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Evolution of Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton and its significance for oil and gas exploration in South China: An overview
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S0301-9268(19)30219-0 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105563 PRECAM 105563
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Precambrian Research
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Please cite this article as: F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Peng, Evolution of Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton and its significance for oil and gas exploration in South China: An overview, Precambrian Research (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105563
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1
Evolution of Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton and
2
its significance for oil and gas exploration in South China: An
3
overview
4
Fengli Yang a,b,*, Xiaofeng Zhou a,b,*, Yunxin Peng c
5
a
6
Shanghai, 200092, China
7
b
8
200092, China
9
c
State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road.
School of Ocean and Earth Science, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road. Shanghai,
Department of Geosciences and Geological and Petroleum Engineering, Missouri
10
University of Science and Technology, 1400 N. Bishop, Rolla, MO 65401, United
11
States
12
Corresponding author: Xiaofeng Zhou ([email protected]), Fengli Yang
13
([email protected])
14
Abstract: Based on a comprehensive review of published results, the plate tectonic
15
setting of the Neoproterozoic basins in the Yangtze Craton can be summarized as
16
evolving from the Qingbaikou convergent continental margin to the Nanhua-Sinian
17
divergent continental margin. Four phases of basin evolution are identified in the
18
Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton based on the prototype basin classification scheme: a)
19
the early Qingbaikou period (ca. 1000-820 Ma), with back-arc spreading basins on the
20
western and northern Yangtze margins and the interior, and a retro-arc foreland basin
21
on the southeastern Yangtze margin; b) the late Qingbaikou period (ca. 820-720 Ma),
—1—
22
with back-arc spreading basins on the western and northern Yangtze margins and
23
extensional down-faulted basins on the southeastern Yangtze margins and the interior
24
of the carton; c) the Nanhua Period (ca. 720-635 Ma), with rift basins on the
25
southeastern, western, and northern Yangtze margins and the interior; and d) the
26
Sinian Period (ca. 635-541 Ma), with intracratonic rift basins in the interior of
27
Yangtze Craton and divergent marginal subsidence basins on the southeastern and
28
northern Yangtze margins. The temporal sequence and spatial distribution of the
29
major prototype basins associated with the four stages of basin evolution in the
30
Yangtze Craton were further identified. By comparing the petroleum exploration
31
practices in China and abroad, this paper concludes that the Nanhua rift basins on the
32
southeastern and northern Yangtze margins, the Sinian divergent marginal subsidence
33
basins on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins and the intracratonic rift
34
basins in the interior Yangtze Craton were most conducive to source rock formation
35
and are target regions for future oil and gas exploration.
36
Key words: Yangtze Craton; Neoproterozoic; prototype basin; Rodinia
37
supercontinent; oil and gas.
38
1. Introduction
39
Throughout the geological history of the Earth, plate tectonic movements have
40
mainly been represented by periodic opening and closing controlled by the breakup
41
and assembly processes of supercontinents, respectively (Nance et al., 1988), which
42
have had significant influences on the global tectonic-sedimentary response, climatic
43
environment, biological evolution and resource distribution (Hoffman et al., 1998;
—2—
44
Hoffman and Schrag, 2002; Li et al., 2008b; Li et al., 2013; Merdith et al., 2019). The
45
most remarkable, worldwide, geological events in the Neoproterozoic were the
46
assembly and breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia (Cawood et al., 2016; Cawood et
47
al., 2013; Hoffman, 1999; Li et al., 2008b; Li et al., 2013). Under its control and
48
influence, a series of basins with different prototypes formed worldwide, where oil
49
and gas resources accumulated to varying degrees. For example, the formation and
50
distribution of the giant Meso-Neoproterozoic-sourced petroleum deposits in Siberia
51
(Meyerhoff, 1980), Oman (Almarjeby and Nash, 1986) and the Yangtze Craton
52
(Wang et al., 2014) were mainly controlled by the rift basins and intracratonic rift
53
basins that occurred during the breakup of Rodinia (Craig et al., 2013; Frolov et al.,
54
2015).
55
The area now called the “Yangtze Craton” in South China (Fig. 1) was a
56
continental block in the Neoproterozoic. Although the paleogeographic reconstruction
57
of the supercontinent Rodinia is still debated, the Yangtze Craton has experienced and
58
recorded a series of globally comparable geological events during the period of the
59
supercontinent cycle, including magmatic intrusions and volcanic eruptions (Li et al.,
60
2009; Li et al., 2007; Li and Kinny, 2002; Li et al., 2003b), regional glacial and
61
interglacial depositional events (Gao et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2009), biological
62
explosions (Chen et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2009a), continental rifting and basin
63
formation (Guan et al., 2017; Wang and Li, 2001, 2003; Wang et al., 2015a; Wang et
64
al., 2015b; Zhuo et al., 2013), petroleum generation (Wang et al., 2014; Zhao et al.,
65
2018c), and the development of the Weiyuan-Anyue Sinian-Cambrian giant gas fields
—3—
66
(Du et al., 2016; Wei et al., 2013). In past decades, the Neoproterozoic South China
67
(including the Yangtze Craton) has been an important geological focus of research
68
both in China and abroad. The tectonic background, geodynamic mechanism and
69
basin properties during the Neoproterozoic have been studied extensively and remain
70
vigorously debated. To date, several basin types have been proposed, including
71
plume-related rift basins (Li et al., 2008a; Li et al., 2008b; Li and Kinny, 2002; Li et
72
al., 1999; Li et al., 2003b; Wang and Li, 2003; Wang et al., 2015b; Yang et al., 2012a),
73
arc- and subduction-related back-arc basins (Wang et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2009;
74
Zhou et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2006a; Zhou et al., 2006b), and post-orogenic
75
collapse-related intracontinental rift basins (Zhang and Zheng, 2013; Zheng et al.,
76
2008; Zheng et al., 2007). These controversies and uncertainties directly affect the
77
exploration and evaluation of Neoproterozoic oil-gas resources in the Yangtze Craton.
78
A sedimentary basin is a low-lying area subjected to long-term settlement,
79
including subsidence and sediment infill (Kingston et al., 1983a, b; Zhu, 1985). A
80
basin becomes petroliferous once a working petroleum system matures for the
81
accumulation of oil and gas (Kingston et al., 1983b). However, the subsidence and
82
sediment infill in the basin are time- and space- dependent and are influenced by
83
changes in the tectonic setting (Tirel et al., 2006). Such differences could affect the
84
source and reservoir rocks in petroleum systems (Zhang, 1997). Basins, particularly
85
superimposed basins that have experienced multiple stages of deformation, and are
86
featured complicated structural styles, whereas a prototype basin is characterized by
87
finite settlement structures and sedimentary bodies of a given generation (Kingston et
—4—
88
al., 1983a, b; Zhu, 1985). Since the implications of basin analogues for oil and gas
89
exploration were demonstrated in the 1950s (Weeks, 1952), several basin
90
classification schemes have been proposed based on the plate tectonic setting, crustal
91
composition, and tectonic-thermal regime (Allen and Allen, 2005; Kingston et al.,
92
1983a; Miall, 1984; Yang et al., 2012b; Zhang, 1997, 2010). The global basin
93
classification system of Kingston et al. (1983a) is among the most popular and widely
94
recognized and has been adopted by many authors (e.g., Zhang, 1997, 2010) (Tab. 1).
95
This review paper is primarily based on previously published results about the
96
Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton in South China and adopts the global basin
97
classification scheme of Kingston et al. (1983a, b) (Tab. 1), which emphasizes the
98
plate tectonic environment, prototype and cyclic nature of sedimentary basins. These
99
concepts can help to better understand the geodynamic setting, mechanism, basin type,
100
and distribution of the basins and lead to new play concepts in assessing the
101
hydrocarbon potential of the Neoproterozoic basins in the Yangtze Craton.
102
2. Neoproterozoic plate tectonic environment of the Yangtze Craton
103
The Yangtze Craton is now located in southeastern mainland China (Fig. 1). It is
104
separated from the North China Craton by the Qinling-Dabie orogen to the north,
105
from the Songpan-Ganzi terrane by the Longmenshan fault zone to the northwest,
106
from the Indochina Block by the Ailaoshan-Songma shear zone to the southwest, and
107
from the Cathaysia Block by the Jiangnan belt to the southeast (Zhao and Cawood,
108
2012). The northeastern boundary between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks is
109
defined as the Jiangshan-Shaoxing Fault, but its southeast extension is still disputed
—5—
110
(Fig. 1) (Shu et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2010; Yao et al., 2019; Zhao and Cawood,
111
2012). In this study, we adopt the Jiangshan-Shaoxing-Pingxiang-Yongfu Fault zone
112
as the Neoproterozoic boundary between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks (Fig. 1)
113
(Shu et al., 2019; Yao et al., 2019).
114
Neoproterozoic sedimentary and volcanic rock outcrops are widespread around
115
the Yangtze Craton and its perimeter. The Yangtze Craton consists of minor
116
Archaean-Palaeoproterozoic crystalline basement, which is unconformably overlain
117
by weakly metamorphosed early-middle Neoproterozoic strata and unmetamorphosed
118
Sinian cover. In recent decades, the Neoproterozoic stratigraphic division of the
119
Yangtze Craton has remained controversial due to the limited outcrops and complex
120
lithologies (Fig. 1). For example, the age of the bottom boundary of the Nanhua
121
System is still debated as being at either 720 Ma or 780 Ma (Zhang, 2014). In this
122
paper, the Neoproterozoic strata sequences of the Yangtze Craton are categorized into
123
the Qingbaikou System (1000-720 Ma), Nanhua System (720-635 Ma), and Sinian
124
System (635-541 Ma), corresponding to the international Tonian, Cryogenian and
125
Ediacaran, respectively (Tab.2), based on previous geological investigations and
126
published high-quality in situ zircon U-Pb isotope data, unconformable contact
127
relationships (Zhai, 2015; Zhu et al., 2016) and key geological events (Lu et al., 2016;
128
Wang et al., 2015b).
129
The plate tectonic setting is an important factor that controls the formation and
130
evolution of basins. Over the past two decades, the processes of aggregation,
131
accretion and separation between Yangtze and the peripheral massifs and its
—6—
132
palaeogeographic location in the supercontinent Rodinia have been debated, including
133
three representative models: the plume-rift model, the slab-arc model, and the
134
plate-rift model (Zhao and Cawood, 2012). Recently, based on the available
135
geological data and the latest palaeomagnetic results, the Yangtze Craton is suggested
136
to have been located at the external position of Rodinia (Cawood et al., 2018; Evans
137
et al., 2000; Yao et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2013b; Zhang et al., 2015; Zhao et al.,
138
2018a; Zhao et al., 2017), rather than at the internal position (Li et al., 2008b; Li et al.,
139
1999). Previous studies of the petrogenesis and tectonic settings of igneous and
140
metamorphic rocks (Dong et al., 2011; Kou et al., 2018; Li and Zhao, 2018; Li et al.,
141
2009; Wang et al., 2006b; Xia et al., 2018; Xia et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017; Zhao et
142
al., 2018b; Zhou et al., 2002) have revealed the rationality of subduction- and
143
arc-related tectonic settings on the margins of the Yangtze Craton during the early
144
Neoproterozoic. In addition, the middle and late Neoproterozoic are suggested to have
145
witnessed the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, with the peak period ca.
146
720-580 Ma (Li et al., 2008b; Li et al., 2013). Thus, the plate tectonic setting of the
147
Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton can be divided into two stages, from
148
a convergent continental margin to a divergent continental margin, based on the basin
149
structures and sedimentation characteristics.
150
2.1 Convergent continental margin during the Qingbaikou period (ca. 1000-720
151
Ma)
152
The palaeogeographic reconstruction results (Fig. 2) reveal that the Yangtze
153
Craton was isolated during the early Qingbaikou period, and then joined the Rodinia
—7—
154
supercontinent during the collision with Cathaysia Block (Cawood et al., 2018; Yao et
155
al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018a). The Yangtze Craton has experienced the oceanic
156
subduction and the continent-arc-continent collision with the Cathaysia Block on the
157
southeastern margin in the early Neoproterozoic (ca. ~1000-820 Ma) (Xia et al., 2018;
158
Yao et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018a; Zheng et al., 2008), and the arc-related
159
subduction and accretion (ca. 900-720 Ma) on the western and northern margins
160
(Zhao et al., 2018b), and thus a series of sedimentary basins developed on the
161
periphery of the Yangtze Craton.
162
Based on the different evolutionary stages between the Yangtze and the
163
Cathaysia blocks and their influences on basin formation, the Qingbaikou period can
164
be further subdivided into two stages, namely, the early convergent continental
165
margin and the late convergent continental margin (Tab. 3).
166
During the early stage of the convergent continental margin (the early
167
Qingbaikou; ca. 1000-820 Ma), the Yangtze Craton was in a subduction-related
168
convergent plate tectonic setting, with different initial subduction times in different
169
regions. On the western Yangtze margin, eastward (present-day) subduction of
170
oceanic crust began as early as ∼860 Ma (Du et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2018b; Zhou et
171
al., 2002). On the northern Yangtze margin, the oceanic subduction from the north
172
(present-day) started before 950 Ma (Dong et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2016; Zhao et al.,
173
2010);
174
northwestward subduction started as early as 1.0 Ga (Chen et al., 1991; Li and
175
McCulloch, 1996), which finally led to the collisional assembly of the Yangtze and
however,
on
the
southeastern
—8—
Yangtze
margin,
the
(present-day)
176
Cathaysia blocks. The collisional assembly did not take place until at least ca. 820 Ma
177
(Shu, 2012; Xia et al., 2018; Yao et al., 2014; Yao et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2013a;
178
Zhao et al., 2018b).
179
During the late stage of the convergent continental margin (the late Qingbaikou;
180
820-720 Ma), the Yangtze Craton was mostly in a convergent plate tectonic setting.
181
The western and northern Yangtze margins maintained subduction-related convergent
182
plate tectonic setting, with different termination times. On the western Yangtze
183
margin, the oceanic slab subduction continued until ca. 740 Ma (Zhao and Zhou,
184
2007; Zhou et al., 2006b); on the northern Yangtze margin, the oceanic subduction
185
and related accretion lasted until ca. 705-716 Ma, with a subsequent tectonic
186
transition from continental arc to rifting (Wang et al., 2017). However, the
187
southeastern Yangtze margin experienced post-collisional orogenic collapse (820-805
188
Ma), which then transformed into post-orogenic extension (805-750 Ma) (He et al.,
189
2017; Sun et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2012a; Wang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2013a; Xia
190
et al., 2015; Xin et al., 2017; Yao et al., 2013).
191
2.2 Divergent continental margin from the Nanhua to the Sinian period (ca.
192
720-541 Ma)
193
During the Nanhua and Sinian periods (ca. 720-541 Ma), the Yangtze Craton
194
was isolated, with the latitude changed from being relatively high (approximately
195
45-60° N) to lower (ca. 25-30° N) (Fig. 2). Influenced by the large-scale breakup of
196
Rodinia (Li et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2018a), the Yangtze Craton transitioned to a
197
divergent continental margin setting during this period. Due to different tectonic
—9—
198
mechanisms, the basin evolution can be further divided into two stages, namely, the
199
early divergent continental margin and the late divergent continental margin (Tab. 3).
200
During the early divergent continental margin stage (the Nanhua; 720-635 Ma),
201
the extensional environment lasted until the Nantuo glacial period based on the
202
volcanic activity (Chen et al., 2006; Ling et al., 2008; Lu et al., 1999; Wang et al.,
203
2017; Zhang et al., 2013d; Zhu et al., 2014), extensional faulting and glacial
204
sedimentation (Li et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2015; Eyles and Januszczak, 2004) as well as
205
field geological surveys and geophysical data in the Yangtze Craton (Guan et al.,
206
2017; Wei et al., 2018).
207
During the late divergent continental margin stage (the Sinian; 635-541 Ma), the
208
Yangtze Craton entered a stage of regional thermal subsidence. No volcanic activity
209
occurred during this period.
210
3 Sequence of Neoproterozoic prototype basins
211
The identification of unconformities helps to distinguish the various prototype
212
basins that formed due to multiphase deformation (Kingston et al., 1983a; Zhang,
213
1997, 2010). Unconformities represent important changes in tectonic regime and can
214
be used to separate two distinct, vertically stacked basins (Yang et al., 2012b).
215
3.1 Major unconformity surfaces
216
In the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton, one angular unconformities and three
217
disconformities have been identified corresponding to regional tectonic events and
218
stratigraphic features (Gao et al., 2011; Wang and Li, 2001). The angular
219
unconformity developed at the bottom of the upper Qingbaikou System (Banxi Group
—10—
220
and its equivalents), and has been termed the “Jinning Orogeny” (Li, 1999) (Tabs. 2,
221
3). Three regional disconformities developed at the top of the upper Qingbaikou
222
System (Banxi Group and its equivalents), the top of the Nanhua System, and the top
223
of the Sinian System (Wang et al., 2015b; Wu et al., 2016).
224
The angular unconformity was occurred widely in the Yangtze Craton. In the
225
western Yangtze Craton, the unconformity is represented by the Neoproterozoic
226
Chengjiang sandstones unconformably overlying the Mesoproterozoic crystalline
227
basement in central Yunnan, resulted of the Jinning Orogeny (Li, 1999) (Tab. 2). In
228
the southeastern Yangtze Craton, it is represented by unconformable surface between
229
the Sibao Group/ Fanjingshan Group/ Lengjiaxi Group and the Danzhou Group/
230
Xiajiang Group/ Banxi Group, called the Sibao or Wuling Orogeny (Gao et al., 2011;
231
Li et al., 2009) (Tab. 2). The Jinning Orogeny encompasses all locally derived terms,
232
i.e. the Sibao Orogeny and Wuling Orogeny (Li, 1999). Although the initial timing of
233
the Jinning Orogeny is still controversial, some workers consider that it lasted until ca.
