which should be prioritized for conservation as their preferred used may cause to threats to their existence due to over harvesting for medicinal purposes (Asese et al., 2005) for medicinal purposes. Many other factors are also threatening the diversity of medicinal flora in the study area including use of plants for forage, fodder, fuel, timber and other ethnobotanical uses locally. 3.5. Comparative analysis of documented data with previous literature To determine whether the medicinal plants used by people of Soon Valley were already known for their use in treatment of malaria or not, a literature study on ethno- medicinal use was done and comparative results are listed in Table 2. A study based upon 36 research papers was conducted to search the anti-malarial plants. The result revealed that out of 70 plants that were recorded as anti-malarial plants, seven plant species viz., Withania coagulans, Fagonia cretica, Carthamus oxyacantha, Ehretia obtusifolia, Helianthus annuus, Olea ferruginea, and Vitex trifolia are reported from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria (Table 2). This first ethno-medicinal study highlights the potential sources for the development of new antimalarial drugs from indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants found in the Soon Valley, Pakistan. The comparative bibliographic literature survey and comparison consisting of neighboring countries as well as in the world, showed that 13 listed plants species Canna indica, Centella asiatica, Citrus aurantifolia, Cleome gynandra, Cyperus rotundus, Lantana camara, Moringa

oleifera, Nymphaea lotus, Ocimum bacilicum, Piper nigrum, Salvadora persica, Sonchus oleraceus, Tamarindus indica reported from the study area of Pakistan have been used with similar recipes as in the other regions of the world (Table 2). This correspondence in the use of the same species in diverse cultures over a long period indicates that these plants may be effective in curing malarial symptoms (Van Wyk and Wink, 2004). The literature survey has revealed that various phytochemical constituents may be responsible for anti-malarial and antiplasmodial activity of cited plant species (Table 2). Our literature survey of reported 70 anti-malarial plants revealed that the similarity of uses ranges from 0.81 to 16.83 while dissimilar uses vary 17.65% (Parveen et al., 2007) to 0% (Table 3). The lowest indices of dissimilarity is found with studies of Nguta et al., (2010), Pierre et al., (2011) Yetein et al., (2013), Katuura et al., (2007), Mesfin et al., (2012), Stangeland et al., (2011), Al-Adhroey et al., (2010), Omosun et al., (2013), Koudouvo et al.,

(2011), Tabuti,

(2008), Asase and Mensah, (2009), Asase et al., (2005), Asase et al., (2012), Karunamoorthi and Hailu, 2014; Dike et al., 2012; Rahmatullah et al., 2010; Kamaraj et al., 2012; Prakash and Unnikrishnan (2013), Mavundza et al.,

(2011) Randrianarivelojosia et al., (2003) and

Shah et al., (2014). This is because in these ethnomedicinal studies data were documented with specific emphasis on antimalarial plants. It was found that most of these plants species are already known for similar use but their recipe, preparation and method of use is different in the majority of cases. In our study the highest degree of similarity index was found with studies conducted in Benin, West Africa, by Yetein et al., (2013) and in the Churu District of India by Parveen et al., (2007), with JI 16.83 and 13.13 respectively (Table 3). The reason of high similarity index may be the similarity in diversity of medicinal flora used against malaria in study site as in West Africa. The highest similarity index might be an indication of good efficacy of these plants against malaria (Orwa, 2002). The variation in JI may be due to the distance or may be due to the immense diversity of medicinal flora of study area with other reported countries. The resemblance and variation in ethnomedicinal studies seem to point out the importance of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in different regions where historical (Moerman,1998), ecological (Ladio et al., 2007), phytochemical and organoleptic (Leonti et al., 2003) factors interact in their selection. A comparison of documented data with literature based on antiplasmodial activity showed that among the total cited plant species 19 plant species are tested for phytochemical and anti

plasmodial activity (Table 4). Three plant species out of these 19 species including Dysphania ambrosioides, Citrus limon and Mangifera indica don’t show anti plasmodial activity this may be due to various reasons like the plant extracts were not prepared properly as suggested by traditional healers or extracts were tested individually, even though some plants were stated by traditional healers to be taken in combination with other plants or some plants are used to cure symptoms of malaria not the disease. In addition this may be due variation in storage and drying techniques or plant may simply not be active as antimalarial (Koch et al., 2005). In our study two Vitex species viz., Vitex negundo and Vitex trifolia antimalarial. Important phytochemical compounds found in

are documented as

Vitex negundo includes

negundoside, agnuside, vitegnoside, 7,8 dimethyl herbacetin 3-rhamnoside, 5,3'-dihydroxy— 7,8,4'-trimethoxy flavanone, 5-hydroxy-3,6,7,3',4'-pentamethoxy flavone, 5,7 dihydroxy- 6,4' dimethoxy flavonone, and 5 hydroxy-7,4' dimethoxy flavone (Gautam et al., 2008). On the other hand Vitex trifolia contain diterpene, known as vitetrifolin A, and two labdane-type diterpenes, named

vitetrifolins

B

and

C,

along

with

three

known

diterpenes,

rotundifuran,

dihydrosolidagenone and abietatriene 3b-ol (Ono et al., 2000). Both Vitex species are also imparted antibacterial activity (Hossain et al., 2001; Samy et al., 1998). Niligira et al., (2008) reported the chemical composition of five South African Vitex species (V. obovata ssp. obovata, V. obovata ssp. wilmsii, V. pooara, V. rehmannii and V. zeyheri) and concluded that the antimalarial activity of these taxa (maximum in V. rehmannii) and explain that the anti-malarial activity may probably be due to the presence of highly toxic compound labdane diterpene, 12S, 16S/R-dihydroxy-ent-labda-7, 13-diene-15, 16-olide and it is necessary to determine the exact level of this labdane diterpene in Vitex species. The phytochemistry of Withania species has been studied extensively and chemical such as steroidal lactones, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannin etc. have been recognized and isolated (Rahman et al., 1993; Kapoor, 2001). Nearly more than 13 alkaloids, 138 withanolides, and several sitoindosides have been reported different parts such as roots, berries and other aerial parts of Withania species (Subramanian and Sethi, 1969, 1971; Budhiraja et al., 1983; Velde et al., 1983; Neogi et al., 1988; Rahman et al., 1993; Choudhary et al., 1995; Rahman et al., 1998, 1999, 2003; Nur-e-Alam et al., 2003; Mirjalili et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2011). The major chemical compounds of this plant, withanolides, are mainly confined to the leaves and roots with concentration ranging from 0.001 to 1.5% (Kapoor, 2001; Kumar et al., 2007). Withanolides are

