Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility

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Journal of World Business journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jwb

Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility Paula Caligiuri a,*, Jaime Bonache b a b

Northeastern University, International Business and Strategy, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Calle Madrid, 126, 28903 Getafe, Madrid, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Expatriation International assignments Globalization Global mobility

This article reviews the past 50 years of the science and practice of global mobility in organizations, highlighting the continuum of issues – from those that have endured throughout the decades to those that have changed as a function of economic, competitive, and demographic trends. At this latter end of the continuum, the field of global mobility has seen dramatic changes in the strategic deployment of expatriates, changes in assignment types, and demographic changes in the profile of expatriates. These are discussed in the first part of the article. In the second part of the article we review the issues which have been impervious to change over the years. We draw upon recent evidence from the fields of neuroscience and human development to examine two of the more enduring issues of global mobility: the change in individuals’ competencies as a function of living and working in another country and the personality characteristics and motivation related to expatriates’ success abroad. Taken together, these enduring and evolving issues in global mobility have implications for future research and practice. ß 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Global mobility, in the most simplistic sense, is when individuals and oftentimes their families, are relocated from one country to another by an employer, generally from a context of familiarity (a home country) to one of greater novelty (a host country) for a fixed period of time. These globally mobile employees, also known as expatriates or international assignees, have grown in importance as firms expand their global reach; as the number of a firm’s foreign subsidiaries grows so do, in many companies, the number of expatriates working in them. Research has recognized the importance of global mobility with the number of peer reviewed journal articles on expatriation increasing over the past 50 years since the Columbia Journal of World Business published some of the first articles on this topic. While the definition of global mobility has not changed, there are many aspects of expatriation that have, reflected in both science and practice of the field. From the 1960s through the late1980s, researchers studying expatriates were studying a relatively homogeneous group within organizations: senior executives from developed-country headquarters of large multinational corporations (MNCs) sent abroad for a period of two to four years (Brewster, Bonache, Cerdin, & Suutari, 2014). They were mostly married men, senior in their organizations, who were sent to be ‘‘in charge’’ of a host country subsidiary. This prototypical expatriate of

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Caligiuri).

the past brought his non-working wife and the company’s way of doing things. He would enjoy a generous compensation and benefits package for the ‘‘hardship’’ of living in another country. This homogenous group enabled numerous macro-level and micro-level studies from a common set of reasons for and experience of expatriates. At the macro level, early global mobility research focused on when and how expatriates foster a firms’ strategic growth globally. At the micro level, researchers tried to understand the expatriates’ challenges and responses along the international assignment cycle from selection and training (Fiedler, Mitchel, & Triandis, 1971; Harvey, 1983; Hays, 1974; Tung, 1981), adjustment (Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985, 1986), compensation (Reynolds, 1972; Vivian, 1968) and repatriation (Harvey, 1982; Murray, 1973). This macro and micro, research introduced before 1990, provided a solid foundation for the field of expatriation by revealing the highlevel issues (e.g., strategy, selection) in the field of global mobility. While the key issues have not changed over the decades, the context has changed dramatically as the commonalities among expatriates have gradually ceased to describe the bulk of international assignments. In contrast to the earlier decades’ uniformity, today’s picture of expatriation is one of diversity. The 2015 Brookfield Global Relocations Survey of global organizations sending expatriates found that almost half (43%) of all company expatriates are coming from non-headquarters locations and that the second most frequently cited reason for sending expatriates is to ‘‘build international management experience/

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.001 1090-9516/ß 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Caligiuri, P., & Bonache, J. Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility. Journal of World Business (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.001

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career development’’, only slightly behind the first which is the ‘‘to fill a managerial skills gap’’. Married men comprise only 59% of expatriates. Most of the current expatriates are under 50 years of age (82%) and 19% of them are female. Taken together, the picture of the current expatriate profile is a diverse one: individuals from all countries (not just headquarters) are being relocated for a variety of reasons (not just to lead subsidiaries). These individuals are from all levels in the organization and can be married or single, male or female, young or more seasoned. The most salient differences between the earlier and current reality emerged due to geopolitical and economic changes, advances in technology, communication, and global travel and organizational and demographic trends in the business population (Cascio & Aguinis, 2008). These trends have affected the way expatriates are managed, valued, and supported. While the number of changes over time have been numerous in the field of expatriation, there are also some enduring issues stemming from the natural human response to relocation – from familiar (home country) to novel (host country) – and the predictable patterns that result because of this change. In this sense, some expatriation issues are today as they were decades, if not centuries, ago. This article starts by comparing the picture of global mobility in early research to the picture emerging today. Specifically, we highlight how broader contextual factors have produced evolving issues of expatriation, namely: (1) changes in the strategic deployment of expatriates, (2) changes in assignment types, and (3) changes in the profile of expatriates. We then integrate recent evidence from neuroscience and human development to underscore how some issues, despite the major differences in context, have been impervious to change over time. They are: (1) the change in individuals’ competencies as a function of living and working in another country and (2) the importance of personality characteristics and motivation for success abroad. We consider these issues of global mobility, both evolving and enduring, below. At the onset, however, we would like to recognize that capturing every significant contribution in the field of global mobility is well beyond the scope of this paper. Our goal, rather than being a comprehensive review of every article, was to share our perception of global mobility over the past 50 years.