234
0.82 Ga or even 0.8 Ga (Li, 1999; Yao et al., 2012). It is generally accepted that this
235
orogeny took place in the Neoproterozoic, led to the collision between Yangtze and
236
Cathaysia blocks and thus the formation of a unified South China entity (Chen et al.,
237
1991; Li and McCulloch, 1996; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 1989).
238
The
first
regional
disconformity
illustrated
by
extensive
erosion
or
239
non-deposition at the bottom of the Nanhua System in the Yangtze Craton. The
240
stratigraphic gap becomes increasingly obvious from the southeastern margin to the
241
western margin of the Yangtze Craton (Tab. 2). Regarding the formation of the first
—11—
242
disconformity, several authors have argued that the Yangtze Craton was widely
243
covered by continental ice sheets during the early Nanhua period, which led to a
244
period of no deposition, especially in the western Yangtze Craton (Wang, 2000; Zhu
245
et al., 2016). Other researchers have ascribed the lack of strata to crustal uplift and
246
erosion caused by the Chengjiang or Xuefeng movement. Regardless of its cause, this
247
disconformity indicates an important change in climate or tectonic environment in the
248
Yangtze Craton (Wang et al., 2015b). The second and third regional disconformities
249
are mainly located in the upper Yangtze Craton (He et al., 2017; Hou et al., 2017) and
250
are manifested as parallel unconformable surfaces between the top of the Nantuo
251
Formation in the Nanhua System and the bottom of the Doushantuo Formation in the
252
Sinian System and between the top of the Dengying Formation in the Sinian System
253
and the bottom of the Cambrian System due to localized erosion (Yang et al., 2015;
254
Zhu et al., 2007) (Tab. 2).
255
3.2 Major stratigraphic sequences
256
Based on previous studies and field observations (Wang, 2000; Wang and Li,
257
2001, 2003; Wang et al., 2015b), four major stratigraphic sequences, SS1, SS2, SS3
258
and SS4, have been identified in the strata between the unconformity surfaces (Tabs.
259
2, 3). The first stratigraphic sequence (SS1) developed below the major angular
260
unconformities and includes the strata represented by the Sibao Group in northern
261
Guangxi and its equivalents in other areas. SS1 is dominated by low-grade
262
metamorphic bathyal to shallow marine clastic rocks and a mass of igneous rocks.
263
The second stratigraphic sequence (SS2), between the angular unconformity and the
—12—
264
first regional disconformity, contains the Danzhou Group in North Guangxi and its
265
lateral equivalents. SS2 consists of two secondary sequences, which are characterized
266
by continental clastic and volcaniclastic rocks in the first secondary sequence and by
267
littoral-shallow marine rocks in the second secondary sequence (Tab. 3).
268
The third stratigraphic sequence (SS3), between the first and second regional
269
disconformities, is represented by the Nanhua System in southeastern Guizhou,
270
including the Chang’an, Fulu, Datangpo, and Nantuo formations and their lateral
271
equivalents. SS3 formed during the period of the “snow ball Earth” (Hoffman and
272
Schrag, 2002). The Chang’an and Nantuo glaciations are represented by glaciomarine
273
gravity flow deposits, and the interglacial interval contains sandstones and
274
argillaceous sandstones in littoral-shallow marine facies as well as manganese-bearing
275
carbonaceous and siliceous fine-grained clastics in a water-restricted environment
276
(Wang and Li, 2003; Zhang and Chu, 2006). The fourth stratigraphic sequence (SS4),
277
between the second and third regional disconformities, consists of two secondary
278
sequences (Tab. 3). The first includes the Doushantuo Formation (and its equivalents)
279
with a series of carbonates and carbonaceous clastic deposits in a littoral-shallow
280
marine environment, and the second includes the Dengying Formation (and its
281
equivalents) with carbonate platform tidal flat deposits and deep-water siliceous rocks
282
that are widespread across the Yangtze Craton (Jiang et al., 2011; Zhou, 2016).
283
The four major stratigraphic successions have an obvious vertical cyclicality
284
from the early Qingbaikou bathyal to shallow marine deposits to the late Qingbaikou
285
continental fluvial-alluvial and littoral-shallow marine deposits to the Nanhua glacial
—13—
286
and interglacial deposits to the Sinian carbonate platform deposits. These sequences
287
constitute a nearly complete cycle from marine regression to marine transgression.
288
3.3 Seismic reflection tectonic sequences
289
At least three sets of tectonic sequences, TS4, TS3 and TS2+1, are relatively
290
easy to track in recent regional deep seismic reflection profiles (Dong et al., 2015; Li
291
et al., 2018) (Fig. 3).
292
The first seismic reflection tectonic sequence (TS4) lies between the first and
293
second regional disconformities, and the second seismic reflection tectonic sequence
294
(TS3) lies between the second and third regional disconformities. The third seismic
295
reflection tectonic sequence (TS1+2) is beneath the first regional disconformity and
296
corresponds to SS4, SS3 and the underlying SS2+SS1 (Fig. 3).
297
The presence of regionally extensive, laterally continuous, parallel and
298
subparallel seismic reflections within TS4 denotes its stratified character (Fig. 3). TS3
299
is characterized by discontinuous parallel and subparallel seismic reflections
300
controlled by faults and grabens (Fig. 3). TS2+1 is also characterized by
301
discontinuous parallel and subparallel seismic reflections controlled by faults and
302
grabens. However, further identifying and tracking TS2 and TS1 are difficult because
303
of the poor quality of the seismic data and the limited number of deep wells (Figs. 3,
304
4).
305
Regionally, TS4 is widespread across the Yangtze region. TS3 and TS1+2
306
mainly developed on the periphery of the Yangtze Craton and are restricted to central
307
Sichuan Province in the interior of the Yangtze Craton.
—14—
308
3.4 Sequence of Neoproterozoic prototype basins
309
Four prototype basin stages are identified in the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton,
310
namely, the early Qingbaikou, late Qingbaikou, Nanhua and Sinian periods (Tab. 3),
311
based on the four phases of tectonic evolution of the two plate tectonic environments,
312
the four major unconformity surfaces, the four major stratigraphic sequences and at
313
least three sets of seismic reflection tectonic sequences. The spatial and temporal
314
changes in the depositional fill and its distribution within these basins are then
315
analyzed based on integrated stratigraphic, sedimentologic, paleogeographic and
316
structural studies.
317
4 Distribution of the Neoproterozoic prototype basins
318
4.1 Basins during the early Qingbaikou period
319
During the early Qingbaikou period, three back-arc spreading basins developed
320
on the western and northern Yangtze margins and the interior, and a retro-arc foreland
321
basin formed on the southeastern Yangtze margin (Fig. 5).
322 323
(1) Retro-arc foreland basin on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton
324
On the southeastern Yangtze margin, a retro-arc foreland basin (SEY-RAFB)
325
with a ribbon shape and SW-NE orientation was distributed along the Jiangnan
326
ancient island arc (Fig. 5). The strata include the Fanjingshan Group in northeastern
327
Guizhou, the Sibao Group in northern Yunnan, the Lengjiaxi Group in central Hunan,
328
the Shuangqiaoshan Group in northern Jiangxi and the Shuangxiwu Group in
329
northwestern Zhejiang (Tab. 2).
—15—
330
The sedimentary fill of the SEY-RAFB is generally characterized by a regressive
331
sequence; from bottom to top, the grain size becomes coarser, and the arenaceous
332
deposits increase. Based on the lithological associations (Fig. 6), the sedimentary
333
succession of the SEY-RAFB can be further divided into three parts (i.e., lower,
334
middle and upper). The lower part contains a set of bathyal black shales deposited in
335
an anoxic environment (Wang et al., 2015b); the middle part consists of volcanic
336
rocks and volcaniclastic and bathyal marine sediments, and the upper part shows
337
obvious lithology variations in the basin (Fig. 6). In the southwest, the upper part of
338
Fanjingshan and Lengjiaxi groups are dominated by siltstone, mudstone and
339
tuffaceous rocks of delta and shelf facies (BGMRHN, 1988; DGMRGZ, 1997; Wang
340
et al., 2015b). In the northeast, the upper part of Shuangqiaoshan Group contains
341
volcaniclastic rocks, sandy mudstone and conglomerate (DGMRJX, 1997). The
342
SEY-RAFB has a large depositional thickness.
343
Geochronological studies have shown that the depositional age of the basin is no
344
older than 820 Ma (Gao et al., 2011; Li et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2006b; Zhang et al.,
345
2013c; Zhou et al., 2009). This result illustrates that the SEY-BASB lasted until 820
346
Ma (Wang et al., 2015b) and died out with the final collision between the Yangtze
347
and Cathaysia blocks.
348
(2) Back-arc spreading basin on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton
349
A back-arc spreading basin with a slender triangular shape that extends in N-S is
350
located on the western Yangtze margin (also called the Kangdian area) (KD-BASB)
351
(Fig. 5). The strata include the Yanbian Group and the E’bian Group, as well as the
—16—
352
upper strata of the Kunyang Group, the Huili Group and the Dengxiangying Group
353
(Tab. 2). The thickness is estimated to be several thousands of metres (Geng et al.,
354
2017; Ren et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2006a).
355
The Dengxiangying Group records a relatively complete basin evolutionary
356
process (DGMRSC, 1997; Wang et al., 2015b). Vertically, its lower part (i.e., the
357
Songlinping and Shengou formations) is composed of metamorphic siltstones,
358
phyllites and interbedded marbles that represent the early restricted deep-water basin
359
stage. The middle part (i.e., the Zhegu and Chaowangping formations) contains
360
intermediate-acidic volcanic, volcaniclastic and coarse clastic rocks that represent the
361
expansion and rapid filling stage of the basin and the upper part (i.e., the Darezha and
362
Jiupanying formations) consists of carbonate platform, shallow-water shelf and delta
363
sediments that mark the gradual basin stabilization stage (Fig. 6). This sequence
364
reveals the sedimentary characteristics of the back-arc spreading basin as a whole.
365 366
In general, due to the discontinuity of the outcrops and the lack of wells, the infilling succession of the KD-BASB is not clear.
367
(3) Back-arc spreading basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton
368
Little is known about the basin fill on the northern Yangtze margin due to
369
extremely poorly exposed strata and intense late deformation.
370
The Sanhuashi Group in the Hannan area in southern Shanxi and the Huashan
371
Group in the Dahongshan area in northern Hubei, which are up to two kilometres
372
thick, are from the early Qingbaikou period (Tab. 2). These groups are composed of a
373
series of metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Ling et al., 2003). In
—17—
374
addition, numerous lava breccia and lava conglomerates of the Sanhuashi Group are
375
exposed in the Chazhen and Xixiang areas (Tao et al., 1993). Several scholars have
376
defined this group as the initial island arc deposits (Tao et al., 1993), but others have
377
argued that it was the result of island arc-related basin deposition (Wang et al., 2009).
378
Based on the large amount of arc-related magmatism on the northern margin of
379
Yangtze and our review of the plate tectonic environment, we propose that a back-arc
380
spreading basin formed on the northern Yangtze margin, called the NY-BASB.
381
Note that the early Qingbaikou sediments were involved in the thrust belt due to
382
later superimposed tectonic reworking, which, coupled with the sporadically
383
distributed outcrops, leads to difficulties in identifying and restoring the basin
384
structure and extent (Fig. 4).
385
4.2 Basins during the late Qingbaikou period
386
During the late Qingbaikou period, back-arc spreading basins were still present
387
on the western and northern margins of the Yangtze Craton; in addition, extensional
388
down-faulted basins formed on the southeastern Yangtze margin and its interior (Fig.
389
7).
390
(1) Back-arc spreading basin on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton
391
On the western Yangtze margin, namely the Kangdian area, a back-arc spreading
392
basin (KD-BASB) was controlled by the N-S-trending Anninghe-Yimen fault (Fig. 7).
393
The outcrops in this region have poor continuity and complex lithology. The main
394
stratigraphic units are exposed in Sichuan, Yunnan and the surrounding area,
395
including the Luliang Formation, Liubatang Formation, Chengjiang Formation,
—18—
396
Niutoushan Formation, Suxiong Formation and Kaijianqiao Formation (Tab. 2).
397
The sedimentary infilling characteristics of the KD-BASB (Fig. 8) reveal that the
398
bottom is dominated by a series of sandy conglomerate sediments represented by the
399
bottom marine fan deposits of the Luliang Formation (tuff zircon SHRIMP U-Pb age
400
of 818.6 ± 9 Ma; Zhuo et al., 2013) unconformably overlying the Mesoproterozoic
401
Kunyang Group. The middle part consists of greywacke with interbedded mudstone,
402
argillaceous siltstone and siliceous shale; horizontal bedding and convolute bedding
403
indicate the front of the underwater fan and a littoral sedimentary environment,
404
represented by the lower part of the Luliang Formation (BGMRYN, 1984). The upper
405
sediments are controlled by the topography of the basin, leading to large changes in
406
lithofacies (Wang et al., 2015b). For example, the upper part of the Luliang Formation
407
and the overlying Niutoushan Formation are dominated by littoral to lake deposits, the
408
Chengjiang Formation is dominated by fluvial deposits, the Suxiong Formation is
409
dominated by volcanic rocks, and the Kaijianqiao Formation is mainly composed of
410
volcaniclastic sediments (DGMRSC, 1997; Wang et al., 2015b). After the Wuling
411
movement, back-arc extension is suggested to have occurred again on the western
412
Yangtze margin. The total sedimentary thickness of the WY-BASB ranges from
413
several hundred metres to two or three kilometres.
414
Additional geochemical studies of the western Yangtze margin, such as the
415
basaltic rocks of the Huangtian Formation (782±53 Ma; Du et al., 2005) of the
416
Yanbian Group, have suggested a subduction-related back-arc extensional
417
environment (Sun et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2006a). In addition, the contemporaneous
—19—
418
volcanic rocks (including the Kangding complex, the Suxiong Group and the Yanjing
419
Group) are composed of more than 98% acidic volcanic rocks and very few basic
420
volcanic rocks, distinct from typical large igneous provinces (such as the Emeishan
421
LIP), which are mainly composed of basic rocks.
422
(2) Back-arc spreading basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton
423
On the northern Yangtze margin, an E-W-oriented back-arc spreading basin
424
(NY-BASB) formed (Fig. 7). The outcrops in this region consist of the Xixiang Group
425
and Bikou Group in the Hannan area in southern Shanxi and the Liantuo Formation
426
on the periphery of the Shennongjia and Dahongshna areas in northern Hubei (Tab.
427
2). The sedimentary filling characteristics reveal that the volcanic activity was intense
428
during the early stage, resulting in volcanic and volcaniclastic sediments; during the
429
late stage, the volcanic activity was weaker, and the Liantuo Formation in the
430
Shennongjia-Dahongshan area (tuff zircon SHRIMP U-Pb age of 724±12 Ma; Gao
431
and Zhang, 2009) mainly contains littoral-shallow marine tuffaceous sandy
432
conglomerate, siltstones and sandy mudstones. In general, the basin expanded, with
433
the deposits gradually filling from south to north.
434 435
(3) Extensional down-faulted basins on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton
436
Previous workers have conducted detailed studies of this basin based on the
437
sedimentary sequences (Wang, 2000; Wang and Li, 2003; Wang et al., 2015a; Wang
438
et al., 2015b). The outcrops mainly include the Xiajiang Group in northeastern
439
Guizhou, the Danzhou Group in northern Yunnan, the Banxi Group in central Hunan,
—20—
440
the Heshangzhen Group in northern Jiangxi and the Likou Group in southern Anhui
441
(Tab. 2). This period was a time of extensive magmatism (Li et al., 2003a; Li et al.,
442
2008a; Li et al., 2003b; Wang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2006b; Zhou et al., 2009).
443
Numerous chronological studies have shown that the bottom boundary of the Banxi
444
Group and its equivalent strata should be older than 820 Ma and that the top boundary
445
should be no older than 720 Ma (Gao et al., 2011; Wang and Li, 2003; Wang et al.,
446
2012a; Wang et al., 2015b; Yin et al., 2003; Zhang and Song, 2008; Zhang et al.,
447
2008c), a time span of approximately 100 Myr.
448
Two subbasins can be further identified; the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi
449
extensional
down-faulted
basin
(HGG-EDB)
in
the
west
and
the
450
Jiangxi-Anhui-Zhejiang extensional down-faulted basin (JAZ-EDB) in the east. These
451
basins are oriented SW-NE and WSW-ENE (Fig. 7) and are bounded by two normal
452
faults, the Shimen-Huayuan-Xiushan-Zunyi fault and the Jiujiang-Shitai fault (Chen
453
et al., 2016a; Sun et al., 2018). However, identifying the structural styles on seismic
454
profiles is difficult due to the later complex tectonic superposition and deformation
455
(Fig. 4).
456
The vertical basin fill can be generally divided into three parts (namely, the
457
bottom, middle and upper) (Fig. 7). The bottom section is a set of sandy
458
conglomerates deposited in an alluvial-littoral environment, which was widely
459
distributed in the basins (DGMRGX, 1997; Wang et al., 2006a; Wang et al., 2015b).