the principal bioactive compounds found in both species, but some witahnolides are specific to each of them. For example, major compound found in W. somnifera is Withaferin whereas, coagulin L is major compound in W. coagulans. Moreover, bioactive chemical constituents in Withania are alkaloids (ashwagandhine, cuscohygrine, anahygrine, tropine, etc) and steroidal compounds including ergostane-type steroidal lactones, withaferin A, withanolides A-Y, withasomniferin A, withasomidienone, withasomniferols A-C, withanone, etc (Gupta and Rana, 2007; Maurya and Akanksha, 2010). It seems possible to isolate specific common and novel antimalarial compound (witahnolide) from these plant species. Further phytochemical investigation may be helpful in determining the level of toxic diterpene in Vitex species and to investigate which specific bioactive compound is best antimalarial and common in both species of Withania.

3.6. Problems regarding the use of herbal remedies in the study area

During the study our focus was also to address issues and problems such as safety, quality, expertise and the exact dose and methods of preparation of herbal remedies for malaria. It was observed that the main problem is the lack of knowledge among inhabitants about the exact ratio of plant part material used for the preferred mode of utilization (Asase et al., 2005). This lack of standardization and quality control is the major drawback of traditional medicines (EvansAnfom 1986; Sofowora, 1982) which greatly affects the popularity of traditional remedies as compared to modern medications (Angmo et al., 2012). During the study it was observed that informants show a reluctance to use some of the plants identified as useful against malaria or its various symptoms, such as Calotropis procera, Datura metel, D. stramonium, Heliotropium indicum, Jatropha curcas, Withania somnifera, Lantana camara, Nicotiana tabacum and Ricinus communis. The inhabitants understand that these plants can cause symptoms including nausea, impotency, sterility, dizziness and hallucination. People have a general knowledge about toxic signs and their interpretation of toxicity is on the basis of observation. A scientific literature review showed that most of these species are moderately to highly toxic and the reluctance of the people of the Soon Valley to use them is very sensible. Calotropis procera, Datura stramonium and Withania somnifera cause gastric inflammation and abdominal disturbances, abortion and sterility. Furthermore, Datura stramonium also causes

anticholinergic effects (Diker et al., 2007). Nicotiana tabacum cause CNS disturbances (AlQura'n, 2005). Ricin and curcin are highly toxic toxalbumins that occur in the seeds of Ricinus communis and Jatropha curcas and cause digestive tract problems, and potentially more serious symptoms including, for Ricinus communis, multi-organ failure (Van Wyk et al., 2002; Farrell, 1992). On the basis of preliminary phytochemical investigations, at carefully controlled doses, these plants may be proved to have good efficacy against malaria or its symptoms.

4. Conclusion Due to economic limitations, providing modern health facilities in developing countries like Pakistan is still a far-reaching goal. For the daily need of medical treatment communities in remote areas heavily depend on ethnobotanical practices. People of Soon Valley had a rich tradition of medicinal plants consumption in this context. Prior to present study, knowledge about the medicinal plants used for malaria by the aboriginal communities of Soon Valley was not available in documented form. In that case, present study supports to secure such information up to some extent. Seven plant species that is Withania coagulans, Fagonia cretica, Carthamus oxycantha, Ehretia obtusifolia, Helianthus annuus, Olea ferruginea, and Vitex trifolia are reported from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria. Result of this study has showed that the people of the studied area have a very good knowledge of medicinal plants used in management of malaria. To conserve such precious knowledge of indigenous communities regarding herbal remedies of malaria, there is dire need to protect, improve and document this information with scientific proofs. These medicinal plants may probably contain yet undiscovered antimalarial properties, which can serve as a template for the production of cheap antimalarial drug from indigenous knowledge of plants in Soon Valley, Pakistan.

It is

recommended to screen all mentioned plant species to confirm their anti-malarial activity and to gather available knowledge on preparation and toxicity risks in order to justify their traditional usage.

Acknowledgements The study was supported by Higher Education Commission Pakistan (Programme No. 20-1599/ 09/3007). The authors appreciatively thank all the guides the traditional healers who accepted to participate to the study.

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Table 1 Demographic characteristics of informants (N= 63) Demographical characteristics

Number

%age

25-34

5

7.9

35-44

10

15.9

45-54

11

17.5

55-64

15

23.8

65-74

13

20.6

75 and above

9

14.2

Male

38

60.3

Female

25

39.6

21

33.3

6

4.76

7

11.1

11

17.4

Age

Gender

Education Illiterate a Primary Middle c Matric

d

b

Inter e

01

1.6

Graduate and above f

17

26.9

a; never attended school, b; Attended school from 1-5 classes, c; attended school from 1-8 classes, d; attended school from 6-10 classes, e; (12th class), f; (university level education)

Table 2 Medicinal plants of Soon valley, Khushab, Pakistan used against various symptoms of malaria along with FC, RFC and PRK values.

S r. N o.

Plant name**

1

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. SAS-S-50

Asphodel aceae

2

Anethum graveolens L. SAS-S-52

Apiaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Kanwa r gandal

Herb /W

Naushe hra/G

Leav es

Latex

Mix two tea spoon of latex in half cup of milk and drink to cure fever and heada che.

Soya

Herb /C

Kufri/ A.F.

Who le plant

Deco ction

Boil whole plant in water and use one glass of decoct ion twice a day to reduce vomiti ng.

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, Saponin (Arunkumar and Muthuselvam, 2009)

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Essential oils, fatty oil,proteins carbohydrates, furanocoumarin , polyphenols, fiber, mineral (Ishikawa et al., 2002) (Yazdanparast and Bahramikia, 2008)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 1■, 2■, 3■, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8●, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6■, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

3

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. SAS-S-06

Meliacea e

4

Brassica nigra (L .)W.D.J. Koch

Brassicac eae

SAS-S-32

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Neem

Tree /C

Marda wal/G

Leav es Fruit

Deco ction

Half cup of decoct ion of leaves and fruits is used thrice a day to cure fever.

Kali sarson

Herb /C

Khewa /A.F.

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used for fever.