460
The middle part is dominated by a set of fining-upward terrigenous clastic rocks
461
interbedded with carbonate deposits, which record a sedimentary cycle from delta to
—21—
462
shallow shelf, carbonate platform and starved basin facies. This section is represented
463
by the upper Baizhu Formation and the Hetong Formation of the Danzhou Group in
464
the HGG-EDB and the upper Luojiamen Formation and Hongchicun Formation of the
465
Heshangzhen Group in the JAZ-EDB. The upper section is composed of
466
fining-upward sandstone and shale deposits as well as volcaniclastic sediments in
467
littoral and shallow marine facies, represented by the Sanmenjie and Gongdong
468
formations of the Danzhou Group in the HGG-EDB, which are equivalent to the
469
Shangshu and Zhitang formations in the JAZ-EDB.
470
Three stages of basin evolution, including initial opening, rapid expansion and
471
stable filling, can be identified based on field outcrops (Wang et al., 2015b). The
472
initial opening stage is characterized by the bottom conglomerate overlapping onto
473
the Sibao Group and its equivalents, representing the opening of a new basin after the
474
Sibao Orogeny (Chen et al., 2016a; Wang et al., 2006a). The rapid expansion stage is
475
characterized by a major episode of volcanic deposits and sea- level rise. The stable
476
filling stage is characterized by stable regional subsidence and transgressive deposits.
477
The thickness varies greatly from several hundred metres to seven or eight kilometres
478
(Wang and Li, 2003).
479
The formation mechanism of these basins has been vigorously debated given the
480
petrogenesis of the ca. 830-740 Ma igneous rocks (Li et al., 2003b; Wang et al., 2004;
481
Zheng et al., 2008). Based on recent geochemistry studies, particularly zircon U-Pb
482
ages and whole-rock trace element analyses, the magmatic episode appears to have
483
been a response to the tectonic collapse of an arc-continent collisional orogeny
—22—
484
(Zheng et al., 2007, 2008). Furthermore, the tectonic transition from syn-collisional
485
compression to post-collisional extension is confirmed to have occurred at ~805 Ma
486
(Wang et al., 2012a; Yao et al., 2013). Note that many geologists have studied these
487
basins and have called them “rifts” (e.g., Wang and Li, 2003). Based on the plate
488
tectonic configuration, we define them as extensional down-faulted basin that formed
489
in a convergent margin setting (Tab. 3) rather than rift basins that formed in a
490
divergent margin setting.
491
These extensional down-faulted basins and back-arc spreading basins during the
492
late Qingbaikou period overlie the early retro-arc foreland basin and back-arc
493
spreading basins with regional angular unconformable relationships and are underlain
494
unconformably or conformably by the Nanhua basins.
495
4.3 Basins during the Nanhua period
496
During the Nanhua period, rift basins were widely distributed on the
497
southeastern, western, and northern Yangtze margins and the interior regions (Tab. 3,
498
Fig. 9). Corresponding to the large-scale breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia and
499
the global glacial periods, the Nanhua rift basins were controlled by extensional
500
normal faults and featured graben or half-graben structural styles (Fig. 3). In addition,
501
the sea-level changes caused by glacial melting led to differences in the sedimentary
502
infilling characteristics of the rift basins in different regions.
503
(1) Rift basins on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton
504
The rift basins on the southeastern Yangtze margin can be further divided into
505
two subbasins, namely, the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi rift basin (HGG-RB) in the west
—23—
506
and the Jiangxi-Anhui-Zhejiang rift basin (JAZ-RB) in the east (Fig. 9).
507
1) The HGG-RB is bounded by the Sandu-Tongren fault to the north (Zhou et al.,
508
2016) and has a SW-NE orientation (Fig. 9). Sedimentary strata mainly include the
509
early Chang’an glacial, Fulu interglacial and late Nantuo glacial deposits, which have
510
a maximum thickness of 3000 metres. Taking the Nanhua System in northern
511
Guangxi as representative of the early glacial period (Fig. 10), the Chang’an
512
Formation is composed of conglomeratic sandstone and mudstone and sandy
513
mudstone, indicating deep glacial fans and gravity flows. The Fulu Formation
514
represents the interglacial period and is composed of a set of littoral sandstone and
515
sandy mudstone deposits. The Gucheng Formation indicates a very short regional
516
glaciation represented by glacial shelf conglomeratic mudstone. The Datangpo
517
Formation represents another interglacial period and contains a set of black
518
carbonaceous shales and manganese-bearing rocks deposited in a gulf and lagoon
519
environment. Deposited during the late glacial period, the Nantuo Formation is
520
dominated by glacial shallow marine conglomeratic sandstone and mudstone. A 725 ±
521
10 Ma SHRIMP U-Pb zircon age from the onset of the Chang’an Formation in Hunan
522
Province (Zhang and Song, 2008) provides a constraint on the maximum age of the
523
Nanhua rift basins.
524
Combining this information with the structural characteristics, the basin
525
evolution can be further divided into three stages, including the initial rifting, main
526
rifting and stable filling stages (Fig. 10). During the initial rifting stage, which
527
corresponds to the Chang’an glacial period, the faulting was relatively weak. From the
—24—
528
edge to the interior of the basin, the sedimentary fill varied from glacial shelf to
529
glacial deep marine fan and gravity flow deposits, with increasing thickness. In the
530
main rifting stage, corresponding to the Fulu interglacial period, deposition was
531
mainly controlled by a series of secondary grabens and horsts caused by
532
syn-depositional normal faults (Du et al., 2015). In addition, hydrothermal activity
533
related to the faulting was an important factor in the development of the Datangpo
534
manganese ores (Du et al., 2015). The stable filling stage, corresponding to the
535
Nantuo glacial period, was characterized by further basin expansion (Wang et al.,
536
2015b). The sediments gradually transitioned from continental glacial debris flows to
537
glacial shelf deposits from the edge to the interior of the basin.
538
2) The JAZ-RB is located north of the Jiangshan-Shaoxing fault and is thinner
539
(less than 500 metres). The outcrops are mainly exposed in northern Zhejiang and
540
southern Anhui (Fig. 1). Although the stratigraphic division of the Nanhua System in
541
this region has not yet been precisely confirmed, the sedimentary sequence is
542
composed of three distinct lithologic sections (DGMRAH, 1997), called the Xiayabu,
543
Yang’an and Leigongwu formations from bottom to top, which are equivalent to the
544
Gucheng, Datangpo, and Nantuo formations in the HGG-RB, respectively (Tab. 2).
545
The Xiayabu Formation is composed of greyish green massive conglomerate-bearing
546
silty mudstone that is only several metres thick, the Yang’an Formation consists of
547
manganese-bearing dolomite and limestone and shale, with a maximum thickness of
548
dozens of metres, and the Leigongwu Formation contains relatively thick glacial
549
deposits, including massive conglomerate-bearing silty mudstone.
—25—
550
The basin evolution can be further divided into two stages. In the early stage, due
551
to weak tectonic activity and low elevation (Wang et al., 2015b), the basin lacked
552
sediment sources and had relatively thin deposits, corresponding to the Xiayabu and
553
Yang’an formations. In the late stage, the basin transitioned to a stable filling period
554
and accepted thick sediments corresponding to the Leigongwu Formation.
555
(2) Rift basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton
556
On the northern Yangtze margin, a rift basin (NY-RB) is bounded by the
557
Xiangfan-Guangji fault to the south and is oriented E-W (Fig. 9). The sedimentary
558
strata include the Gucheng, Datangpo, and Nantuo formations, which have scattered
559
exposures
560
Ningqiang-Zhenba-Chengkou area in northern Sichuan and southern Shanxi (Fig. 1,
561
Tab. 2). The Gucheng Formation contains conglomeratic sandstone, represents glacial
562
foreshore facies, the Datangpo Formation is dominated by argillaceous siltstone in
563
delta front and nearshore facies, and the Nantuo Formation consists of conglomeratic
564
sandstone and volcaniclastic rocks in glacial littoral facies (Fig. 10), with a thickness
565
of 50-300 metres.
in
the
Yunxi-Shiyan
area
in
northwestern
Hubei
and
the
566
Similar to the JAZ-RB, the NY-RB also experienced two evolutionary stages,
567
namely, the early stage (composed of the Gucheng and Datangpo formations) and the
568
late stage (composed of the Nantuo Formation).
569
(3) Rift basin on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton
570
On the western Yangtze margin, in the Kangdian area, an S-N-oriented rift basin
571
(KD-RB) is controlled by the Anninghe-Yimen fault to the west and
—26—
572
Ganluo-Xiaojiang fault to the east (Cui et al., 2014) (Fig. 9). Outcrops of the Nantuo
573
Formation and Lieguliu Formation are mainly exposed in the western Sichuan and
574
eastern Yunnan areas, respectively, and they unconformably overlie the Chengjiang
575
Formation and the Kaijianqiao formations (Tab. 2). The basin fill consists of a set of
576
purple-red block sandy conglomerate, shale and silty shale with a total thickness of
577
25-200 metres representing continental glacial debris flow and glacial lake facies.
578
(4) Rift basin in central Sichuan
579
The central Sichuan rift basin (CS-RB) is located in the centre of the modern
580
Sichuan Basin and is covered by Palaeozoic-Cenozoic strata (Figs. 1, 9). A series of
581
graben and half-graben structural styles controlled by normal faults is identified on
582
regional deep seismic reflection profiles and high-quality conventional seismic
583
reflection profiles from oil companies (Gu and Wang, 2014; Li et al., 2018; Zhong et
584
al., 2013) (Figs. 3, 11).
585
In general, the CS-RB and related boundary faults are oriented NE-SW. The
586
basin is bounded by the Pujiang-Bazhong fault to the southwest and the Huayingshan
587
fault ton the northeast (Gu and Wang, 2014). However, the sedimentary filling
588
characteristics in the basin are not clear because of the lack of deep wells.
589
Note that although rifting in both basins was ended by the late Neoproterozoic
590
(~750 Ma), the Nanhua basins, especially the basins in the southeastern Yangtze
591
Craton, eventually evolved into a foreland basin during the late Ordovician-Silurian
592
“Caledonian” orogeny and were closed by the end of this orogeny (Li et al., 2018; Li
593
et al., 2010b). Major thrusts developed between the Cathaysia Block and the Yangtze
—27—
594
Block during both the “Caledonian” orogeny and the Mesozoic Indosinian orogeny
595
along the former Nanhua basin (Li et al., 2010b). These thrusts caused discontinuities
596
in the pre-Mesozoic sedimentary lithofacies, including those of the Neoproterozoic
597
strata. The seismic profiles show that these rocks are involved in a series of thrust
598
nappe belts (Fig. 4) that include the early strata.
599
The Nanhua rift basins are in disconformable or conformable contact with the
600
underlying extensional down-faulted basins and back-arc spreading basins. The
601
overlying strata of the Nanhua and Sinian Systems were deposited in the extensional
602
down-faulted basins from 820-720 Ma along the southeastern margin of the Yangtze
603
Block and probably reflect back-arc spreading basins above the long-lived (1000-720
604
Ma) oceanic subduction zone along the northern and western margins of the Yangtze
605
Block (Zhao et al., 2011).
606
4.4 Basins during the Sinian period
607
After the rift basin stage, the Yangtze Craton entered an overall thermal
608
subsidence basin stage, corresponding to the late stage of the Rodinia breakup
609
process. At this time, melting glaciers led to a marine transgression that linked all of
610
the individual rift basins. The rift basins on the southeastern and northern Yangtze
611
margins became stable, maintaining a deep-water basin sedimentary environment.
612
The main part of the Yangtze Craton gradually developed into a carbonate platform.
613
In addition, a series of intracratonic rift basins formed in the Yangtze Craton (Fig. 12)
614
(Du et al., 2016), containing relatively deep-water deposits within the carbonate
615
platform. The U-Pb zircon dates from volcanic ash beds at the bottom of the Sinian
—28—
616
Doushantuo Formation in the Three Gorges indicate that the timing of basin
617
deposition was ca. 635 Ma (Condon et al., 2005). Generally, the entire Yangtze is
618
thought to have accepted the Sinian deposits, with total sedimentary thicknesses
619
ranging from approximately 50 to 1000 metres.
620
The characteristics of the intracratonic rift basins and divergent marginal
621
subsidence basins are discussed below.
622
(1) Intracratonic rift basin
623
The intracratonic rift basins are located in the interior of the Yangtze Craton (Tab.
624
3, Fig. 12). Two subbasins can be recognized: the central Sichuan (CS-IRB) and west
625
Hubei-east Chongqing (HC-IRB) intracratonic rift basins (Figs. 12, 13). These basins
626
are characterized by syn-depositional faults (Hou et al., 2017; Wei et al., 2015; Wu et
627
al., 2016) (Fig. 11C). Large amounts of deformed bedding and convoluted bedding as
628
well as slump breccia and slide collapse blocks affected by syn-depositional faults are
629
found in outcrops in western Hubei and northeastern Guizhou (Vernhet, 2007).
630
On the seismic profiles (Fig. 11C), the edge of the basin is characterized by
631
medium amplitude, medium- to low-frequency reflections, while the subsidence zone
632
exhibits continuous parallel amplitude, medium- to high-frequency reflections. The
633
basin extent is further confirmed by the sedimentary characteristics in a large number
634
of wells and outcrops. The edge of the basin is dominated by reef or platform margin
635
shoal facies, and the subsidence zone developed deep-water slope and shelf facies
636
(Fig. 13).
637
(2) Divergent marginal subsidence basin
—29—
638 639
Divergent marginal subsidence basins occurred on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins (SEY-DMSB and NY-DMSB).
640
Field outcrops and well profiles show that the SEY-DMSB generally consists of
641
deep-water basin facies represented by the early black shale deposits of the
642
Doushantuo Formation and the late black siliceous rocks of the Dengying Formation
643
(Jiang et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2007).
644
In the NY-DMSB, the early sediments vary from shale and argillaceous
645
carbonates of continental shelf facies in the south to sandstone and silty mudstone of
646
the littoral facies in the north. From south to north, the late-stage sediments range
647
from siliceous rocks of the deep-water basin to carbonate rocks of carbonate platform
648
facies.
649
The Sinian subsidence basins are in disconformable or conformable contact with
650
the underlying Nantuo System (Tab. 2, Fig. 11) and in disconformable or conformable
651
contact with the overlying early Palaeozoic Cambrian System. In addition, the dark
652
mudstone and argillaceous limestone in these divergent margin subsidence and
653
intracratonic rift basins have proven to be important source rocks in the
654
Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton (Wang et al., 2014).
655
5. Implications of prototype basins for oil and gas exploration
656
5.1 Rift basins are most conducive for global petroleum exploration
657
Global petroleum exploration has revealed that rift basins are the most
658
favourable petroliferous basins, followed by divergent marginal subsidence basins,
659
based on analyses of basins from the Proterozoic to the Cenozoic (Ghori et al., 2009;
—30—
660
Jia et al., 2011; Mann P et al., 2003; USGS world petroleum assessment, 2000).
661
These basins make up approximately 40% and 30%, respectively, of the 155
662
petroliferous basins (Fig. 14A). For example, the Palaeozoic Illizi and Cenozoic Sirte
663
rift basins in North Africa contain reserves of approximately 30-35 billion barrels of
664
oil equivalent (Craig et al., 2009; Macgregor, 1996). These two basins are among the
665
world’s largest producing areas and contain 85% of the oil and 80% of the gas
666
discovered in North Africa (Mann et al., 2003).
667
The favourable types of petroliferous basins have differed during various
668
geological periods. Rift basins were dominant during the Proterozoic and Mesozoic
669
(88% and 42% of the basins, respectively), and foreland basins and divergent
670
marginal subsidence basins were dominant during the Palaeozoic and Cenozoic
671
(62% and 40% of the basins, respectively) (Fig. 14B). In particular, Proterozoic
672
(mainly Meso-Neoproterozoic) petroliferous rift basins have been confirmed by
673
petroleum exploration (Ghori et al., 2009). For example, at least 12 billion barrels of
674
oil were derived from the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup source rocks in the
675
Oman rift basins (Ghori et al., 2009; Grantham et al. 1987). This abundance was due
676
to the following reasons. 1) The Neoproterozoic rift basins have source rocks with
677
high total organic carbon (TOC) contents due to the unique climate and environment.
678
For example, the Riphean source rocks have been documented or inferred in almost
679
every rift basin on the Siberian Craton; they have TOC contents up to 13.5% and are
680
up to 200 metres thick (Frolov et al., 2015). 2) The Neoproterozoic marked a
681
significant turning point in the history of life. Weathering and volcanism during the
—31—
682
breakup of Rodinia provided large amounts of nutrients (Zhao et al., 2018c). The
683
melting of glaciers led to the upwelling of bottom water rich in phosphorus and
684
manganese, promoting biological activity (Hu, 1997; Huang et al., 2010; Wang and
685
Han, 2011). 3) The anoxic and reduced bottom water during the Neoproterozoic
686
facilitated the preservation of sedimentary organic matter (Canfield, 1998; Li et al.,
687
2010a), which is essential for oil-gas generation, providing favourable conditions for
688
the formation of giant oil and gas fields in Neoproterozoic rift basins. 4) After the
689
rifting period, the sag or passive margin sediments provided good sealing conditions
690
for the preservation of Neoproterozoic oil and gas.
691
5.2 Implications of Neoproterozoic basins for oil and gas exploration in the
692
Yangtze Craton
693
Three sets of hydrocarbon source rocks, including the black charcoal shale and
694
silty shale of the Nanhua Datangpo Formation, the black charcoal shale of the Sinian
695
Doushantuo Formation and the dark mud and argillaceous carbonates of the Sinian
696
Dengying Formation, have been proven or documented in the Neoproterozoic
697
Yangtze Craton (Wang and Song, 2016; Xie et al., 2017). Their TOC contents are
698
0.43-8.5%, 0.56-14.17%, and 0.5-4.73%, respectively (Wang and Song, 2016; Wei et
699
al., 2010; Xie et al., 2017). The discovery of the Weiyuan Sinian and Anyue
700
Sinian-Cambrian gas fields in central Sichuan, which have proven reserves of
701
400×108 m3 and 4400×108 m3, respectively (Wei et al., 2010, 2013; Zou et al., 2014),
702
and the latest shale gas breakthroughs in the Sinian Doushantuo Formation in the
703
Yichang area, western Hubei (Chen et al., 2016b; Peng et al., 2017) (Fig. 1), have
—32—
704
confirmed the great hydrocarbon potential in the Neoproterozoic Yangtze basins.
705
These petroleum resources originated from the organic-rich sediments that
706
formed during the rift basin and subsidence stages. Thus, we make the following
707
predictions. 1) The favourable regions of the Nanhua System are on the southeastern
708
and northern Yangtze margins, and they are all controlled by rift basins (HGG-RB
709
and NY-RB), with estimated source rock thicknesses of 10-180 metres (Wang et al.,
710
2014; Wang and Song, 2016; Xie et al., 2017). 2) The prospect regions of the Sinian
711
System are on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins and its interior, and
712
they are controlled by the divergent marginal subsidence and intracratonic rift basins
713
(SEY-DMSB, NY-DMSB, CS-IRB, and HC-IRB), which have estimated source rock
714
thicknesses of 10-200 metres and 5-30 metres in the Sinian Doushantuo and Dengying
715
formations, respectively (Wang et al., 2014; Wang and Song, 2016).
716
Note that due to the limitations of the deep geophysical data and wells in the
717
Yangtze Craton, the precise extents of the prototype basins and the distribution of
718
effective source rocks require further study, which will be the key to accurate
719
evaluation of the petroleum potential of the Neoproterozoic Yangtze rocks. Therefore,
720
increasing the collection of deep high-resolution geophysical data and the drilling of
721
wells in the Yangtze Craton in the future is suggested.
722
6. Conclusions
723
1) The basins of the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton passed through two stages
724
of evolution of their plate tectonic environments. These stages included a convergent
725
continental marginal setting during the Qingbaikou period (ca. 1000-720 Ma) that
—33—
726
transitioned to a divergent continental marginal setting in the late Neoproterozoic
727
Nanhua and Sinian periods (ca. 720-541 Ma) and were influenced by the assembly
728
and breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, respectively.
729
2) Four phases of prototype basin evolution in the Neoproterozoic Yangtze
730
Craton can be identified based on the two plate tectonic settings, four major
731
unconformity surfaces, four major stratigraphic sequences and at least three sets of
732
seismic reflection tectonic sequences. They are 1) the early Qingbaikou period (ca.
733
1000-820 Ma), when the back-arc spreading basins on the western and northern
734
Yangtze margins and the interior, and the retro-arc foreland basin on the southeastern
735
Yangtze margin formed; 2) the late Qingbaikou period (ca. 820-720 Ma), when the
736
back-arc spreading basins on the western and northern Yangtze margins, and the
737
extensional down-faulted basins on the southeastern Yangtze margin and the interior
738
of the Yangtze Craton formed; 3) the Nanhua period (ca. 720-635 Ma), when the rift
739
basins on the southeastern, western and northern Yangtze margins and its interior
740
formed; and 4) the Sinian period (ca. 635-541 Ma), when the intracratonic rift basins
741
within the Yangtze Craton and the divergent marginal subsidence basins on the
742
southeastern and northern Yangtze margins formed.
743
3) A comparison of the oil-gas exploration in China and abroad indicated that the
744
Nanhua rift basins, the Sinian divergent marginal subsidence basins and the
745
intracratonic rift basins are the favourable prototype basin types. These basins are
746
located on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins and in the interior of the
747
Yangtze Craton. The black charcoal shale and silty shale, mudstone and argillaceous
—34—
748
limestone in these basins are important source rocks. So, increasing the collection of
749
deep high-resolution geophysical data and drilling deep wells in the Yangtze Craton
750
in the future is essential for determining the extents of the prototype basins and the
751
distribution of the hydrocarbon source rocks.
752
Acknowledgements:
753
This study is financially supported by the National Key Research &
754
Development Plan (Grant No. 2016YFC0601005, 2016YFC0601003) and the
755
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 22120180128).
756
We thank Prof. Xiaojin Zhou, Prof. Yunpeng Dong and Prof. Kexin Zhang for their
757
useful suggestions. The manuscript benefited from insightful reviews and comments
758
by Prof. Jinlong Yao and one anonymous reviewer.
—35—
759
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Zhong, Y., Li, Y.L., Zhang, X.B., Liu, S.G., Liu, D.J., Deng, X.J., Chen, S., Sun, W., Chen, Y.H.,
1230
2013. Features of extensional structures in pre-Sinian to Cambrian strata, Sichuan Basin,
1231
China. Journal of Chengdu University of Technology 40 (5), 498-510 (in Chinese with
1232
English abstract).
1233 1234
Zhou, C., Tucker, R., Xiao, S., Peng, Z., Yuan, X., Chen, Z., 2004. New constraints on the ages of Neoproterozoic glaciations in south China. Geology 32, 437.
1235
Zhou, C.M., Xiao, S.H., Wang, W., Guan, C.G., Qing, O.Y., Chen, Z., 2017. The stratigraphic
1236
complexity of the middle Ediacaran carbon isotopic record in the Yangtze Gorges area, South
1237
China, and its implications for the age and chemostratigraphic significance of the Shuram —51—
1238
excursion. Precambrian Research 288, 23-38.
1239
Zhou, C.M., 2016. Neoproterozoic liyhostratigraphy and correlation across the Yangtze Block,
1240
South China. Journal of Stratigraphy 40 (2), 120-135 (in Chinese with English abstract).
1241
Zhou, J.C., Wang, X.L., Qiu, J.S., 2009. Geochronology of Neoproterozoic mafic rocks and
1242
sandstones from northeastern Guizhou, South China: Coeval arc magmatism and
1243
sedimentation. Precambrian Research 170 (1), 27-42.
1244
Zhou, M.F., K., K.A., Min, S., John, M., Michael, L.C., 2002. Neoproterozoic arc-related mafic
1245
intrusions along the northern margin of South China: Implications for the accretion of
1246
Rodinia. Journal of Geology 110 (5), 611-618.
1247
Zhou, M.F., Ma, Y.X., Yan, D.P., Xia, X.P., Zhao, J.H., Sun, M., 2006a. The Yanbian Terrane
1248
(Southern Sichuan Province, SW China): A Neoproterozoic arc assemblage in the western
1249
margin of the Yangtze Block. Precambrian Research 144 (1), 19-38.
1250
Zhou, M.F., Yan, D.P., Wang, C.L., Qi, L., Kennedy, A., 2006b. Subduction-related origin of the
1251
750Ma Xuelongbao adakitic complex (Sichuan Province, China): Implications for the
1252
tectonic setting of the giant Neoproterozoic magmatic event in South China. Earth &
1253
Planetary Science Letters 248 (1), 286-300.
1254
Zhou, Q., Du, Y.S., Yuan, L.J., Zhang, S., Yu, W.C., Yang, S.T., Yu, L., 2016. The structure of
1255
the Wuling rift basin and its control on the manganese deposit during the Nanhua Period in
1256
Guizhou-Hunan-Chongqing border area, South China. Earth Science 41 (2), 177-188 (in
1257
Chinese with English abstract).
1258
Zhou, X.M., Zou, H.B., Yang, J.D., Wang, Y.X., 1989. Sm-Nd isochronous age of Fuchuan
1259
ophiolite suite in Shexian county, Anhui Province, and its geological significance. Chinese
1260
Science Bulletin 34, 1243-1245 (in Chinese with English abstract).
1261 1262
Zhu, M.Y., Zhang, J.M., Yang, A.H., 2007. Integrated Ediacaran (Sinian) chronostratigraphy of South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 254 (1-2), 7-61.
1263
Zhu, X.Y., Chen, F.K., Nie, H., Siebel, W., Yang, Y.Z., Xue, Y.Y., Zhai, M.G., 2014.
1264
Neoproterozoic tectonic evolution of South Qinling, China: Evidence from zircon ages and
1265
geochemistry of the Yaolinghe volcanic rocks. Precambrian Research 245, 115-130.
1266
Zhu M. Y. Zhang J. P., Yang A. H., Li G. X., Zhao F. C., Lü M., Yin C. J., 2016.
1267
Source-reservoir-cap condition and sedimentary environment of the Neoproterozoic strata in —52—
1268
south China, in: Sun S., Wang T. G., Meso-Neoproterozoic geology and oil and gas resources
1269
in east China. Science Press, Beijing, pp. 107-135.
1270
Zhuo, J., Jiang, X., Wang J., Cui, X., Xiong, G., Lu, J., Liu, J., Ma, M., 2013. Opening time and
1271
filling pattern of the Neoproterozoic Kangdian rift basin, western Yangtze Continent, South
1272
China. Science China Earth Sciences 56 (10), 1664-1676.
1273
Zhuo J., Jiang X., Wang J., Cui X., Wu H., Xiong G., Lu J., Jiang Z., 2015. Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb
1274
age of sedimentary tuff at the bottom of Neoproterozoic Kaijianqiao Formation in western
1275
Sichuan, and its geological implication. Journal of Mineralogy and Petrology 35, 91-99 (in
1276
Chinese with English Abstract).
1277
Zou, C.N., Du, J.H., Xu, C.C., Wang, Z.C., Zhang, B.M., Wei, G.Q., Wang, T.S., Yao, G.S., Deng,
1278
S.H., Liu, J.J., 2014. Formation, distribution, resource potential and discovery of the
1279
Sinian-Cambrian giant gas field, Sichuan Basin, SW China. Petroleum Exploration &
1280
Development 41 (3), 306-325.
—53—
1281
Tables:
1282
Table 1. The prototype basin classification scheme for Neoproterozoic Yangtze basins,
1283
modified from Zhang (1997, 2010) and Kingston et al. (1983a).
1284
—54—
1285
Table 2. Neoproterozoic stratigraphy and correlation of the Yangtze Craton, revised after Wang and Li (2003), Wang et al. (2015b), Zhou,
1286
(2016).
1287
—55—
1288
Table 3. Tectonic environment and evolutionary sequences of the prototype basins in
1289
the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton.
1290 1291
—56—
1292
Figures:
1293 1294
Figure 1. Geological map of the Yangtze Craton showing the distribution of
1295
Precambrian rocks, modified after Charvet (2013), Shu et al. (2019), Wang et al.
1296
(2015b), Yao et al. (2019), Zhao and Cawood, (2012).
—57—
1297 1298
Figure 2. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Yangtze Craton in the
1299
supercontinent Rodinia, Yg-Yangtze, Ca-Cathaysia, SC-South China (including
1300
Yangtze and Cathaysia), modified after Zhao et al. (2018a).
—58—
1301 1302
Figure 3. Interpretation of deep seismic profile L1, modified after Li et al. (2018) (see
1303
Fig. 1 for the location).
1304
1305 1306
Figure 4. Interpretation of seismic profile L2, modified after Dong et al. (2015) (see
1307
Fig. 1 for the location).
—59—
1308 1309
Figure 5. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton in the early
1310
Qingbaikou period (see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins) (main outcrop
1311
section source: BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRGZ, 1987; DGMRAH, 1997; DGMRJX,
1312
1997; DGMRSC, 1997).
—60—
1313 1314
Figure 6. Schematic cross-section of the early Qingbaikou basins (see Fig. 5 for the
1315
location of line A-A’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of
1316
the basins). 03-Dengxiangying Group, Xide, Sichuan; 02-E’bian Group, E’bian,
1317
Sichuan; 11-Fanjingshan Group, Yinjiang, Guizhou; 12-Lengjiaxi Group, Yuanling,
1318
Hunan; 08-Shuangqiaoshan Group, Xiushui, Jiangxi; 07-Xikou Group, Xiuning,
1319
Anhui.
—61—
1320 1321
Figure 7. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton during the late
1322
Qingbaikou period (see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins) (main outcrop
1323
section source: BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRHN, 1988; BGMRYN, 1984; DGMRGX,
1324
1997; DGMRGZ, 1997; DGMRSC, 1997).
—62—
1325 1326
Figure 8. Schematic cross-section of the late Qingbaikou basins (see Fig. 7 for the
1327
location of line B-B’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of
1328
the basins). 02-Kaijianqiao Formation, Ganluo, Sichuan; 03-Chengjiang Formation,
1329
Jinyang, Sichuan; 01-Luliang and Niutoushan formations, Luliang, Yunnan;
1330
07-Laoshanya and Xieshuihe formations, Shimen, Hunan; 08- Banxi Group, Songtao,
1331
Guizhou; 09-Banxi Group, Zhijiang, Hunan; 12-Xiajiang Group, Jinping, Guizhou;
1332
10-Gaojian Group, Qianyang, Hunan; 15-Danzhou Group, Sanjiang, Guangxi.
—63—
1333 1334
Figure 9. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton in the Nanhua period
1335
(see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins) (main outcrop section source:
1336
BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRHN, 1988; BGMRYN, 1984; DGMRGX, 1997; DGMRGZ,
1337
1997; Liu, 1991).
—64—
1338 1339
Figure 10. Schematic cross-section of the Nanhua rift basins (see Fig. 9 for the
1340
location of line C-C’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of
1341
the basins). 05-Donghe, Ankang, Shanxi; 03-Gaoqiaohe, Shennongjia, Hubei;
1342
06-Xiadong, Yichang, Hubei; 07- Changyang, Hubei; 10- Yangjiaping, Shimen,
1343
Hunan;
1344
14-Yanglizhang, Songtao, Guizhou; 17-Suoxi, Tongren, Guizhou; 20-Lijiapo,
1345
Congjiang, Guizhou; 21- Sanjiang, Guangxi.
11-Sangzhi,
Zhangjiajie,
Hunan
—65—
12-ZK102,
Songtao,
Guizhou;
1346 1347
Figure 11. Interpreted seismic cross-sections in central Sichuan. A, B, Major
1348
boundary fault and secondary faults of the Nanhua rift basin, modified after Gu and
1349
Wang (2014), Wei et al. (2018) (see Fig. 9 for the locations); C, the Sinian platform
1350
subsidence basin in central Sichuan, modified after Zhong et al. (2013) (see Fig. 12
1351
for the location).
—66—
1352 1353
Figure 12. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton in the Sinian period
1354
(see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins; see Fig. 1 for the well names) (main
1355
outcrop section source: BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRHN, 1988; BGMRYN, 1984;
1356
DGMRGX, 1997; DGMRGZ, 1997; Jiang et al., 2011; Liu, 1991; Vernhet, 2007; Zhu
1357
et al., 2007).
—67—
1358 1359
Figure 13. Schematic cross-section of the Sinian basins (see Fig. 11 for the locations
1360
of line D-D’, line E-E’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations
1361
of the basins). 05-Zhushan, Shiyan, Hubei; 18-Mahuanggou, Shennongjia, Hubei;
1362
19-Zhangcunping, Yichang, Hubei; 22-Yangjiaping, Shimen, Hunan; 25-Tianping,
1363
Dayong, Hunan; 29-Wuxi, Xinhua, Hunan; 36-Sanjiang, Guangxi; 09-Hanyuan,
1364
Sichuan; 38-Well W117, Sichuan; 39-Well GS 17, Sichuan; 24-Well GS 1, Sichuan;
1365
15-Well Li1, Hubei; 01-Well X2, Hubei; 23-Well EC1, Hubei; 17-Qinglinkou, Zigui,
1366
Hubei; 21-Changyang, Hubei; 31-Linxiang, Hunan.
—68—
1367 1368
Figure 14. Types of worldwide petroliferous basins. (A) The ratios of different basin
1369
types among worldwide petroliferous basins; (B) the ratios of different basin types of
1370
worldwide petroliferous basins during different geological periods. A total of 978
1371
large oil and gas fields in 155 petroliferous basins around the world were classified
1372
(Craig J et al., 2009; Mann et al., 2003; USGS world petroleum assessment, 2000).
1373
—69—
1374
Highlights:
1375
1. Summarizes two different Neoproterozoic plate tectonic environments.
1376
2. Identifies four evolutionary phases of the Neoproterozoic basins.
1377
3. Reviews the spatial and temporal changes in basin fill and distribution.
1378
4. Evaluates the most conducive basin prototype and target regions for exploration.
1379
—70—
S0301-9268(19)30219-0 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105563 PRECAM 105563
To appear in:
Precambrian Research
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
15 April 2019 28 September 2019 4 December 2019
Please cite this article as: F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Peng, Evolution of Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton and its significance for oil and gas exploration in South China: An overview, Precambrian Research (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105563
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1
Evolution of Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton and
2
its significance for oil and gas exploration in South China: An
3
overview
4
Fengli Yang a,b,*, Xiaofeng Zhou a,b,*, Yunxin Peng c
5
a
6
Shanghai, 200092, China
7
b
8
200092, China
9
c
State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road.