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1 5

0.2 3

23. 8

Tannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids. (Krishnaiah et al., 2009) Tetracyclic triterpenoids zafaral, Meliacinanhydr ide (Siddiqui et al., 2004)

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Flavonols, Quercetin, kaempferol and isorhamnetin. (Crozier et al., 2006; Hollman et al., 2000; Aron et al., 2008)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1■, 2∆, 3■, 4■, 5Δ, 6■, 7■, 8■, 9■, 10■, 11■, 12■, 13■, 14■, 15■, 16■, 17■, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22■, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26●, 27■, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4 Δ, 5 Δ, 6 Δ, 7 Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18■, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

5

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. SAS-S-64

Fabaceae

6

Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton SAS-S-17

Apocyna ceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Gul-eturra

Shru b/C

Naushe hra /G

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used for vomiti ng and nausea

Ak, akra

Shru b/ W

Jabah/ F.L.

Flo wer

Infusi on

Infusi on of half cup of flower s is effecti ve in curing fever

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Flavonoid quercetin (Chiang et al., 2003) Pulcherrin, Neocaesalpin (Pranithanchai et al., 2009)

6

0.0 9

9.5 2

Tannins, Flavonoid, Saponins, Glycosides Cardiac, Glycosids Steroids, Volatile Oil (Mainasara et al., 2011) reducing sugars, tannins, steroid glycosides, flavonoids, saponins (Kawo et al., 2009).quercetin -3-O-rutinoside. Kaempferol -3O-rutinoside (Nenaah, 2013) Sterols, FA,

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8●, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11■, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8●, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ , 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19■, 20●, 21■, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ,

S r. N o.

7

8

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Canna indica L. SAS-S-38

Cannacea e

Akeek

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

Capparac eae

Dela

SAS-S-08

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Herb /C

Khurra /G

Tree /W

Jahlar / F.L.

Part (s) used

Leav es

Leav es

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

Infusi on

1 glass infusi on of fresh leaves is taken thrice a day agains t fever

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion of leaves is

1 0

0.1 5

15. 8

Non-glycerides wax Hydrocarbon. (Kalita and Saikia, 2004) Carbohydrates, glycosides. Annins (Moustafa et al., 2010), alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, tanins, steroids, anthraquinone, triterpenoids (Aliyu et al., 2015) Alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, flavonoids, terpenoids, glycosides, steroids, tannins, saponins and phlobatinins (Lamaeswari et al., 2012) betulinic acid, oleonolic acid and traraxer-14en-3-one. (Bachheti et al., 2013) Cyanidin-3-O(60 0-O-arhamnopyranos yl) -bglucopyranosid e Cyanidin-3O-(60 0-O-arhamnopyranos yl)-bgalactopyranosi de Cyanidin-3O-bglucopyranosid e Cyanidin-Obgalactopyranosi de (Srivastava and Vankar, 2010) Alkaloids, terpenods, glycosides, fatty acids (Rathee et al., 2010)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ

1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22■, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ

1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

taken twice a day to cure fever.

9

1 0

Carthamus oxyacantha Bieb. SAS-S-19

M.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. SAS-S-18

Asterace ae

Apiaceae

Kandy ari

Herb /W

Khatw ai/ F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Decoc tion of leaves is used for fever and body pain

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

.Flavonoids, glycosides sterols and serotonin (Firestone, 1999).

Herb /W

Koradh i/ F.L.

Who le plant

Deco ction

Half glass decoct ion of whole plant is taken thrice a day

6

0.0 9

9.5 2

Tannins, phlobatannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides alkaloids (Krishnaiah et al., 2009)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9●, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

to cure muscl e and body pain.

1 1

Chenopodium album L.

Amarant haceae

Bathu

Herb /W

Ochhal i /F.L.

Who le plant

Deco ction

1 cup decoct ion of whole plant is taken twice a day agains t vomiti ng.

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Quercetin, Isorhmnetin (Jain et al., 1990);

Rutaceae

Sangta ra

Shru b/C

Navarr i Garden /G

Fruit

Juice

Juice is used to cure nausea vomiti ng and weakn ess in fever

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Psoralene, Bergapten, Sopimpinellin, Imperatorin, Isobergapten, Kaempferol, Myricetin, 4',5,7Trihydroxy-3,6dimethoxy flavones, Rutin, β-Sitosterol, Hesperidin (Shalaby et al., 2011)

SAS-S-67

1 2

Citrus× aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle SAS-S-44

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23■, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27■, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ , 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ , 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11■, 12■, 13●, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17■, 18■, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

1 3

Citrus aurantium L. SAS-S-51

Rutaceae

1 4

Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. SAS-S-11

Rutaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Malta

Shru b/C

Sodhi Garden /G

Fruit

Juice

Juice is used to cure nausea vomiti ng and weakn ess in fever

Nibu

Shru b/C

Kanhat i Garden /G

Fruit , peel

Raw

Crush the fruit along with peels add half tea spoon of salt and mix half glass of water. Use thrice a day

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Synephrine (Allison et al., 2005)

7

0.1 1

11. 1

α-Tujene, αPinene, Sabinene, βPinene, βMircene, αTerpinolene, Limonene, Terpinolene, αTransbergamotene, βBisabolene (Rozza et al., 2011)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31■, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35●, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8■, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9■, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

it is effecti ve agains t all malari al sympt oms 1 5

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. SAS-S-13

Rutaceae

Metha

Shru b/C

Bagh Shams ud Din/ G

Fruit

Raw

Cut the fruit and use in raw form along with salt it is very effecti ve in malari a fever

7

0.1 1

11. 1

Phenol, Tannins, Flavonoids (Abirami et al., 2014)

1 6

Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck SAS-S-21

Rutaceae

Malta, kenu

Shru b /C

Bagh Shams ud Din/ G

Fruit

Juice

Same as menti oned in Citrus aurant ifolia

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

flavanone glycosides and polymethoxyfla vones (Ortuño et al., 2006), Flavonoids (chalcone, citrunobin) (Tian-Shung, 1989), Hydroxylated polymethoxyfla vones and methylated flavonoids, (Li et al., 2006), Hesperidin, (Kanaze et al., 2009)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 26Δ, 27■, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35●, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12■, 13●, 14■, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17■, 18■, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

1 7

Cleome gynandra L. (syn. Gynandropis gynandra (L.)Briq) SAS-S-04

1 8

Corchorus olitorius L. SAS-S-39

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Capparac eae

Herb /W

Ugali/ F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Half cup of decoct ion of leaves is used twice a day agains t malari a fever and body pain

Malvacea e

Herb /W

Angah/ F.L.