School of Ocean and Earth Science, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road. Shanghai,
Department of Geosciences and Geological and Petroleum Engineering, Missouri
10
University of Science and Technology, 1400 N. Bishop, Rolla, MO 65401, United
11
States
12
Corresponding author: Xiaofeng Zhou ([email protected]), Fengli Yang
13
([email protected])
14
Abstract: Based on a comprehensive review of published results, the plate tectonic
15
setting of the Neoproterozoic basins in the Yangtze Craton can be summarized as
16
evolving from the Qingbaikou convergent continental margin to the Nanhua-Sinian
17
divergent continental margin. Four phases of basin evolution are identified in the
18
Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton based on the prototype basin classification scheme: a)
19
the early Qingbaikou period (ca. 1000-820 Ma), with back-arc spreading basins on the
20
western and northern Yangtze margins and the interior, and a retro-arc foreland basin
21
on the southeastern Yangtze margin; b) the late Qingbaikou period (ca. 820-720 Ma),
—1—
22
with back-arc spreading basins on the western and northern Yangtze margins and
23
extensional down-faulted basins on the southeastern Yangtze margins and the interior
24
of the carton; c) the Nanhua Period (ca. 720-635 Ma), with rift basins on the
25
southeastern, western, and northern Yangtze margins and the interior; and d) the
26
Sinian Period (ca. 635-541 Ma), with intracratonic rift basins in the interior of
27
Yangtze Craton and divergent marginal subsidence basins on the southeastern and
28
northern Yangtze margins. The temporal sequence and spatial distribution of the
29
major prototype basins associated with the four stages of basin evolution in the
30
Yangtze Craton were further identified. By comparing the petroleum exploration
31
practices in China and abroad, this paper concludes that the Nanhua rift basins on the
32
southeastern and northern Yangtze margins, the Sinian divergent marginal subsidence
33
basins on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins and the intracratonic rift
34
basins in the interior Yangtze Craton were most conducive to source rock formation
35
and are target regions for future oil and gas exploration.
36
Key words: Yangtze Craton; Neoproterozoic; prototype basin; Rodinia
37
supercontinent; oil and gas.
38
1. Introduction
39
Throughout the geological history of the Earth, plate tectonic movements have
40
mainly been represented by periodic opening and closing controlled by the breakup
41
and assembly processes of supercontinents, respectively (Nance et al., 1988), which
42
have had significant influences on the global tectonic-sedimentary response, climatic
43
environment, biological evolution and resource distribution (Hoffman et al., 1998;
—2—
44
Hoffman and Schrag, 2002; Li et al., 2008b; Li et al., 2013; Merdith et al., 2019). The
45
most remarkable, worldwide, geological events in the Neoproterozoic were the
46
assembly and breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia (Cawood et al., 2016; Cawood et
47
al., 2013; Hoffman, 1999; Li et al., 2008b; Li et al., 2013). Under its control and
48
influence, a series of basins with different prototypes formed worldwide, where oil
49
and gas resources accumulated to varying degrees. For example, the formation and
50
distribution of the giant Meso-Neoproterozoic-sourced petroleum deposits in Siberia
51
(Meyerhoff, 1980), Oman (Almarjeby and Nash, 1986) and the Yangtze Craton
52
(Wang et al., 2014) were mainly controlled by the rift basins and intracratonic rift
53
basins that occurred during the breakup of Rodinia (Craig et al., 2013; Frolov et al.,
54
2015).
55
The area now called the “Yangtze Craton” in South China (Fig. 1) was a
56
continental block in the Neoproterozoic. Although the paleogeographic reconstruction
57
of the supercontinent Rodinia is still debated, the Yangtze Craton has experienced and
58
recorded a series of globally comparable geological events during the period of the
59
supercontinent cycle, including magmatic intrusions and volcanic eruptions (Li et al.,
60
2009; Li et al., 2007; Li and Kinny, 2002; Li et al., 2003b), regional glacial and
61
interglacial depositional events (Gao et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2009), biological
62
explosions (Chen et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2009a), continental rifting and basin
63
formation (Guan et al., 2017; Wang and Li, 2001, 2003; Wang et al., 2015a; Wang et
64
al., 2015b; Zhuo et al., 2013), petroleum generation (Wang et al., 2014; Zhao et al.,
65
2018c), and the development of the Weiyuan-Anyue Sinian-Cambrian giant gas fields
—3—
66
(Du et al., 2016; Wei et al., 2013). In past decades, the Neoproterozoic South China
67
(including the Yangtze Craton) has been an important geological focus of research
68
both in China and abroad. The tectonic background, geodynamic mechanism and
69
basin properties during the Neoproterozoic have been studied extensively and remain
70
vigorously debated. To date, several basin types have been proposed, including
71
plume-related rift basins (Li et al., 2008a; Li et al., 2008b; Li and Kinny, 2002; Li et
72
al., 1999; Li et al., 2003b; Wang and Li, 2003; Wang et al., 2015b; Yang et al., 2012a),
73
arc- and subduction-related back-arc basins (Wang et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2009;
74
Zhou et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2006a; Zhou et al., 2006b), and post-orogenic
75
collapse-related intracontinental rift basins (Zhang and Zheng, 2013; Zheng et al.,
76
2008; Zheng et al., 2007). These controversies and uncertainties directly affect the
77
exploration and evaluation of Neoproterozoic oil-gas resources in the Yangtze Craton.
78
A sedimentary basin is a low-lying area subjected to long-term settlement,
79
including subsidence and sediment infill (Kingston et al., 1983a, b; Zhu, 1985). A
80
basin becomes petroliferous once a working petroleum system matures for the
81
accumulation of oil and gas (Kingston et al., 1983b). However, the subsidence and
82
sediment infill in the basin are time- and space- dependent and are influenced by
83
changes in the tectonic setting (Tirel et al., 2006). Such differences could affect the
84
source and reservoir rocks in petroleum systems (Zhang, 1997). Basins, particularly
85
superimposed basins that have experienced multiple stages of deformation, and are
86
featured complicated structural styles, whereas a prototype basin is characterized by
87
finite settlement structures and sedimentary bodies of a given generation (Kingston et
—4—
88
al., 1983a, b; Zhu, 1985). Since the implications of basin analogues for oil and gas
89
exploration were demonstrated in the 1950s (Weeks, 1952), several basin
90
classification schemes have been proposed based on the plate tectonic setting, crustal
91
composition, and tectonic-thermal regime (Allen and Allen, 2005; Kingston et al.,
92
1983a; Miall, 1984; Yang et al., 2012b; Zhang, 1997, 2010). The global basin
93
classification system of Kingston et al. (1983a) is among the most popular and widely
94
recognized and has been adopted by many authors (e.g., Zhang, 1997, 2010) (Tab. 1).
95
This review paper is primarily based on previously published results about the
96
Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton in South China and adopts the global basin
97
classification scheme of Kingston et al. (1983a, b) (Tab. 1), which emphasizes the
98
plate tectonic environment, prototype and cyclic nature of sedimentary basins. These
99
concepts can help to better understand the geodynamic setting, mechanism, basin type,
100
and distribution of the basins and lead to new play concepts in assessing the
101
hydrocarbon potential of the Neoproterozoic basins in the Yangtze Craton.
102
2. Neoproterozoic plate tectonic environment of the Yangtze Craton
103
The Yangtze Craton is now located in southeastern mainland China (Fig. 1). It is
104
separated from the North China Craton by the Qinling-Dabie orogen to the north,
105
from the Songpan-Ganzi terrane by the Longmenshan fault zone to the northwest,
106
from the Indochina Block by the Ailaoshan-Songma shear zone to the southwest, and
107
from the Cathaysia Block by the Jiangnan belt to the southeast (Zhao and Cawood,
108
2012). The northeastern boundary between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks is
109
defined as the Jiangshan-Shaoxing Fault, but its southeast extension is still disputed
—5—
110
(Fig. 1) (Shu et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2010; Yao et al., 2019; Zhao and Cawood,
111
2012). In this study, we adopt the Jiangshan-Shaoxing-Pingxiang-Yongfu Fault zone
112
as the Neoproterozoic boundary between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks (Fig. 1)
113
(Shu et al., 2019; Yao et al., 2019).
114
Neoproterozoic sedimentary and volcanic rock outcrops are widespread around
115
the Yangtze Craton and its perimeter. The Yangtze Craton consists of minor
116
Archaean-Palaeoproterozoic crystalline basement, which is unconformably overlain
117
by weakly metamorphosed early-middle Neoproterozoic strata and unmetamorphosed
118
Sinian cover. In recent decades, the Neoproterozoic stratigraphic division of the
119
Yangtze Craton has remained controversial due to the limited outcrops and complex
120
lithologies (Fig. 1). For example, the age of the bottom boundary of the Nanhua
121
System is still debated as being at either 720 Ma or 780 Ma (Zhang, 2014). In this
122
paper, the Neoproterozoic strata sequences of the Yangtze Craton are categorized into
123
the Qingbaikou System (1000-720 Ma), Nanhua System (720-635 Ma), and Sinian
124
System (635-541 Ma), corresponding to the international Tonian, Cryogenian and
125
Ediacaran, respectively (Tab.2), based on previous geological investigations and
126
published high-quality in situ zircon U-Pb isotope data, unconformable contact
127
relationships (Zhai, 2015; Zhu et al., 2016) and key geological events (Lu et al., 2016;
128
Wang et al., 2015b).
129
The plate tectonic setting is an important factor that controls the formation and
130
evolution of basins. Over the past two decades, the processes of aggregation,
131
accretion and separation between Yangtze and the peripheral massifs and its
—6—
132
palaeogeographic location in the supercontinent Rodinia have been debated, including
133
three representative models: the plume-rift model, the slab-arc model, and the
134
plate-rift model (Zhao and Cawood, 2012). Recently, based on the available
135
geological data and the latest palaeomagnetic results, the Yangtze Craton is suggested
136
to have been located at the external position of Rodinia (Cawood et al., 2018; Evans
137
et al., 2000; Yao et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2013b; Zhang et al., 2015; Zhao et al.,
138
2018a; Zhao et al., 2017), rather than at the internal position (Li et al., 2008b; Li et al.,
139
1999). Previous studies of the petrogenesis and tectonic settings of igneous and
140
metamorphic rocks (Dong et al., 2011; Kou et al., 2018; Li and Zhao, 2018; Li et al.,
141
2009; Wang et al., 2006b; Xia et al., 2018; Xia et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017; Zhao et
142
al., 2018b; Zhou et al., 2002) have revealed the rationality of subduction- and
143
arc-related tectonic settings on the margins of the Yangtze Craton during the early
144
Neoproterozoic. In addition, the middle and late Neoproterozoic are suggested to have
145
witnessed the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, with the peak period ca.
146
720-580 Ma (Li et al., 2008b; Li et al., 2013). Thus, the plate tectonic setting of the
147
Neoproterozoic basins within the Yangtze Craton can be divided into two stages, from
148
a convergent continental margin to a divergent continental margin, based on the basin
149
structures and sedimentation characteristics.
150
2.1 Convergent continental margin during the Qingbaikou period (ca. 1000-720
151
Ma)
152
The palaeogeographic reconstruction results (Fig. 2) reveal that the Yangtze
153
Craton was isolated during the early Qingbaikou period, and then joined the Rodinia
—7—
154
supercontinent during the collision with Cathaysia Block (Cawood et al., 2018; Yao et
155
al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018a). The Yangtze Craton has experienced the oceanic
156
subduction and the continent-arc-continent collision with the Cathaysia Block on the
157
southeastern margin in the early Neoproterozoic (ca. ~1000-820 Ma) (Xia et al., 2018;
158
Yao et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018a; Zheng et al., 2008), and the arc-related
159
subduction and accretion (ca. 900-720 Ma) on the western and northern margins
160
(Zhao et al., 2018b), and thus a series of sedimentary basins developed on the
161
periphery of the Yangtze Craton.
162
Based on the different evolutionary stages between the Yangtze and the
163
Cathaysia blocks and their influences on basin formation, the Qingbaikou period can
164
be further subdivided into two stages, namely, the early convergent continental
165
margin and the late convergent continental margin (Tab. 3).
166
During the early stage of the convergent continental margin (the early
167
Qingbaikou; ca. 1000-820 Ma), the Yangtze Craton was in a subduction-related
168
convergent plate tectonic setting, with different initial subduction times in different
169
regions. On the western Yangtze margin, eastward (present-day) subduction of
170
oceanic crust began as early as ∼860 Ma (Du et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2018b; Zhou et
171
al., 2002). On the northern Yangtze margin, the oceanic subduction from the north
172
(present-day) started before 950 Ma (Dong et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2016; Zhao et al.,
173
2010);
174
northwestward subduction started as early as 1.0 Ga (Chen et al., 1991; Li and
175
McCulloch, 1996), which finally led to the collisional assembly of the Yangtze and
however,
on
the
southeastern
—8—
Yangtze
margin,
the
(present-day)
176
Cathaysia blocks. The collisional assembly did not take place until at least ca. 820 Ma
177
(Shu, 2012; Xia et al., 2018; Yao et al., 2014; Yao et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2013a;
178
Zhao et al., 2018b).
179
During the late stage of the convergent continental margin (the late Qingbaikou;
180
820-720 Ma), the Yangtze Craton was mostly in a convergent plate tectonic setting.
181
The western and northern Yangtze margins maintained subduction-related convergent
182
plate tectonic setting, with different termination times. On the western Yangtze
183
margin, the oceanic slab subduction continued until ca. 740 Ma (Zhao and Zhou,
184
2007; Zhou et al., 2006b); on the northern Yangtze margin, the oceanic subduction
185
and related accretion lasted until ca. 705-716 Ma, with a subsequent tectonic
186
transition from continental arc to rifting (Wang et al., 2017). However, the
187
southeastern Yangtze margin experienced post-collisional orogenic collapse (820-805
188
Ma), which then transformed into post-orogenic extension (805-750 Ma) (He et al.,
189
2017; Sun et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2012a; Wang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2013a; Xia
190
et al., 2015; Xin et al., 2017; Yao et al., 2013).
191
2.2 Divergent continental margin from the Nanhua to the Sinian period (ca.
192
720-541 Ma)
193
During the Nanhua and Sinian periods (ca. 720-541 Ma), the Yangtze Craton
194
was isolated, with the latitude changed from being relatively high (approximately
195
45-60° N) to lower (ca. 25-30° N) (Fig. 2). Influenced by the large-scale breakup of
196
Rodinia (Li et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2018a), the Yangtze Craton transitioned to a
197
divergent continental margin setting during this period. Due to different tectonic
—9—
198
mechanisms, the basin evolution can be further divided into two stages, namely, the
199
early divergent continental margin and the late divergent continental margin (Tab. 3).
200
During the early divergent continental margin stage (the Nanhua; 720-635 Ma),
201
the extensional environment lasted until the Nantuo glacial period based on the
202
volcanic activity (Chen et al., 2006; Ling et al., 2008; Lu et al., 1999; Wang et al.,
203
2017; Zhang et al., 2013d; Zhu et al., 2014), extensional faulting and glacial
204
sedimentation (Li et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2015; Eyles and Januszczak, 2004) as well as
205
field geological surveys and geophysical data in the Yangtze Craton (Guan et al.,
206
2017; Wei et al., 2018).
207
During the late divergent continental margin stage (the Sinian; 635-541 Ma), the
208
Yangtze Craton entered a stage of regional thermal subsidence. No volcanic activity
209
occurred during this period.
210
3 Sequence of Neoproterozoic prototype basins
211
The identification of unconformities helps to distinguish the various prototype
212
basins that formed due to multiphase deformation (Kingston et al., 1983a; Zhang,
213
1997, 2010). Unconformities represent important changes in tectonic regime and can
214
be used to separate two distinct, vertically stacked basins (Yang et al., 2012b).
215
3.1 Major unconformity surfaces
216
In the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton, one angular unconformities and three
217
disconformities have been identified corresponding to regional tectonic events and
218
stratigraphic features (Gao et al., 2011; Wang and Li, 2001). The angular
219
unconformity developed at the bottom of the upper Qingbaikou System (Banxi Group
—10—
220
and its equivalents), and has been termed the “Jinning Orogeny” (Li, 1999) (Tabs. 2,
221
3). Three regional disconformities developed at the top of the upper Qingbaikou
222
System (Banxi Group and its equivalents), the top of the Nanhua System, and the top
223
of the Sinian System (Wang et al., 2015b; Wu et al., 2016).
224
The angular unconformity was occurred widely in the Yangtze Craton. In the
225
western Yangtze Craton, the unconformity is represented by the Neoproterozoic
226
Chengjiang sandstones unconformably overlying the Mesoproterozoic crystalline
227
basement in central Yunnan, resulted of the Jinning Orogeny (Li, 1999) (Tab. 2). In
228
the southeastern Yangtze Craton, it is represented by unconformable surface between
229
the Sibao Group/ Fanjingshan Group/ Lengjiaxi Group and the Danzhou Group/
230
Xiajiang Group/ Banxi Group, called the Sibao or Wuling Orogeny (Gao et al., 2011;
231
Li et al., 2009) (Tab. 2). The Jinning Orogeny encompasses all locally derived terms,
232
i.e. the Sibao Orogeny and Wuling Orogeny (Li, 1999). Although the initial timing of
233
the Jinning Orogeny is still controversial, some workers consider that it lasted until ca.
234
0.82 Ga or even 0.8 Ga (Li, 1999; Yao et al., 2012). It is generally accepted that this
235
orogeny took place in the Neoproterozoic, led to the collision between Yangtze and
236
Cathaysia blocks and thus the formation of a unified South China entity (Chen et al.,
237
1991; Li and McCulloch, 1996; Zhang et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 1989).
238
The
first
regional
disconformity
illustrated
by
extensive
erosion
or
239
non-deposition at the bottom of the Nanhua System in the Yangtze Craton. The
240
stratigraphic gap becomes increasingly obvious from the southeastern margin to the
241
western margin of the Yangtze Craton (Tab. 2). Regarding the formation of the first
—11—
242
disconformity, several authors have argued that the Yangtze Craton was widely
243
covered by continental ice sheets during the early Nanhua period, which led to a
244
period of no deposition, especially in the western Yangtze Craton (Wang, 2000; Zhu
245
et al., 2016). Other researchers have ascribed the lack of strata to crustal uplift and
246
erosion caused by the Chengjiang or Xuefeng movement. Regardless of its cause, this
247
disconformity indicates an important change in climate or tectonic environment in the
248
Yangtze Craton (Wang et al., 2015b). The second and third regional disconformities
249
are mainly located in the upper Yangtze Craton (He et al., 2017; Hou et al., 2017) and
250
are manifested as parallel unconformable surfaces between the top of the Nantuo
251
Formation in the Nanhua System and the bottom of the Doushantuo Formation in the
252
Sinian System and between the top of the Dengying Formation in the Sinian System
253
and the bottom of the Cambrian System due to localized erosion (Yang et al., 2015;
254
Zhu et al., 2007) (Tab. 2).
255
3.2 Major stratigraphic sequences
256
Based on previous studies and field observations (Wang, 2000; Wang and Li,
257
2001, 2003; Wang et al., 2015b), four major stratigraphic sequences, SS1, SS2, SS3
258
and SS4, have been identified in the strata between the unconformity surfaces (Tabs.
259
2, 3). The first stratigraphic sequence (SS1) developed below the major angular
260
unconformities and includes the strata represented by the Sibao Group in northern
261
Guangxi and its equivalents in other areas. SS1 is dominated by low-grade
262
metamorphic bathyal to shallow marine clastic rocks and a mass of igneous rocks.
263
The second stratigraphic sequence (SS2), between the angular unconformity and the
—12—
264
first regional disconformity, contains the Danzhou Group in North Guangxi and its
265
lateral equivalents. SS2 consists of two secondary sequences, which are characterized
266
by continental clastic and volcaniclastic rocks in the first secondary sequence and by
267
littoral-shallow marine rocks in the second secondary sequence (Tab. 3).
268
The third stratigraphic sequence (SS3), between the first and second regional
269
disconformities, is represented by the Nanhua System in southeastern Guizhou,
270
including the Chang’an, Fulu, Datangpo, and Nantuo formations and their lateral
271
equivalents. SS3 formed during the period of the “snow ball Earth” (Hoffman and
272
Schrag, 2002). The Chang’an and Nantuo glaciations are represented by glaciomarine
273
gravity flow deposits, and the interglacial interval contains sandstones and
274
argillaceous sandstones in littoral-shallow marine facies as well as manganese-bearing
275
carbonaceous and siliceous fine-grained clastics in a water-restricted environment
276
(Wang and Li, 2003; Zhang and Chu, 2006). The fourth stratigraphic sequence (SS4),
277
between the second and third regional disconformities, consists of two secondary
278
sequences (Tab. 3). The first includes the Doushantuo Formation (and its equivalents)
279
with a series of carbonates and carbonaceous clastic deposits in a littoral-shallow
280
marine environment, and the second includes the Dengying Formation (and its
281
equivalents) with carbonate platform tidal flat deposits and deep-water siliceous rocks
282
that are widespread across the Yangtze Craton (Jiang et al., 2011; Zhou, 2016).
283
The four major stratigraphic successions have an obvious vertical cyclicality
284
from the early Qingbaikou bathyal to shallow marine deposits to the late Qingbaikou
285
continental fluvial-alluvial and littoral-shallow marine deposits to the Nanhua glacial
—13—
286
and interglacial deposits to the Sinian carbonate platform deposits. These sequences
287
constitute a nearly complete cycle from marine regression to marine transgression.
288
3.3 Seismic reflection tectonic sequences
289
At least three sets of tectonic sequences, TS4, TS3 and TS2+1, are relatively
290
easy to track in recent regional deep seismic reflection profiles (Dong et al., 2015; Li
291
et al., 2018) (Fig. 3).
292
The first seismic reflection tectonic sequence (TS4) lies between the first and
293
second regional disconformities, and the second seismic reflection tectonic sequence
294
(TS3) lies between the second and third regional disconformities. The third seismic
295
reflection tectonic sequence (TS1+2) is beneath the first regional disconformity and
296
corresponds to SS4, SS3 and the underlying SS2+SS1 (Fig. 3).
297
The presence of regionally extensive, laterally continuous, parallel and
298
subparallel seismic reflections within TS4 denotes its stratified character (Fig. 3). TS3
299
is characterized by discontinuous parallel and subparallel seismic reflections
300
controlled by faults and grabens (Fig. 3). TS2+1 is also characterized by
301
discontinuous parallel and subparallel seismic reflections controlled by faults and
302
grabens. However, further identifying and tracking TS2 and TS1 are difficult because
303
of the poor quality of the seismic data and the limited number of deep wells (Figs. 3,
304
4).
305
Regionally, TS4 is widespread across the Yangtze region. TS3 and TS1+2
306
mainly developed on the periphery of the Yangtze Craton and are restricted to central
307
Sichuan Province in the interior of the Yangtze Craton.
—14—
308
3.4 Sequence of Neoproterozoic prototype basins
309
Four prototype basin stages are identified in the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton,
310
namely, the early Qingbaikou, late Qingbaikou, Nanhua and Sinian periods (Tab. 3),
311
based on the four phases of tectonic evolution of the two plate tectonic environments,
312
the four major unconformity surfaces, the four major stratigraphic sequences and at
313
least three sets of seismic reflection tectonic sequences. The spatial and temporal
314
changes in the depositional fill and its distribution within these basins are then
315
analyzed based on integrated stratigraphic, sedimentologic, paleogeographic and
316
structural studies.
317
4 Distribution of the Neoproterozoic prototype basins
318
4.1 Basins during the early Qingbaikou period
319
During the early Qingbaikou period, three back-arc spreading basins developed
320
on the western and northern Yangtze margins and the interior, and a retro-arc foreland
321
basin formed on the southeastern Yangtze margin (Fig. 5).
322 323
(1) Retro-arc foreland basin on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton
324
On the southeastern Yangtze margin, a retro-arc foreland basin (SEY-RAFB)
325
with a ribbon shape and SW-NE orientation was distributed along the Jiangnan
326
ancient island arc (Fig. 5). The strata include the Fanjingshan Group in northeastern
327
Guizhou, the Sibao Group in northern Yunnan, the Lengjiaxi Group in central Hunan,
328
the Shuangqiaoshan Group in northern Jiangxi and the Shuangxiwu Group in
329
northwestern Zhejiang (Tab. 2).
—15—
330
The sedimentary fill of the SEY-RAFB is generally characterized by a regressive
331
sequence; from bottom to top, the grain size becomes coarser, and the arenaceous
332
deposits increase. Based on the lithological associations (Fig. 6), the sedimentary
333
succession of the SEY-RAFB can be further divided into three parts (i.e., lower,
334
middle and upper). The lower part contains a set of bathyal black shales deposited in
335
an anoxic environment (Wang et al., 2015b); the middle part consists of volcanic
336
rocks and volcaniclastic and bathyal marine sediments, and the upper part shows
337
obvious lithology variations in the basin (Fig. 6). In the southwest, the upper part of
338
Fanjingshan and Lengjiaxi groups are dominated by siltstone, mudstone and
339
tuffaceous rocks of delta and shelf facies (BGMRHN, 1988; DGMRGZ, 1997; Wang
340
et al., 2015b). In the northeast, the upper part of Shuangqiaoshan Group contains
341
volcaniclastic rocks, sandy mudstone and conglomerate (DGMRJX, 1997). The
342
SEY-RAFB has a large depositional thickness.
343
Geochronological studies have shown that the depositional age of the basin is no
344
older than 820 Ma (Gao et al., 2011; Li et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2006b; Zhang et al.,
345
2013c; Zhou et al., 2009). This result illustrates that the SEY-BASB lasted until 820
346
Ma (Wang et al., 2015b) and died out with the final collision between the Yangtze
347
and Cathaysia blocks.
348
(2) Back-arc spreading basin on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton
349
A back-arc spreading basin with a slender triangular shape that extends in N-S is
350
located on the western Yangtze margin (also called the Kangdian area) (KD-BASB)
351
(Fig. 5). The strata include the Yanbian Group and the E’bian Group, as well as the
—16—
352
upper strata of the Kunyang Group, the Huili Group and the Dengxiangying Group
353
(Tab. 2). The thickness is estimated to be several thousands of metres (Geng et al.,
354
2017; Ren et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2006a).
355
The Dengxiangying Group records a relatively complete basin evolutionary
356
process (DGMRSC, 1997; Wang et al., 2015b). Vertically, its lower part (i.e., the
357
Songlinping and Shengou formations) is composed of metamorphic siltstones,
358
phyllites and interbedded marbles that represent the early restricted deep-water basin
359
stage. The middle part (i.e., the Zhegu and Chaowangping formations) contains
360
intermediate-acidic volcanic, volcaniclastic and coarse clastic rocks that represent the
361
expansion and rapid filling stage of the basin and the upper part (i.e., the Darezha and
362
Jiupanying formations) consists of carbonate platform, shallow-water shelf and delta
363
sediments that mark the gradual basin stabilization stage (Fig. 6). This sequence
364
reveals the sedimentary characteristics of the back-arc spreading basin as a whole.
365 366
In general, due to the discontinuity of the outcrops and the lack of wells, the infilling succession of the KD-BASB is not clear.
367
(3) Back-arc spreading basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton
368
Little is known about the basin fill on the northern Yangtze margin due to
369
extremely poorly exposed strata and intense late deformation.
370
The Sanhuashi Group in the Hannan area in southern Shanxi and the Huashan
371
Group in the Dahongshan area in northern Hubei, which are up to two kilometres
372
thick, are from the early Qingbaikou period (Tab. 2). These groups are composed of a
373
series of metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Ling et al., 2003). In
—17—
374
addition, numerous lava breccia and lava conglomerates of the Sanhuashi Group are
375
exposed in the Chazhen and Xixiang areas (Tao et al., 1993). Several scholars have
376
defined this group as the initial island arc deposits (Tao et al., 1993), but others have
377
argued that it was the result of island arc-related basin deposition (Wang et al., 2009).
378
Based on the large amount of arc-related magmatism on the northern margin of
379
Yangtze and our review of the plate tectonic environment, we propose that a back-arc
380
spreading basin formed on the northern Yangtze margin, called the NY-BASB.
381
Note that the early Qingbaikou sediments were involved in the thrust belt due to
382
later superimposed tectonic reworking, which, coupled with the sporadically
383
distributed outcrops, leads to difficulties in identifying and restoring the basin
384
structure and extent (Fig. 4).
385
4.2 Basins during the late Qingbaikou period
386
During the late Qingbaikou period, back-arc spreading basins were still present
387
on the western and northern margins of the Yangtze Craton; in addition, extensional
388
down-faulted basins formed on the southeastern Yangtze margin and its interior (Fig.
389
7).
390
(1) Back-arc spreading basin on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton
391
On the western Yangtze margin, namely the Kangdian area, a back-arc spreading
392
basin (KD-BASB) was controlled by the N-S-trending Anninghe-Yimen fault (Fig. 7).
393
The outcrops in this region have poor continuity and complex lithology. The main
394
stratigraphic units are exposed in Sichuan, Yunnan and the surrounding area,
395
including the Luliang Formation, Liubatang Formation, Chengjiang Formation,
—18—
396
Niutoushan Formation, Suxiong Formation and Kaijianqiao Formation (Tab. 2).
397
The sedimentary infilling characteristics of the KD-BASB (Fig. 8) reveal that the
398
bottom is dominated by a series of sandy conglomerate sediments represented by the
399
bottom marine fan deposits of the Luliang Formation (tuff zircon SHRIMP U-Pb age
400
of 818.6 ± 9 Ma; Zhuo et al., 2013) unconformably overlying the Mesoproterozoic
401
Kunyang Group. The middle part consists of greywacke with interbedded mudstone,
402
argillaceous siltstone and siliceous shale; horizontal bedding and convolute bedding
403
indicate the front of the underwater fan and a littoral sedimentary environment,
404
represented by the lower part of the Luliang Formation (BGMRYN, 1984). The upper
405
sediments are controlled by the topography of the basin, leading to large changes in
406
lithofacies (Wang et al., 2015b). For example, the upper part of the Luliang Formation
407
and the overlying Niutoushan Formation are dominated by littoral to lake deposits, the
408
Chengjiang Formation is dominated by fluvial deposits, the Suxiong Formation is
409
dominated by volcanic rocks, and the Kaijianqiao Formation is mainly composed of
410
volcaniclastic sediments (DGMRSC, 1997; Wang et al., 2015b). After the Wuling
411
movement, back-arc extension is suggested to have occurred again on the western
412
Yangtze margin. The total sedimentary thickness of the WY-BASB ranges from
413
several hundred metres to two or three kilometres.
414
Additional geochemical studies of the western Yangtze margin, such as the
415
basaltic rocks of the Huangtian Formation (782±53 Ma; Du et al., 2005) of the
416
Yanbian Group, have suggested a subduction-related back-arc extensional
417
environment (Sun et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2006a). In addition, the contemporaneous
—19—
418
volcanic rocks (including the Kangding complex, the Suxiong Group and the Yanjing
419
Group) are composed of more than 98% acidic volcanic rocks and very few basic
420
volcanic rocks, distinct from typical large igneous provinces (such as the Emeishan
421
LIP), which are mainly composed of basic rocks.
422
(2) Back-arc spreading basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton
423
On the northern Yangtze margin, an E-W-oriented back-arc spreading basin
424
(NY-BASB) formed (Fig. 7). The outcrops in this region consist of the Xixiang Group
425
and Bikou Group in the Hannan area in southern Shanxi and the Liantuo Formation
426
on the periphery of the Shennongjia and Dahongshna areas in northern Hubei (Tab.
427
2). The sedimentary filling characteristics reveal that the volcanic activity was intense
428
during the early stage, resulting in volcanic and volcaniclastic sediments; during the
429
late stage, the volcanic activity was weaker, and the Liantuo Formation in the
430
Shennongjia-Dahongshan area (tuff zircon SHRIMP U-Pb age of 724±12 Ma; Gao
431
and Zhang, 2009) mainly contains littoral-shallow marine tuffaceous sandy
432
conglomerate, siltstones and sandy mudstones. In general, the basin expanded, with
433
the deposits gradually filling from south to north.
434 435
(3) Extensional down-faulted basins on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton
436
Previous workers have conducted detailed studies of this basin based on the
437
sedimentary sequences (Wang, 2000; Wang and Li, 2003; Wang et al., 2015a; Wang
438
et al., 2015b). The outcrops mainly include the Xiajiang Group in northeastern
439
Guizhou, the Danzhou Group in northern Yunnan, the Banxi Group in central Hunan,
—20—
440
the Heshangzhen Group in northern Jiangxi and the Likou Group in southern Anhui
441
(Tab. 2). This period was a time of extensive magmatism (Li et al., 2003a; Li et al.,
442
2008a; Li et al., 2003b; Wang et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2006b; Zhou et al., 2009).
443
Numerous chronological studies have shown that the bottom boundary of the Banxi
444
Group and its equivalent strata should be older than 820 Ma and that the top boundary
445
should be no older than 720 Ma (Gao et al., 2011; Wang and Li, 2003; Wang et al.,
446
2012a; Wang et al., 2015b; Yin et al., 2003; Zhang and Song, 2008; Zhang et al.,
447
2008c), a time span of approximately 100 Myr.
448
Two subbasins can be further identified; the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi
449
extensional
down-faulted
basin
(HGG-EDB)
in
the
west
and
the
450
Jiangxi-Anhui-Zhejiang extensional down-faulted basin (JAZ-EDB) in the east. These
451
basins are oriented SW-NE and WSW-ENE (Fig. 7) and are bounded by two normal
452
faults, the Shimen-Huayuan-Xiushan-Zunyi fault and the Jiujiang-Shitai fault (Chen
453
et al., 2016a; Sun et al., 2018). However, identifying the structural styles on seismic
454
profiles is difficult due to the later complex tectonic superposition and deformation
455
(Fig. 4).
456
The vertical basin fill can be generally divided into three parts (namely, the
457
bottom, middle and upper) (Fig. 7). The bottom section is a set of sandy
458
conglomerates deposited in an alluvial-littoral environment, which was widely
459
distributed in the basins (DGMRGX, 1997; Wang et al., 2006a; Wang et al., 2015b).
460
The middle part is dominated by a set of fining-upward terrigenous clastic rocks
461
interbedded with carbonate deposits, which record a sedimentary cycle from delta to
—21—
462
shallow shelf, carbonate platform and starved basin facies. This section is represented
463
by the upper Baizhu Formation and the Hetong Formation of the Danzhou Group in
464
the HGG-EDB and the upper Luojiamen Formation and Hongchicun Formation of the
465
Heshangzhen Group in the JAZ-EDB. The upper section is composed of
466
fining-upward sandstone and shale deposits as well as volcaniclastic sediments in
467
littoral and shallow marine facies, represented by the Sanmenjie and Gongdong
468
formations of the Danzhou Group in the HGG-EDB, which are equivalent to the
469
Shangshu and Zhitang formations in the JAZ-EDB.
470
Three stages of basin evolution, including initial opening, rapid expansion and
471
stable filling, can be identified based on field outcrops (Wang et al., 2015b). The
472
initial opening stage is characterized by the bottom conglomerate overlapping onto
473
the Sibao Group and its equivalents, representing the opening of a new basin after the
474
Sibao Orogeny (Chen et al., 2016a; Wang et al., 2006a). The rapid expansion stage is
475
characterized by a major episode of volcanic deposits and sea- level rise. The stable
476
filling stage is characterized by stable regional subsidence and transgressive deposits.
477
The thickness varies greatly from several hundred metres to seven or eight kilometres
478
(Wang and Li, 2003).