Root s

Powd er

1 tea spoon of powde r is taken with milk to cure body pain twice a day

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1 3

0.2 0

20. 6

Flavonoid alkaloids tannins (Bala et al., 2010)

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

(Ilhan et al., 2007)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3■, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13●, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

1 9

Cyperus rotundus L. SAS-S-65

Cyperace ae

2 0

Datura metel L. SAS-S-05

Solanace ae

2 1

Datura stramonium L.

Solanace ae

Family

Local name

Ghass

Dhato ora

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Herb /W

Uggali/ F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Half cup decoct ion of leaves is used thrice a day for muscl e and body pain

Herb /W

Sabhra l/ F.L.

Leav es

Infusi on

Herb /W

Chitta/ F.L.

Leav es

Infusi on

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Polyphenols, Flavonoids, Tannins, Sterols (Kilani-Jaziri et al., 2011)

1 cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used agains t fever twice a day

1 1

0.1 7

17. 4

Melatonin Serotonin (Murch et al., 2009), Tropane alkaloids (atropine and scopolamine), (Jakabová et al., 2012)

1 glass

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Tropane alkaloids

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24■, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27■, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25■, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31●, 32●, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

SAS-S-33

2 2

2 3

Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq SAS-S-66

Dysphania ambro sioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (syn. Chenopodium am

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

of infusi on of fresh leaves is taken early in the morni ng agains t muscl e and body pain

(atropine and scopolamine), (Jakabová et al., 2012)

Sapindac eae

Sanath a

Shru b/W

Sultan Medhi/ F.L.

Leav es

Infusi on

Infusi on of leaves is used once in morni ng to cure body pain

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Tannins, Phlobatannins, Saponins, Flavanoids, Terpenoids, Glycosides, (Prakash et al., 2012)

Amarant haceae

Bathu

Herb /W

Khewa / F.L.

Leav es

Cook ed

Used in cooke d form as vegeta

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

Carene, Terpinene, Cymene, Limonene, Terpinene, trans-p-Mentha-

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32●, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36● 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12■, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9●, 10Δ, 11Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

2 5

Ehretia obtusifolia Hochst. ex DC. SAS-S-09

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Boragina ceae

Poaceae

Ghass

1(7),8-dien-2ol, cis-pMentha-1(7),8dien-2-ol, Ascaridole , trans-p-Mentha2,8-dien-1-ol, cis-p-Mentha2,8-dien-1-ol 1,4-Dihydroxyp-menth-2-ene, 1,2,3,4Tetrahydroxyp-menthane (Cavalli et al., 2004)

Shru b/W

Navarr i /F.L.

Ste m, thin bran ches

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion is used in morni ng to cure body pain.

9

0.1 4

14. 2

Phenols (Iqbal et al., 2005)

Herb /W

Bhuki /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 cup of decoct ion is used for body pain and fever

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

Alkaloids, Terpenes, flavonoids, tannins, anthraquinones, saponins, glycosides (Okokon et al., 2010)

A.

Eleusine indica (L.) Geartn. SAS-S-40

Phytochemical constituents

*

ble to cure fever and vomiti ng

brosioides L.) SAS-S-25

2 4

Recip e

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 12Δ, 13Δ, 14■, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32●, 33●, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

twice a day

2 6

Eucalyptus globulus Labill SAS-S-34

Myrtacea e

Safaid a

Tree /C

Shakka r Kot/ A.F.

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used for nausea and vomiti ng thrice a day

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Hydroxybenzoi c Acids,hydrolyz able tannins, flavonols (BoulekbacheMakhlouf et al., 2010)

2 7

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. SAS-S-35

Myrtacea e

Safaid a

Tree /C

Dharna l/ A.F.

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used for nausea and vomiti ng thrice a day

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Tannins, Saponins Glycosides (Adeniyi and Ayepola, 2008)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ , 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18■, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ , 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

2 8

Fagonia cretica L. SAS-S-46

Zygophyl aceae

2 9

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. SAS-S-54

Apiaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Magha zakae

Herb /W

Jahlar /F.L.

Who le plant

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion of whole plant is used for muscl e and body pain, fever, and heada che thrice a day

Sonf

Herb /C

Mardw al/ A.F.

Who le plant

Deco ction

I glass decoct ion of whole plant is used for curing poor appetit e in the morni ng

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Triterpenoid saponins (Saeed et al. 1999; Khaliq et al., 2000);

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Trans-anethole, Linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid (Singh et al., 2006)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 21●, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

3 0

Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori

Family

Local name

Malvacea e

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Shru b/W

Salman Sharif /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion of leaves is used agains t malari a twice a day.

Herb /C

Uggali/ A.F.

Seed s

Powd er

1 tea spoon of powde red form of seeds is used agains t poor appetit e early in the morni ng

SAS-S-03

3 1

Helianthus annuus L. SAS-S-68

Asterace ae

Suraj mukhi

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1 5

0.2 3

23. 8

Alkaloids , Tannins Anthraquinones Glycosides, Saponins Flavonoids, Steriods/ Terpenoids Phenols Coumarins Resins (Sharma and Patni, 2013)

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Tannins, saponins, flavonoids, carbohydrates, steroids, oils, fats, Steroids, Triterpenoids (Subashini and Rakshitha, 2010)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21●, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

3 2

Heliotropium indicum L. SAS-S-63

Boragina ceae

3 3

Jatropha curcas L. SAS-S-36

Euphorbi aceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Hathi soodh

Herb /W

Khabai ki /F.L.

Who le plant

Infusi on

1 glass decoct ion of whole plant is taken twice a day for muscl e and body pain

Safaid arind

Shru b/C

Kanhat i Garden /G

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup of infusi on of leaves is taken in the morni ng to cure vomiti ng and nausea

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Alkaloids, saponin tannin (Osungunna and Adedeji, 2011)

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Alkaloids, saponin tannin, Terpenoid, Steroid, Glycosides, Phenolic Compound, Flavonoid (Sharma et al., 2012)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32●, 33●, 34Δ, 35●, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6■, 7Δ, 8●, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14■, 15Δ, 16■, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26■, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31■, 32Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

3 4

justicia adhatoda L. SAS-S-14

Acanthac eae

3 5

Lantana camara L. SAS-S-10

Verbenac eae

3 6

Lawsonia inermis L. SAS-S-62

Lythrace ae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Herb /W

Khurra /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Half glass decoct ion of leaves is used for vomiti ng thrice a day.