479
The formation mechanism of these basins has been vigorously debated given the
480
petrogenesis of the ca. 830-740 Ma igneous rocks (Li et al., 2003b; Wang et al., 2004;
481
Zheng et al., 2008). Based on recent geochemistry studies, particularly zircon U-Pb
482
ages and whole-rock trace element analyses, the magmatic episode appears to have
483
been a response to the tectonic collapse of an arc-continent collisional orogeny
—22—
484
(Zheng et al., 2007, 2008). Furthermore, the tectonic transition from syn-collisional
485
compression to post-collisional extension is confirmed to have occurred at ~805 Ma
486
(Wang et al., 2012a; Yao et al., 2013). Note that many geologists have studied these
487
basins and have called them “rifts” (e.g., Wang and Li, 2003). Based on the plate
488
tectonic configuration, we define them as extensional down-faulted basin that formed
489
in a convergent margin setting (Tab. 3) rather than rift basins that formed in a
490
divergent margin setting.
491
These extensional down-faulted basins and back-arc spreading basins during the
492
late Qingbaikou period overlie the early retro-arc foreland basin and back-arc
493
spreading basins with regional angular unconformable relationships and are underlain
494
unconformably or conformably by the Nanhua basins.
495
4.3 Basins during the Nanhua period
496
During the Nanhua period, rift basins were widely distributed on the
497
southeastern, western, and northern Yangtze margins and the interior regions (Tab. 3,
498
Fig. 9). Corresponding to the large-scale breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia and
499
the global glacial periods, the Nanhua rift basins were controlled by extensional
500
normal faults and featured graben or half-graben structural styles (Fig. 3). In addition,
501
the sea-level changes caused by glacial melting led to differences in the sedimentary
502
infilling characteristics of the rift basins in different regions.
503
(1) Rift basins on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton
504
The rift basins on the southeastern Yangtze margin can be further divided into
505
two subbasins, namely, the Hunan-Guizhou-Guangxi rift basin (HGG-RB) in the west
—23—
506
and the Jiangxi-Anhui-Zhejiang rift basin (JAZ-RB) in the east (Fig. 9).
507
1) The HGG-RB is bounded by the Sandu-Tongren fault to the north (Zhou et al.,
508
2016) and has a SW-NE orientation (Fig. 9). Sedimentary strata mainly include the
509
early Chang’an glacial, Fulu interglacial and late Nantuo glacial deposits, which have
510
a maximum thickness of 3000 metres. Taking the Nanhua System in northern
511
Guangxi as representative of the early glacial period (Fig. 10), the Chang’an
512
Formation is composed of conglomeratic sandstone and mudstone and sandy
513
mudstone, indicating deep glacial fans and gravity flows. The Fulu Formation
514
represents the interglacial period and is composed of a set of littoral sandstone and
515
sandy mudstone deposits. The Gucheng Formation indicates a very short regional
516
glaciation represented by glacial shelf conglomeratic mudstone. The Datangpo
517
Formation represents another interglacial period and contains a set of black
518
carbonaceous shales and manganese-bearing rocks deposited in a gulf and lagoon
519
environment. Deposited during the late glacial period, the Nantuo Formation is
520
dominated by glacial shallow marine conglomeratic sandstone and mudstone. A 725 ±
521
10 Ma SHRIMP U-Pb zircon age from the onset of the Chang’an Formation in Hunan
522
Province (Zhang and Song, 2008) provides a constraint on the maximum age of the
523
Nanhua rift basins.
524
Combining this information with the structural characteristics, the basin
525
evolution can be further divided into three stages, including the initial rifting, main
526
rifting and stable filling stages (Fig. 10). During the initial rifting stage, which
527
corresponds to the Chang’an glacial period, the faulting was relatively weak. From the
—24—
528
edge to the interior of the basin, the sedimentary fill varied from glacial shelf to
529
glacial deep marine fan and gravity flow deposits, with increasing thickness. In the
530
main rifting stage, corresponding to the Fulu interglacial period, deposition was
531
mainly controlled by a series of secondary grabens and horsts caused by
532
syn-depositional normal faults (Du et al., 2015). In addition, hydrothermal activity
533
related to the faulting was an important factor in the development of the Datangpo
534
manganese ores (Du et al., 2015). The stable filling stage, corresponding to the
535
Nantuo glacial period, was characterized by further basin expansion (Wang et al.,
536
2015b). The sediments gradually transitioned from continental glacial debris flows to
537
glacial shelf deposits from the edge to the interior of the basin.
538
2) The JAZ-RB is located north of the Jiangshan-Shaoxing fault and is thinner
539
(less than 500 metres). The outcrops are mainly exposed in northern Zhejiang and
540
southern Anhui (Fig. 1). Although the stratigraphic division of the Nanhua System in
541
this region has not yet been precisely confirmed, the sedimentary sequence is
542
composed of three distinct lithologic sections (DGMRAH, 1997), called the Xiayabu,
543
Yang’an and Leigongwu formations from bottom to top, which are equivalent to the
544
Gucheng, Datangpo, and Nantuo formations in the HGG-RB, respectively (Tab. 2).
545
The Xiayabu Formation is composed of greyish green massive conglomerate-bearing
546
silty mudstone that is only several metres thick, the Yang’an Formation consists of
547
manganese-bearing dolomite and limestone and shale, with a maximum thickness of
548
dozens of metres, and the Leigongwu Formation contains relatively thick glacial
549
deposits, including massive conglomerate-bearing silty mudstone.
—25—
550
The basin evolution can be further divided into two stages. In the early stage, due
551
to weak tectonic activity and low elevation (Wang et al., 2015b), the basin lacked
552
sediment sources and had relatively thin deposits, corresponding to the Xiayabu and
553
Yang’an formations. In the late stage, the basin transitioned to a stable filling period
554
and accepted thick sediments corresponding to the Leigongwu Formation.
555
(2) Rift basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton
556
On the northern Yangtze margin, a rift basin (NY-RB) is bounded by the
557
Xiangfan-Guangji fault to the south and is oriented E-W (Fig. 9). The sedimentary
558
strata include the Gucheng, Datangpo, and Nantuo formations, which have scattered
559
exposures
560
Ningqiang-Zhenba-Chengkou area in northern Sichuan and southern Shanxi (Fig. 1,
561
Tab. 2). The Gucheng Formation contains conglomeratic sandstone, represents glacial
562
foreshore facies, the Datangpo Formation is dominated by argillaceous siltstone in
563
delta front and nearshore facies, and the Nantuo Formation consists of conglomeratic
564
sandstone and volcaniclastic rocks in glacial littoral facies (Fig. 10), with a thickness
565
of 50-300 metres.
in
the
Yunxi-Shiyan
area
in
northwestern
Hubei
and
the
566
Similar to the JAZ-RB, the NY-RB also experienced two evolutionary stages,
567
namely, the early stage (composed of the Gucheng and Datangpo formations) and the
568
late stage (composed of the Nantuo Formation).
569
(3) Rift basin on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton
570
On the western Yangtze margin, in the Kangdian area, an S-N-oriented rift basin
571
(KD-RB) is controlled by the Anninghe-Yimen fault to the west and
—26—
572
Ganluo-Xiaojiang fault to the east (Cui et al., 2014) (Fig. 9). Outcrops of the Nantuo
573
Formation and Lieguliu Formation are mainly exposed in the western Sichuan and
574
eastern Yunnan areas, respectively, and they unconformably overlie the Chengjiang
575
Formation and the Kaijianqiao formations (Tab. 2). The basin fill consists of a set of
576
purple-red block sandy conglomerate, shale and silty shale with a total thickness of
577
25-200 metres representing continental glacial debris flow and glacial lake facies.
578
(4) Rift basin in central Sichuan
579
The central Sichuan rift basin (CS-RB) is located in the centre of the modern
580
Sichuan Basin and is covered by Palaeozoic-Cenozoic strata (Figs. 1, 9). A series of
581
graben and half-graben structural styles controlled by normal faults is identified on
582
regional deep seismic reflection profiles and high-quality conventional seismic
583
reflection profiles from oil companies (Gu and Wang, 2014; Li et al., 2018; Zhong et
584
al., 2013) (Figs. 3, 11).
585
In general, the CS-RB and related boundary faults are oriented NE-SW. The
586
basin is bounded by the Pujiang-Bazhong fault to the southwest and the Huayingshan
587
fault ton the northeast (Gu and Wang, 2014). However, the sedimentary filling
588
characteristics in the basin are not clear because of the lack of deep wells.
589
Note that although rifting in both basins was ended by the late Neoproterozoic
590
(~750 Ma), the Nanhua basins, especially the basins in the southeastern Yangtze
591
Craton, eventually evolved into a foreland basin during the late Ordovician-Silurian
592
“Caledonian” orogeny and were closed by the end of this orogeny (Li et al., 2018; Li
593
et al., 2010b). Major thrusts developed between the Cathaysia Block and the Yangtze
—27—
594
Block during both the “Caledonian” orogeny and the Mesozoic Indosinian orogeny
595
along the former Nanhua basin (Li et al., 2010b). These thrusts caused discontinuities
596
in the pre-Mesozoic sedimentary lithofacies, including those of the Neoproterozoic
597
strata. The seismic profiles show that these rocks are involved in a series of thrust
598
nappe belts (Fig. 4) that include the early strata.
599
The Nanhua rift basins are in disconformable or conformable contact with the
600
underlying extensional down-faulted basins and back-arc spreading basins. The
601
overlying strata of the Nanhua and Sinian Systems were deposited in the extensional
602
down-faulted basins from 820-720 Ma along the southeastern margin of the Yangtze
603
Block and probably reflect back-arc spreading basins above the long-lived (1000-720
604
Ma) oceanic subduction zone along the northern and western margins of the Yangtze
605
Block (Zhao et al., 2011).
606
4.4 Basins during the Sinian period
607
After the rift basin stage, the Yangtze Craton entered an overall thermal
608
subsidence basin stage, corresponding to the late stage of the Rodinia breakup
609
process. At this time, melting glaciers led to a marine transgression that linked all of
610
the individual rift basins. The rift basins on the southeastern and northern Yangtze
611
margins became stable, maintaining a deep-water basin sedimentary environment.
612
The main part of the Yangtze Craton gradually developed into a carbonate platform.
613
In addition, a series of intracratonic rift basins formed in the Yangtze Craton (Fig. 12)
614
(Du et al., 2016), containing relatively deep-water deposits within the carbonate
615
platform. The U-Pb zircon dates from volcanic ash beds at the bottom of the Sinian
—28—
616
Doushantuo Formation in the Three Gorges indicate that the timing of basin
617
deposition was ca. 635 Ma (Condon et al., 2005). Generally, the entire Yangtze is
618
thought to have accepted the Sinian deposits, with total sedimentary thicknesses
619
ranging from approximately 50 to 1000 metres.
620
The characteristics of the intracratonic rift basins and divergent marginal
621
subsidence basins are discussed below.
622
(1) Intracratonic rift basin
623
The intracratonic rift basins are located in the interior of the Yangtze Craton (Tab.
624
3, Fig. 12). Two subbasins can be recognized: the central Sichuan (CS-IRB) and west
625
Hubei-east Chongqing (HC-IRB) intracratonic rift basins (Figs. 12, 13). These basins
626
are characterized by syn-depositional faults (Hou et al., 2017; Wei et al., 2015; Wu et
627
al., 2016) (Fig. 11C). Large amounts of deformed bedding and convoluted bedding as
628
well as slump breccia and slide collapse blocks affected by syn-depositional faults are
629
found in outcrops in western Hubei and northeastern Guizhou (Vernhet, 2007).
630
On the seismic profiles (Fig. 11C), the edge of the basin is characterized by
631
medium amplitude, medium- to low-frequency reflections, while the subsidence zone
632
exhibits continuous parallel amplitude, medium- to high-frequency reflections. The
633
basin extent is further confirmed by the sedimentary characteristics in a large number
634
of wells and outcrops. The edge of the basin is dominated by reef or platform margin
635
shoal facies, and the subsidence zone developed deep-water slope and shelf facies
636
(Fig. 13).
637
(2) Divergent marginal subsidence basin
—29—
638 639
Divergent marginal subsidence basins occurred on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins (SEY-DMSB and NY-DMSB).
640
Field outcrops and well profiles show that the SEY-DMSB generally consists of
641
deep-water basin facies represented by the early black shale deposits of the
642
Doushantuo Formation and the late black siliceous rocks of the Dengying Formation
643
(Jiang et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2007).
644
In the NY-DMSB, the early sediments vary from shale and argillaceous
645
carbonates of continental shelf facies in the south to sandstone and silty mudstone of
646
the littoral facies in the north. From south to north, the late-stage sediments range
647
from siliceous rocks of the deep-water basin to carbonate rocks of carbonate platform
648
facies.
649
The Sinian subsidence basins are in disconformable or conformable contact with
650
the underlying Nantuo System (Tab. 2, Fig. 11) and in disconformable or conformable
651
contact with the overlying early Palaeozoic Cambrian System. In addition, the dark
652
mudstone and argillaceous limestone in these divergent margin subsidence and
653
intracratonic rift basins have proven to be important source rocks in the
654
Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton (Wang et al., 2014).
655
5. Implications of prototype basins for oil and gas exploration
656
5.1 Rift basins are most conducive for global petroleum exploration
657
Global petroleum exploration has revealed that rift basins are the most
658
favourable petroliferous basins, followed by divergent marginal subsidence basins,
659
based on analyses of basins from the Proterozoic to the Cenozoic (Ghori et al., 2009;
—30—
660
Jia et al., 2011; Mann P et al., 2003; USGS world petroleum assessment, 2000).
661
These basins make up approximately 40% and 30%, respectively, of the 155
662
petroliferous basins (Fig. 14A). For example, the Palaeozoic Illizi and Cenozoic Sirte
663
rift basins in North Africa contain reserves of approximately 30-35 billion barrels of
664
oil equivalent (Craig et al., 2009; Macgregor, 1996). These two basins are among the
665
world’s largest producing areas and contain 85% of the oil and 80% of the gas
666
discovered in North Africa (Mann et al., 2003).
667
The favourable types of petroliferous basins have differed during various
668
geological periods. Rift basins were dominant during the Proterozoic and Mesozoic
669
(88% and 42% of the basins, respectively), and foreland basins and divergent
670
marginal subsidence basins were dominant during the Palaeozoic and Cenozoic
671
(62% and 40% of the basins, respectively) (Fig. 14B). In particular, Proterozoic
672
(mainly Meso-Neoproterozoic) petroliferous rift basins have been confirmed by
673
petroleum exploration (Ghori et al., 2009). For example, at least 12 billion barrels of
674
oil were derived from the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup source rocks in the
675
Oman rift basins (Ghori et al., 2009; Grantham et al. 1987). This abundance was due
676
to the following reasons. 1) The Neoproterozoic rift basins have source rocks with
677
high total organic carbon (TOC) contents due to the unique climate and environment.
678
For example, the Riphean source rocks have been documented or inferred in almost
679
every rift basin on the Siberian Craton; they have TOC contents up to 13.5% and are
680
up to 200 metres thick (Frolov et al., 2015). 2) The Neoproterozoic marked a
681
significant turning point in the history of life. Weathering and volcanism during the
—31—
682
breakup of Rodinia provided large amounts of nutrients (Zhao et al., 2018c). The
683
melting of glaciers led to the upwelling of bottom water rich in phosphorus and
684
manganese, promoting biological activity (Hu, 1997; Huang et al., 2010; Wang and
685
Han, 2011). 3) The anoxic and reduced bottom water during the Neoproterozoic
686
facilitated the preservation of sedimentary organic matter (Canfield, 1998; Li et al.,
687
2010a), which is essential for oil-gas generation, providing favourable conditions for
688
the formation of giant oil and gas fields in Neoproterozoic rift basins. 4) After the
689
rifting period, the sag or passive margin sediments provided good sealing conditions
690
for the preservation of Neoproterozoic oil and gas.
691
5.2 Implications of Neoproterozoic basins for oil and gas exploration in the
692
Yangtze Craton
693
Three sets of hydrocarbon source rocks, including the black charcoal shale and
694
silty shale of the Nanhua Datangpo Formation, the black charcoal shale of the Sinian
695
Doushantuo Formation and the dark mud and argillaceous carbonates of the Sinian
696
Dengying Formation, have been proven or documented in the Neoproterozoic
697
Yangtze Craton (Wang and Song, 2016; Xie et al., 2017). Their TOC contents are
698
0.43-8.5%, 0.56-14.17%, and 0.5-4.73%, respectively (Wang and Song, 2016; Wei et
699
al., 2010; Xie et al., 2017). The discovery of the Weiyuan Sinian and Anyue
700
Sinian-Cambrian gas fields in central Sichuan, which have proven reserves of
701
400×108 m3 and 4400×108 m3, respectively (Wei et al., 2010, 2013; Zou et al., 2014),
702
and the latest shale gas breakthroughs in the Sinian Doushantuo Formation in the
703
Yichang area, western Hubei (Chen et al., 2016b; Peng et al., 2017) (Fig. 1), have
—32—
704
confirmed the great hydrocarbon potential in the Neoproterozoic Yangtze basins.
705
These petroleum resources originated from the organic-rich sediments that
706
formed during the rift basin and subsidence stages. Thus, we make the following
707
predictions. 1) The favourable regions of the Nanhua System are on the southeastern
708
and northern Yangtze margins, and they are all controlled by rift basins (HGG-RB
709
and NY-RB), with estimated source rock thicknesses of 10-180 metres (Wang et al.,
710
2014; Wang and Song, 2016; Xie et al., 2017). 2) The prospect regions of the Sinian
711
System are on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins and its interior, and
712
they are controlled by the divergent marginal subsidence and intracratonic rift basins
713
(SEY-DMSB, NY-DMSB, CS-IRB, and HC-IRB), which have estimated source rock
714
thicknesses of 10-200 metres and 5-30 metres in the Sinian Doushantuo and Dengying
715
formations, respectively (Wang et al., 2014; Wang and Song, 2016).