Bhang

Shru b /C

Kanhat i Garden /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Mehnd i

Shru b/C

Phulva rri/ G

Leav es

Deco ction

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

7

0.1 1

11. 1

quinazoline alkaloids (vasicoline, vasicolinone, vasicinone, vasicine, adhatodine and anisotine)- (Jha et al., 2012)

Half cup of decoct ion of leaves is used for curing poor appetit e

8

0.1 2

12. 7

Triterpenes, Iridoid glycosides, Furanonaphtho quinones, Flavonoids Phenylethanoid glycosides (Ghisalberti, 2000)

I glass of decoct

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Carbohydrates, glycosides tannins,

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 33●, 34Δ, 35●, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24●, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ , 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ , 32Δ , 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1■, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14■, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21■, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25■, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32●, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6■,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

ion of leaves is used to cure muscl e and body pain vomiti ng and heada che thrice a day

phenolic, compounds, gums mucilage (Jain et al., 2010)

3 7

Lepidium sativum L. SAS-S-55

Brassicac eae

Haalon

Herb /W

Jabbah / /F.L.

Leav es

Infusi on

1 glass of infusi on of leaves is used for poor appetit e and fever twice a day

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Alkaloids, Saponins, Anthraquinones , (ur-Rehman et al., 2011)

3 8

Mangifera indica L. SAS-S-58

Anacardi aceae

Aam

Tree /C

Navarr i Garden /G

Fruit

Raw

Eaten in raw form to cure poor appetit

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Polyphenols, Carotenoids (Ajila and Rao, 2008)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 7Δ, 8■, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18■, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28■, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36∆ 1∆, 2■, 3■, 4■, 5■, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9●, 10Δ, 11■, 12■,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

e

3 9

Melia azedarach L. SAS-S-26

Meliacea e

Bakain darekh

Tree /C

Naushe hra / A.F.

Leav es, seed s

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion is used for fever, heada che and body pain thrice a day

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

Alkaloids, tannins, saponins, phenols, glycosides, steroids, terpenoids and flavonoids (Ahmed et al., 2012)

4 0

Mentha spicata L. SAS-S-37

Lamiacea e

Pahari Poodn a

Herb /C

Bagh Shams ud Din/ A.F.

Who le plant

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion of whole plant is used for curing nausea

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

Limonene, linalool, 1, 8cineole. (Govindarajan et al., 2012)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 13■, 14■, 15■, 16■, 17■, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22■, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29■, 30Δ, 31■, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34■, 35●, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14■, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20■, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29■, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6■, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

and vomiti ng

4 1

Moringa oleifera Lam. (Syn. Moringa moringa (L.) Millsp. nom. inval.) SAS-S-59

Moringac eae

Sohanj na

Tree /C

Mardw al/ A.F.

Leav es

Infusi on

1 glass decoct ion of leaves is used agains t vomiti ng thrice a day

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Flavonols, carotenoids, quercetin, kaempferol, bcarotene (Lako et al.,2007) tannins, anthraquinones (Kasolo et al., 2010)

4 2

Nicotiana tabacum L. SAS-S-48

Solanace ae

Tamba ku

Herb /C

Jabah/ A.F.

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup decoct ion of leaves is used agains t fever once a day

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Tannin, flavonoid, terpenoid (Olasehinde, et al., 2013)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9■, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12■, 13●, 14■, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5■, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

4 3

Nymphaea L. SAS-S-69

4 4

Ocimum americanum L. SAS-S-01

lotus

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Nymphae aceae

Herb /W

Ochhal i /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 cup decoct ion of leaves is used for fever early in the morni ng.

Lamiacea e

Herb /W

Salman Sharif /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Half cup decoct ion of leaves is effecti ve agains t fever and vomiti ng.

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Alkaloids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides (Akinjogunla1 et al., 2009)

1 6

0.2 5

25. 4

Flavonoids (Vieira et al., 2003); methyl cinnamate (Cavalcanti, 2004)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30■, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

4 5

Ocimum bacilicum L. SAS-S-20

Lamiacea e

4 6

Olea ferruginea Wall. Ex Aitch

Oleaceae

SAS-S-41

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Niaz bo, harain

Herb /C

Khatw ai /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 glass infusi on of leaves is used for vomiti ng once a day

Kahu

Tree /W

Sakesa r/ F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion is used for fever and muscl e pain twice a day.

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

Phenols (Javanmardi et al. 2002); Methyl cinnamate (Lee et al., 2005)

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

Quercetin, βamyrin, oleuropein, and ligstroside (Hashmi et al., 2015)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31■, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1■, 2∆, 3■, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

4 7

Opuntia sp. SAS-S-53

Cactacea e

4 8

Oryza sativa L. SAS-S-22

Poaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Thor

Shru b/W

Khatw ai /F.L.

Who le plant

Deco ction

Decoc tion of whole plant is used for heada che and musle pain in malari a.

Chawa l

Herb /C

Sodhi / A.F.

Seed s

Cook ed

Used in cooke d form agains t vomiti ng in malari a

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Quercetin (Kuti, 2004, Chang et al., 2008); Steroids (Jiang et al., 2006)

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

Ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol, sulphuric acid and vanillin(Chung et al., 2006)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11■, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

4 9

Parkinsonia aculeata L. SAS-S-49

Fabaceae

5 0

Peganum harmala L. SAS-S-12

Nitrariac eae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Walait i keekar

Tree /C

Dharna l/ G

Leav es

Deco ction

Half glass infusi on of leaves is used for fever twice a day

Harmu l

Herb /W

Jahlar /F.L.

Seed s

Powd er

Half tea spoon of powde r form of seeds is taken in morni ng for fever

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Tannin, alkoloids, glycoside, terpenoids, flavonoid, terpenes, streriods, volatile oil and saponin (kamba et al., 2010)

7

0.1 1

11. 1

Alkaloids, flavonoids and anthraquinones (Bukhari et al., 2008).

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32■, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ

S r. N o.

Plant name**

5 1

Physalis minima L. SAS-S-60

Solanace ae

5 2

Piper nigrum L. SAS-S-27

Piperacea e

5 3

Psidium guajava L. SAS-S-56

Myrtacea e

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Herb /W

Koradh i/ F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 cup decoct ion of leaves is used for body pain twice a day.

Kali mirch

Herb /W

Naushe hra / A.F.

Seed s, Fruit

Powd er

Amroo d

Shru b/C

Sodhi Garden /G

Fruit

Raw

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Powde r form of seed is effecti ve agains t fever and body pain

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, phenols, quinones, reducing sugars (Nathiya m et al., 2012) Heneicosanoic acid, Bicyclo, Hepta-2, 4dien, Octadecanoic acid, Stearic acid, Octadeca9, 12-dienoic acid, Ellagic acid, Catechol, Gallic acid, Catechin (Karpagasundar i and Kulothungan, 2014) Nonacosane, ethyl hexadecanoate (Siddiqui et al., 2005)

Fruit is eaten in raw

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

*

Flavonoid, carotenoid, terpenoid and triterpene

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21●, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20■, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25■, 26Δ, 27■, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2●, 3■, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

form to cure vomiti ng and nausea

(Guti´errez al., 2008)

et

5 4

Punica granatum L. SAS-S-28

Lythrace ae

Anar

Shru b/C

Kanhat i Garden /G

Peel s

Deco ction

Half cup decoct ion of peels is used to cure fever once a day

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Triterpenoids, steroids, glycosides, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins (Bhandary et al., 2012)

5 5

Pupalia lappacea (L) Juss. SAS-S-07

Amarant haceae

Gol puth kanda

Herb /W

Jabah /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion of leaves is used to

1 0

0.1 5

15. 8

Stearic acid,stigmaster ol. (Felix et al., 2008).

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 9●, 10Δ, 11■, 12Δ, 13■, 14Δ, 15■, 16Δ, 17■, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22■, 23■, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31●, 32Δ, 33●, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33●, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13■,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

cure fever thrice a day

5 6

Ricinus communis L. SAS-S-70

Euphorbi aceae,

Arind,

5 7

Saccharum officinarum L. SAS-S-57

Poaceae

Gana

Shru b/W

Khewa /F.L.

Herb /C

Jahlar/ A.F.

Seed s

Ste m

Seeds oil

Oil massa ge is effecti ve in curing fever

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Steroids, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, and glycosides (Jena et al., 2012)

Juice

1 glass juice is taken thrice a day to cure fever

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Phenolics, flavonoids, triterpenoids (Feng et al., 2014)

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21●, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1■, 2●, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9●, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16■, 17Δ, 18●, 19●, 20●, 21●, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31■, 32Δ, 33●, 34Δ, 35●, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4■, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13●, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

5 8

Salvadora persica L. SAS-S-61

Salvador aceae

5 9

Senna italica Mill. SAS-S-42

Fabaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Peelu

Tree /W

Angah /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

1 cup decoct ion of leaves is used for vomiti ng thrice a day

Ghora wal

Herb /W

Kufri /F.L.

Leav es

Deco ction

Half cup decoct ion of leaves is used for fever twice a day

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

1

0.0 1

1.5 8

Lignin glycosides (Ohtani et al., 1992); rutin and quercetin (Abdel Wahab et al., (1990); Salvadourea (Ray et al. 1975); benzylisothiocy anate (Al bagieh et al., 1990); Salvadoricine (Malik et al., 1987)

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

Alkaloids, saponins,glycos idessteroids, lavonoids (Dabai et al., 2012)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

6 0

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. SAS-S-47

Fabaceae

6 1

Solanum incanum L. SAS-S-02

Solanace ae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Janter

Herb /W

Ochhal i /F.L.

Leav es

Infusi on

1 cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used to cure fever

Kanda ri

Herb /W

Kanhat i Garden / /F.L.

Who le plant

Deco ction

Half glass decoct ion of whole plant is used agains t vomiti ng and fever once a day

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Alkaloids carbohydrates protein phytosterol (Mythili et al., 2012).

1 6

0.2 5

25. 4

Saponin, oxalate and flavonoids (Auta et al., 2011)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2■, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9●, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1■, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

6 2

Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L. SAS-S-15

Asterace ae

6 3

Tamarindus indica L. SAS-S-23

Fabaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Dhodh ak

Herb /W

Sabhra l/ /F.L.

Leav es

Infusi on

1 cup infusi on of fresh leaves is used for fever twice a day

Imli

Tree /C

Naushe hra /G

Fruit and leav es

Infusi on

Half cup infusi on is taken thrice a day to cure fever

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

6

0.0 9

9.5 2

Chicoric acid, chlorogenic acid and caftaric acid (Ou et al., 2013)

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

Saponin glycosides, alkaoids. (Abukakar al., 2008)

*

et

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 26Δ, 27Δ, 28●, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2■, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31●, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3■, 4■, 5, 6■, Δ 7 , 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12■, 13■, 14■, 15Δ, 16■, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24●, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

6 4

Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.(syn.Tinosp ora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers) SAS-S-43

Menisper maceae

6 5

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague (syn. Carum copticum (L.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Hiern) SAS-S-31

Apiaceae

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Gilu

Herb /W

Khabai ki /G

Leav es

Infusi on

Half cup infusi on of leaves is taken twice a day to cure vomiti ng

Ajwai n desi

Herb /W

Kanhat i village/ F.L.

Seed s

Deco ction

Take half cup of decoct ion of seeds to cure vomiti ng and poor appetit e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

3

0.0 4

4.7 6

Alkaloids, carbohydrates, tannins, phenols (Sivakumar et al., 2010)

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

α-thujene, αpinene Sabinene, βpinene, Carvacrol, Thymol (Goudarzi et al., 2011) Thujene, b-Pinene, pCymene (Khajeh et al., 2004)

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24●, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27■, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

6 6

Vitex negundo L. SAS-S-29

6 7

6 8

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

Lamiacea e

Shru b/W

Sultan Mehdi /F.L.

Flo wer

Infusi on

Half glass infusi on of fresh leaves is used for fever and heada che.

Vitex trifolia L. SAS-S-30

Lamiacea e

Shru b/C

Naushe hra/G

flow er

Infusi on

Withania coagulans

Solanace ae

Herb /W

Khatw ai/

Fruit

Deco ction

Khamj eera

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Alkaloids, flavanoids, carbohydrates, glycosides and tannins (Aditya et al., 2014)

Half glass infusi on of fresh leaves is used for fever and heada che.