716
Note that due to the limitations of the deep geophysical data and wells in the
717
Yangtze Craton, the precise extents of the prototype basins and the distribution of
718
effective source rocks require further study, which will be the key to accurate
719
evaluation of the petroleum potential of the Neoproterozoic Yangtze rocks. Therefore,
720
increasing the collection of deep high-resolution geophysical data and the drilling of
721
wells in the Yangtze Craton in the future is suggested.
722
6. Conclusions
723
1) The basins of the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton passed through two stages
724
of evolution of their plate tectonic environments. These stages included a convergent
725
continental marginal setting during the Qingbaikou period (ca. 1000-720 Ma) that
—33—
726
transitioned to a divergent continental marginal setting in the late Neoproterozoic
727
Nanhua and Sinian periods (ca. 720-541 Ma) and were influenced by the assembly
728
and breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, respectively.
729
2) Four phases of prototype basin evolution in the Neoproterozoic Yangtze
730
Craton can be identified based on the two plate tectonic settings, four major
731
unconformity surfaces, four major stratigraphic sequences and at least three sets of
732
seismic reflection tectonic sequences. They are 1) the early Qingbaikou period (ca.
733
1000-820 Ma), when the back-arc spreading basins on the western and northern
734
Yangtze margins and the interior, and the retro-arc foreland basin on the southeastern
735
Yangtze margin formed; 2) the late Qingbaikou period (ca. 820-720 Ma), when the
736
back-arc spreading basins on the western and northern Yangtze margins, and the
737
extensional down-faulted basins on the southeastern Yangtze margin and the interior
738
of the Yangtze Craton formed; 3) the Nanhua period (ca. 720-635 Ma), when the rift
739
basins on the southeastern, western and northern Yangtze margins and its interior
740
formed; and 4) the Sinian period (ca. 635-541 Ma), when the intracratonic rift basins
741
within the Yangtze Craton and the divergent marginal subsidence basins on the
742
southeastern and northern Yangtze margins formed.
743
3) A comparison of the oil-gas exploration in China and abroad indicated that the
744
Nanhua rift basins, the Sinian divergent marginal subsidence basins and the
745
intracratonic rift basins are the favourable prototype basin types. These basins are
746
located on the southeastern and northern Yangtze margins and in the interior of the
747
Yangtze Craton. The black charcoal shale and silty shale, mudstone and argillaceous
—34—
748
limestone in these basins are important source rocks. So, increasing the collection of
749
deep high-resolution geophysical data and drilling deep wells in the Yangtze Craton
750
in the future is essential for determining the extents of the prototype basins and the
751
distribution of the hydrocarbon source rocks.
752
Acknowledgements:
753
This study is financially supported by the National Key Research &
754
Development Plan (Grant No. 2016YFC0601005, 2016YFC0601003) and the
755
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 22120180128).
756
We thank Prof. Xiaojin Zhou, Prof. Yunpeng Dong and Prof. Kexin Zhang for their
757
useful suggestions. The manuscript benefited from insightful reviews and comments
758
by Prof. Jinlong Yao and one anonymous reviewer.
—35—
759
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1105
Hydrocarbon pooling conditions and exploration potential of Sinian-lower Paleozoic gas
1106
reservoirs in the Sichuan Basin. Natural Gas Industry 30 (12), 5-9 (in Chinese with English
1107
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1108
Wei, G.Q., Ping, S., Wei, Y., Jian, Z., Jiao, G., Xie, W., Xie, Z., 2013. Formation conditions and
1109
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1110
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1111
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1112
Geological characteristics of the Sinian-early Cambrian intracratonic rift, Sichuan Basin.
1113
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1114
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1115
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1116
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1117
Wu, S.J., Wei, G.Q., Yang, W., Xie, W.R., Zeng, F.Y., 2016. Tongwan Movement and its —47—
1118
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1119
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Xia, Y., Xu, X.S., Niu, Y.L., Liu, L., 2018. Neoproterozoic amalgamation between Yangtze and
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1122
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Xia, Y., Xu, X.S., Zhao, G.C., Liu, L., 2015. Neoproterozoic active continental margin of the
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1125
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Xie, Z.Y., Wei, G.Q., Zhang, J., Yang, W., Zhang, L., Wang, Z.H., Zhao, J., 2017. Characteristics
1127
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1128
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Xin, Y.J., Li, J.H., Dong, S.W., Zhang, Y.Q., Wang, W.B., Sun, H.S., 2017. Neoproterozoic
1131
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1132
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1134
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1135
the northern margin of the Yangtze Block, China: A record of oceanic subduction in the early
1136
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1137
Yang, A.H., Zhu, M.Y., Zhang, J.Q., Zhao, F., Lü, M., 2015. Sequence stragraphic subdivision
1138
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1139
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1140
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1141
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1142
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1143
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1144
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1145
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1146
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1147
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1148
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1149
Yao, J., Shu, L., Santosh, M., 2014. Neoproterozoic arc-trench system and breakup of the South
1150
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1151
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1152
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1153
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1154
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1155
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1156
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1157
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1158
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1159
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1160
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1161
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1162
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1163
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1164
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1165 1166
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1167
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1168
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1169
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1170
Zhang, Q.R., Chu, X.L., Feng, L.J., 2009. Discussion on the Neoproterozoic glaciations in the
1171
South China Block and their related paleolatitudes. Chinese Science Bull 54 (7), 978-980.
1172
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1173 1174 1175 1176 1177
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1178
Zhang, S.H., Evans, D.A.D., Li, H.Y., Wu, H.C., Jiang, G.Q., Dong, J., Zhao, Q.L., Raub, T.D.,
1179
Yang, T.S., 2013b. Paleomagnetism of the late Cryogenian Nantuo Formation and
1180
paleogeographic implications for the South China Block. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72,
1181
164-177.
1182
Zhang, S.H., Jiang, G.Q., Jin, D., Han, Y.G., Wu, H.C., 2008c. New SHRIMP U-Pb age from the
1183
Wuqiangxi Formation of Banxi Group: Implications for rifting and stratigraphic erosion
1184
associated with the early Cryogenian (Sturtian) glaciation in South China. Science in China
1185
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1186
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1187
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1188
China and their paleogeographic implications. Precambrian Research 259, 130-142.
1189
Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., Geng, H., Zhang, Y., Fan, W., Zhong, H., 2013c. Early Neoproterozoic
1190
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1191
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1192
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1193 1194 1195 1196
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1197
Zhang, Y.Q., Zhang, J., Li, H.K., Lu, S.N., 2013d. Zircon U-Pb geochronology of the meta-acidic
1198
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1199
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1200 1201
Zhao, G.C., Cawood, P.A., 2012. Precambrian geology of China. Precambrian Research 222-223, 13-54.
1202
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1203
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1204
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1205
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1206
arc system in Rodinia constrained by the Neoproterozoic Shimian ophiolite in South China.
1207
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1208
Zhao, J.H., Li, Q.W., Liu, H., Wang, W., 2018b. Neoproterozoic magmatism in the western and
1209
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Zhao, J.H., Zhou, M.F., Yan, D.P., Zheng, J.P., Li, J.W., 2011. Reappraisal of the ages of
1215
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Zhao, J.H., Zhou, M.F., Zheng, J.P., 2010. Metasomatic mantle source and crustal contamination
1218
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1219
South China. Lithos 115 (4), 177-189.
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1221
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zircon Hf and O isotopes in the two episodes of Neoproterozoic granitoids in South China:
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1232
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1233 1234
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1236
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1237
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1238
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1239
Zhou, C.M., 2016. Neoproterozoic liyhostratigraphy and correlation across the Yangtze Block,
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1241
Zhou, J.C., Wang, X.L., Qiu, J.S., 2009. Geochronology of Neoproterozoic mafic rocks and
1242
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Zhou, M.F., K., K.A., Min, S., John, M., Michael, L.C., 2002. Neoproterozoic arc-related mafic
1245
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1246
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1248
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1249
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Zhou, M.F., Yan, D.P., Wang, C.L., Qi, L., Kennedy, A., 2006b. Subduction-related origin of the
1251
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1252
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1253
Planetary Science Letters 248 (1), 286-300.
1254
Zhou, Q., Du, Y.S., Yuan, L.J., Zhang, S., Yu, W.C., Yang, S.T., Yu, L., 2016. The structure of
1255
the Wuling rift basin and its control on the manganese deposit during the Nanhua Period in
1256
Guizhou-Hunan-Chongqing border area, South China. Earth Science 41 (2), 177-188 (in
1257
Chinese with English abstract).
1258
Zhou, X.M., Zou, H.B., Yang, J.D., Wang, Y.X., 1989. Sm-Nd isochronous age of Fuchuan
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1260
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1261 1262
Zhu, M.Y., Zhang, J.M., Yang, A.H., 2007. Integrated Ediacaran (Sinian) chronostratigraphy of South China. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 254 (1-2), 7-61.
1263
Zhu, X.Y., Chen, F.K., Nie, H., Siebel, W., Yang, Y.Z., Xue, Y.Y., Zhai, M.G., 2014.
1264
Neoproterozoic tectonic evolution of South Qinling, China: Evidence from zircon ages and
1265
geochemistry of the Yaolinghe volcanic rocks. Precambrian Research 245, 115-130.
1266
Zhu M. Y. Zhang J. P., Yang A. H., Li G. X., Zhao F. C., Lü M., Yin C. J., 2016.
1267
Source-reservoir-cap condition and sedimentary environment of the Neoproterozoic strata in —52—
1268
south China, in: Sun S., Wang T. G., Meso-Neoproterozoic geology and oil and gas resources
1269
in east China. Science Press, Beijing, pp. 107-135.
1270
Zhuo, J., Jiang, X., Wang J., Cui, X., Xiong, G., Lu, J., Liu, J., Ma, M., 2013. Opening time and
1271
filling pattern of the Neoproterozoic Kangdian rift basin, western Yangtze Continent, South
1272
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1273
Zhuo J., Jiang X., Wang J., Cui X., Wu H., Xiong G., Lu J., Jiang Z., 2015. Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb
1274
age of sedimentary tuff at the bottom of Neoproterozoic Kaijianqiao Formation in western
1275
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1276
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1277
Zou, C.N., Du, J.H., Xu, C.C., Wang, Z.C., Zhang, B.M., Wei, G.Q., Wang, T.S., Yao, G.S., Deng,
1278
S.H., Liu, J.J., 2014. Formation, distribution, resource potential and discovery of the
1279
Sinian-Cambrian giant gas field, Sichuan Basin, SW China. Petroleum Exploration &
1280
Development 41 (3), 306-325.
—53—
1281
Tables:
1282
Table 1. The prototype basin classification scheme for Neoproterozoic Yangtze basins,
1283
modified from Zhang (1997, 2010) and Kingston et al. (1983a).
1284
—54—
1285
Table 2. Neoproterozoic stratigraphy and correlation of the Yangtze Craton, revised after Wang and Li (2003), Wang et al. (2015b), Zhou,
1286
(2016).
1287
—55—
1288
Table 3. Tectonic environment and evolutionary sequences of the prototype basins in
1289
the Neoproterozoic Yangtze Craton.
1290 1291
—56—
1292
Figures:
1293 1294
Figure 1. Geological map of the Yangtze Craton showing the distribution of
1295
Precambrian rocks, modified after Charvet (2013), Shu et al. (2019), Wang et al.
1296
(2015b), Yao et al. (2019), Zhao and Cawood, (2012).
—57—
1297 1298
Figure 2. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Yangtze Craton in the
1299
supercontinent Rodinia, Yg-Yangtze, Ca-Cathaysia, SC-South China (including
1300
Yangtze and Cathaysia), modified after Zhao et al. (2018a).
—58—
1301 1302
Figure 3. Interpretation of deep seismic profile L1, modified after Li et al. (2018) (see
1303
Fig. 1 for the location).
1304
1305 1306
Figure 4. Interpretation of seismic profile L2, modified after Dong et al. (2015) (see
1307
Fig. 1 for the location).
—59—
1308 1309
Figure 5. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton in the early
1310
Qingbaikou period (see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins) (main outcrop
1311
section source: BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRGZ, 1987; DGMRAH, 1997; DGMRJX,
1312
1997; DGMRSC, 1997).
—60—
1313 1314
Figure 6. Schematic cross-section of the early Qingbaikou basins (see Fig. 5 for the
1315
location of line A-A’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of
1316
the basins). 03-Dengxiangying Group, Xide, Sichuan; 02-E’bian Group, E’bian,
1317
Sichuan; 11-Fanjingshan Group, Yinjiang, Guizhou; 12-Lengjiaxi Group, Yuanling,
1318
Hunan; 08-Shuangqiaoshan Group, Xiushui, Jiangxi; 07-Xikou Group, Xiuning,
1319
Anhui.
—61—
1320 1321
Figure 7. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton during the late
1322
Qingbaikou period (see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins) (main outcrop
1323
section source: BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRHN, 1988; BGMRYN, 1984; DGMRGX,
1324
1997; DGMRGZ, 1997; DGMRSC, 1997).
—62—
1325 1326
Figure 8. Schematic cross-section of the late Qingbaikou basins (see Fig. 7 for the
1327
location of line B-B’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of
1328
the basins). 02-Kaijianqiao Formation, Ganluo, Sichuan; 03-Chengjiang Formation,
1329
Jinyang, Sichuan; 01-Luliang and Niutoushan formations, Luliang, Yunnan;
1330
07-Laoshanya and Xieshuihe formations, Shimen, Hunan; 08- Banxi Group, Songtao,
1331
Guizhou; 09-Banxi Group, Zhijiang, Hunan; 12-Xiajiang Group, Jinping, Guizhou;
1332
10-Gaojian Group, Qianyang, Hunan; 15-Danzhou Group, Sanjiang, Guangxi.
—63—
1333 1334
Figure 9. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton in the Nanhua period
1335
(see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins) (main outcrop section source:
1336
BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRHN, 1988; BGMRYN, 1984; DGMRGX, 1997; DGMRGZ,
1337
1997; Liu, 1991).
—64—
1338 1339
Figure 10. Schematic cross-section of the Nanhua rift basins (see Fig. 9 for the
1340
location of line C-C’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of
1341
the basins). 05-Donghe, Ankang, Shanxi; 03-Gaoqiaohe, Shennongjia, Hubei;
1342
06-Xiadong, Yichang, Hubei; 07- Changyang, Hubei; 10- Yangjiaping, Shimen,
1343
Hunan;
1344
14-Yanglizhang, Songtao, Guizhou; 17-Suoxi, Tongren, Guizhou; 20-Lijiapo,
1345
Congjiang, Guizhou; 21- Sanjiang, Guangxi.
11-Sangzhi,
Zhangjiajie,
Hunan
—65—
12-ZK102,
Songtao,
Guizhou;
1346 1347
Figure 11. Interpreted seismic cross-sections in central Sichuan. A, B, Major
1348
boundary fault and secondary faults of the Nanhua rift basin, modified after Gu and
1349
Wang (2014), Wei et al. (2018) (see Fig. 9 for the locations); C, the Sinian platform
1350
subsidence basin in central Sichuan, modified after Zhong et al. (2013) (see Fig. 12
1351
for the location).
—66—
1352 1353
Figure 12. Distribution of prototype basins of the Yangtze Craton in the Sinian period
1354
(see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations of the basins; see Fig. 1 for the well names) (main
1355
outcrop section source: BGMRHB, 1984; BGMRHN, 1988; BGMRYN, 1984;
1356
DGMRGX, 1997; DGMRGZ, 1997; Jiang et al., 2011; Liu, 1991; Vernhet, 2007; Zhu
1357
et al., 2007).
—67—
1358 1359
Figure 13. Schematic cross-section of the Sinian basins (see Fig. 11 for the locations
1360
of line D-D’, line E-E’ and the stratigraphic sections; see Tab. 3 for the abbreviations
1361
of the basins). 05-Zhushan, Shiyan, Hubei; 18-Mahuanggou, Shennongjia, Hubei;
1362
19-Zhangcunping, Yichang, Hubei; 22-Yangjiaping, Shimen, Hunan; 25-Tianping,
1363
Dayong, Hunan; 29-Wuxi, Xinhua, Hunan; 36-Sanjiang, Guangxi; 09-Hanyuan,
1364
Sichuan; 38-Well W117, Sichuan; 39-Well GS 17, Sichuan; 24-Well GS 1, Sichuan;
1365
15-Well Li1, Hubei; 01-Well X2, Hubei; 23-Well EC1, Hubei; 17-Qinglinkou, Zigui,
1366
Hubei; 21-Changyang, Hubei; 31-Linxiang, Hunan.
—68—
1367 1368
Figure 14. Types of worldwide petroliferous basins. (A) The ratios of different basin
1369
types among worldwide petroliferous basins; (B) the ratios of different basin types of
1370
worldwide petroliferous basins during different geological periods. A total of 978
1371
large oil and gas fields in 155 petroliferous basins around the world were classified
1372
(Craig J et al., 2009; Mann et al., 2003; USGS world petroleum assessment, 2000).
1373
—69—
1374
Highlights:
1375
1. Summarizes two different Neoproterozoic plate tectonic environments.
1376
2. Identifies four evolutionary phases of the Neoproterozoic basins.
1377
3. Reviews the spatial and temporal changes in basin fill and distribution.
1378
4. Evaluates the most conducive basin prototype and target regions for exploration.
1379
—70—