4

0.0 6

6.3 4

Alkaloids, saponins, flavanoids, carbohydrates and anthraquinone glycosides (Aditya et al., 2014)

1 glass

5

0.0 7

7.9 3

Alkaloids, steroids,

*

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21●, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34■, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Withania somnifera Dunal SAS-S-16

7 0

Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (Syn.Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.) SAS-S-45

(L.)

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

/F.L.

(Stocks) Dunal SAS-S-24

6 9

Place of collecti on

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

*

decoct ion is used for fever twice a day

phenolic compounds, tannins, saponin, carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids and organic acids (Mathur et al., 2011)

Solanace ae

Asgan d

Herb /W

Sodhi/ /F.L.

Fruit

Deco ction

1 glass decoct ion is used for fever and vomiti ng twice a day

6

0.0 9

9.5 2

Tannins, and flavonoids (Uddin et al., 2012)

Rhamnac eae

Beri

Tree /W

Jabah /F.L.

Fruit

Powd er

Grind ed form of dried fruit is

2

0.0 3

3.1 7

Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, saponins.

Previou s reports for compar ison*** 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6■, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ, 12Δ, 13Δ, 14Δ, 15Δ, 16Δ, 17Δ, 18Δ, 19●, 20●, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24●, 25Δ, 26●, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36● 1∆, 2∆, 3■, 4Δ, 5Δ, 6Δ, 7Δ, 8Δ, 9Δ, 10Δ, 11Δ,

S r. N o.

Plant name**

Previou s * reports for compar ison*** used (Rathore et 12Δ, agains 13■, al.,2012) t 14Δ, vomiti 15Δ, ng and 16Δ, nausea 17Δ, 18Δ, 19Δ, 20Δ, 21Δ, 22Δ, 23Δ, 24Δ, 25Δ, 26Δ, 27Δ, 28Δ, 29Δ, 30Δ, 31Δ, 32Δ, 33Δ, 34Δ, 35Δ, 36Δ * * * FC ; Frequency citation, RFC ; Relative frequency of citation, PRK ; Percentage of respondents having knowledge about the use of plant species. **

Family

Local name

Hab it/ type

Place of collecti on

Part (s) used

Mode of utiliz ation

Recip e

F C

RF C*

PR K*

Phytochemical constituents

Bold written species high lights the plant reported for the malaria with no previous report.

***

(■)- Similar use, (●)- Dissimilar use, (∆) Use not reported

W; wild, C; cultivated, F.L; fallow land, A.F; agricultural field, G; garden 1= Nguta et al., 2010; 2= Namukobe et al., 2011; 3= Pierre et al., 2011; 4= Yetein et al., 2013; 5= Katuura et al., 2007; 6= Mesfin et al., 2012; 7= Stangeland et al., 2011; 8= Olowokudejo et al., 2008; 9= Ssegawa and Kasenene2007 10= Al-Adhroey et al., 2010; 11= Omosun et al., 2013; 12= Koudouvo et al., 2011; 13= Nadembega et al., 2011; 14= Tabuti, 2008; 15= Asase and Mensah, 2009; 16= Asase et al., 2005; 17= Asase et al., 2012; 18= Karunamoorthi and Hailu, 2014; 19= Parveen et al., 2007; 20= Upadhyay et al., 2010; 21= Jain et al., 2009; 22= Dike et al., 2012; 23= Rahmatullah et al., 2010; 24= Singh and singh, 2009; 25= Kamaraj et al., 2012 ; 26=Mahishi et al., 2005; 27=Prakash and Unnikrishnan, 2013 28=Megersa et al., 2013 29=Mavundza et al., 2011; 30=Randrianarivelojosia et al., 2003 31=Kaou et al., 2008 32=Agra et al., 2007 33=de Albuquerque et al., 2007 34=Shah et al., 2014; 35=Ajibesin et al., 2008; 36= Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2010.

Table 3.

Comparison of present study with previous reports at neighbouring and global level.

Speci es enlist ed only in study area

%age of speci es enlist ed in study area

%ag e of plant s with simil ar use

%age of dissimi lar uses

JIa

22.22

Speci es enlist ed only in align ed area 21

64

91.43

22.22

0

7.6

10

7.63

121

60

85.71

3.05

4.58

0

8

16.33

41

62

88.57

16.33

0

5.8 4 8.4 2

17

0

17

20.73

65

53

75.71

20.73

0

20

3

0

3

15

17

67

95.71

15

0

Ethiopia

27

8

0

8

29.63

19

62

88.57

29.63

0

Western Uganda

56

1

0

1

1.78

55

69

98.57

1.78

0

Olowokudejo et al., 2008 Ssegawa and Kasenene2007

Nigeria

110

3

4

7

6.36

103

63

90

2.73

3.64

Southern Uganda

186

3

6

9

4.83

177

61

87.14

1.61

3.22

10

Al-Adhroey et al., 2010

Malaysia

19

1

0

1

5.26

18

69

98.57

5.26

0

1.1 6

11

Omosun et al., 2013 Koudouvo et al., 2011

Southeast Nigeria Togo

21

6

0

6

28.57

15

64

91.42

28.57

0

52

7

0

7

13.46

45

63

90

13.46

0

8.2 1 6.9 3

Nadembega et al., 2011 Tabuti, 2008

Burkina Faso Uganda

190

13

5

18

9.47

172

52

74.28

6.84

2.63

27

8

0

8

29.63

19

62

88.57

29.62

0

Asase and Mensah, 2009 Asase et al., 2005

Southern Ghana Ghana

29

3

0

3

10.34

26

67

95.71

10.34

0

41

4

0

4

9.76

37

66

94.28

9.76

0

Asase et al., 2012 Karunamoorthi and Hailu, 2014 Parveen et al., 2007 Upadhyay et al., 2010

Southern Ghana Ethiopia

33

5

0

5

15.15

28

65

92.86

15.15

0

23

6

0

6

26.09

17

64

91.43

26.08

0

India

68

1

12

13

19.12

55

57

81.43

1.47

17.65

India

213

2

24

26

12.21

187

44

62.86

0.93

11.27

21

Jain et 2009

al.,

India

110

2

6

8

7.27

102

62

88.57

1.81

5.45

5.1 3

22

Dike 2012

al.,

22

4

0

4

18.18

18

66

94.28

18.18

0

5

23

Rahmatullah et al., 2010

South western Nigeria Banglade sh

50

2

0

2

4

48

68

97.14

4

0

1.7 5

24

Singh and singh, 2009

India

40

1

4

5

12.5

35

65

92.86

2.5

10

5.2 6

Sr . N o.

Reference

Region

No. of documen ted plants species

Plan ts with simil ar use

Plants with dissimi lar uses

No. of specie s comm on in both areas

%age of specie s comm on in both areas

1

Nguta et al., 2010

27

6

0

6

2

Namukobe et al., 2011 Pierre et al., 2011

Msambw eni, Kenya Uganda

131

4

6

Cameroo n

49

8

Yetein et al., 2013 Katuura et al., 2007

West Africa Western Uganda

82

Mesfin et al., 2012 Stangeland et al., 2011

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

12 13 14 15 16 17 18

19 20

et

16. 83 3.7 0 10. 95 0.8 1 4.4 0 3.9 3

8.7 3 10. 95 3.3 3 4.0 4 5.6 8 8

13. 13 12. 68

Speci es enlist ed only in study area

%age of speci es enlist ed in study area

%ag e of plant s with simil ar use

%age of dissimi lar uses

JIa

8.70

Speci es enlist ed only in align ed area 21

68

97.14

8.69

0

2.3 0

9

19.15

38

61

87.14

2.12

17.02

10

0

6

19.35

25

64

91.43

19.35

0

7.2 3

1

8

9

7.14

117

61

87.14

0.79

6.35

13

2

0

2

15.38

11

68

97.14

15.38

0

5.3 2 2.6 0

Madagas car

10

1

0

1

10

9

69

98.57

10

0

1.3 0

Africa

44

5

3

8

18.18

36

62

88.57

11.36

6.82

8.8 9

Agra et al., 2007 de Albuquerque et al., 2007 Shah et al., 2014

Brazil

121

1

5

6

4.96

115

64

91.43

0.83

4.13

Brazil

136

0

12

12

8.82

124

58

82.86

0

8.82

3.4 7 7.0 6

Pakistan

84

12

0

12

14.28

72

58

82.85

14.28

0

10. 17

Ajibesin et al., 2008 Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2010 Average

Nigeria

114

1

6

7

6.14

107

63

90

0.88

5.26

Ethiopia

80

0

3

3

3.75

77

67

95.71

0

3.75

4.2 9 2.1 3

68.19

4.16

3.11

7.27

12.9

60.91

62.72

89.6

10.3

3.07

Sr . N o.

Reference

Region

No. of documen ted plants species

Plan ts with simil ar use

Plants with dissimi lar uses

No. of specie s comm on in both areas

%age of specie s comm on in both areas

25

Kamaraj et al., 2012

South India

23

2

0

2

26

Mahishi et al., 2005 Prakash and Unnikrishnan, 2013 Megersa et al., 2013 Mavundza et al., 2011

India

47

1

8

India

31

6

West Ethiopia South Africa

126

Randrianarivel ojosia et al., 2003 Kaou et al., 2008

27

28 29 30

31 32 33

34 35 36

6.2 5

JIa; Jaccard index (Similarity index)

Table 4. List of plant species reported in the study which are tested for anti-plasmodial activity in other regions of the world. Sr. No

Plant name

Part(s) used

Tested against

Extract used

1

Azadirachta indica A.Juss.

Leaves Leaves

P.f P.b P.f.

Aqueous Methanolic Ethanolic Aqueous Ethanolic

Leaf Bark

2

3

Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton Canna indica L.

Antiplas modial activity +

Region

Citations

Kenya

Kirira et al., 2006

+

Ethiopia

+

India

Flower

P.f

Ethanolic

+

India

Leaf

P.f

Aqueous Ethanolic

+

France

Mesfinet al., 2012 Ravikumaret al., 2012 Simonsen et al., 2001 M´enanet al., 2006

Sr. No

Plant name

Part(s) used

Tested against

4

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.

Whole plant

P.f

5

Dysphania ambro sioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. Datura metel L.

6 7

Extract used

Antiplas modial activity

Region

Citations

Pentane Methanol Dichlorometha ne

+ +

Kenya

Irungu et al., 2007

P.f

Ethanolic

-

Peru

Kvist et al., 2006

P.f

Ethanolic

-

Peru

Leaf

P.f

Methanol

+

Fruit Leaf Stem Leave

P.f

Ethanolic

+

Dharmapuri regions of South India India

Kvist et al., 2006 Kamaraj et al., 2012

P.f

+

France

Kaouet al., 2008

+

Kamaraj et al., 2012

-

Dharmapuri regions of South India West tropical Africa Peru

8

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.

9

Jatropha curcas L.

10

Lantana camara L.

Leaf

P.f

Dichlorometha ne methanol methanol/aque ous(1/1), H2O Ethyl acetate

11

Mangifera indica Wall.

Stem bark Cortex

P.f

Ethanolic

12

Ocimum americanum Auct. ex Benth.

Entire plant

P.f

13

Ocimum basilicum L.

14

Peganum harmala L.

15

Piper nigrum Beyr. ex Kunth

Leaf Stem Roots Flower Green parts Wood Seed

16

Solanum incanum Scheff. Tamarindus indica L. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thomson Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

17 18

19

+

France

P.f

Dichlorometha ne methanol methanol/aque ous(1/1), Ethanolic

+

India

P.f

Ethanolic

+

India

P.f

ethyl acetate

+

root bark

P.f

+

Fruits

P.b

Water Methanol Aqueous

Dharmapuri regions of South India Kenya

+

Ethiopia

Stem

P.f

Ethanolic

+

India

Stem bark

P.f

Aqueous Methanolic

+

Kenya

P.f ;Plasmodium falciparum, P.b ; Plasmodium berghii antiplasmodial activity

Simonsen et al., 2001

Zirihiet al., 2005 Kvist et al., 2006 Kaouet al., 2008

Simonsen et al., 2001 Inbanesonet al., 2012 Simonsen et al., 2001 Kamaraj et al., 2012 Rukungaet al., 2009 Mesfinet al., 2012 Simonsen et al., 2001

Kirira et al., 2006

+; show antiplasmodial activity, - ; don’t show

Fig. 1 Map of study area

Fig. 2 Diversity of antimalarial plants in the study area

Fig.3. Part used of medicinal plants

Fig. 4 Mode of utilization of plants used