1. Evolving challenges of global mobility The domain of human resource management (HRM) is always affected by the context (Baron & Kreps, 1999), and the area of global mobility is no exception. A number of economic, technological, organizational, and demographic changes in the business population over the last 50 years have had significant influence on the research and practice in global mobility. The key features of the evolution of the field of global mobility are summarized in Table 1 and explored in greater detail in this section. 1.1. Changes in the strategic deployment of expatriates In one of his last works before he passed away in 2009, the British economist John Harry Dunning (2009) summarized the four major transformations that, from the 1990s onward, have led to greater globalization. First, the fall of the Berlin Wall led to a transition to a market economy in many former Soviet-bloc countries. While still retaining a single-party state government, that same model would also be followed by China, with the ensuing impact this has had on the global economy. Second, the liberalization of cross-border markets encouraged regional economic integration (e.g., NAFTA, AFTA, APEC, and the European Union) and stimulated economic growth and accelerated international commercial transactions among businesses and private individuals. Third, the digital revolution and the advances made in information technology and computing systems paved the way for all firms (large and small) to embark upon greater innovation, and launch into markets that had, in prior years, been inaccessible. And, fourth, a dynamic increase in the international operations of firms from every part of the world. Large MNCs, which not only reinforced their international transactions, also increased their direct investment abroad, either through joint-ventures or with wholly owned subsidiaries. New players also appeared on the economic scene, such as new MNCs from developing countries, particularly in Asia, and small and medium-sized enterprises, some being ‘‘born global’’. These four historically concurrent changes ultimately ushered in a much more competitive and globalized business reality. In the post 1990 reality, products and services, capital, technology, trade and knowledge became interconnected. This new business reality

Table 1 Evolution of trends in global mobility. Traditional approach (1960s to the late-1980s) Changes in the strategic deployment of expatriates Reasons for expatriation  Control of subsidiaries  Fill skill gaps unavailable in host countries Typical mobility flow  One directional flow from headquarters to subsidiaries  Mostly from large US, European, and Japanese headquarters Dominant perspective

 Headquarters’ perspective was dominant

Changes in assignment types Duration of assignments Employment modes Initiating the global experience

 Relatively long assignments (two to four-year period)  Relational contracts  The company requests employees to relocate

Changes in the profile of expatriates Gender  Male executives Age and level  Middle-aged  Senior level managers and executives Other  Single-income families  Non-working spouse

Modern approach (1990s to Present)  Knowledge transfer around MNC  Professional development of global leaders  Mobility in all directions (e.g., lateral moves, reverse expatriations)  MNCs from emerging market and developing countries  Multiple perspectives (headquarters, regional, local) are considered

 More traveling and short-term assignments  Relational and transactional contracts  The company posts open requisitions for international assignments  The employees request opportunities for international assignments

     

More female expatriates All ages From all levels in the organization Dual career couples Elderly parents Non-traditional families

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required a new managerial mindset (Levy, Beechler, Taylor, & Boyacigiller, 2007) labeled as geocentrism (Perlmutter, 1969), global mindset (Levy et al., 2007; Osland, Bird, Mendenhall, & Osland, 2006; Rhinesmith, 1992), or transnational mentality (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990). Irrespective of moniker, it was accepted that the era of globalization created the need for business professionals to understand what is idiosyncratic to a particular culture and what may be universal within the contingencies of the local environment (Levy et al., 2007). Within this global business reality, there are two perspectives that global managers need to understand, the cultural perspective and the strategic perspective (Levy et al., 2007). With respect to the first dimension, it is generally understood that what executives needed to do was adopt a geocentric perspective whereby the superiority of people, practices or ideas are not linked to any nationality; the best of each can come from any country and find their way to any other country within the organization (Kobrin, 1991; Perlmutter, 1969). This approach featured a global decisionmaking system in which headquarters and the subsidiaries see themselves as part of a single global system. While a geocentric perspective was considered the desirable ideal, the headquarterscentered ethnocentric perspective dominated in the early years of the era of globalization – and some might surmise, continues to dominate today. In contrast to a single ideal of the cultural perspective, the strategic perspective also emerged. This approach focuses on the strategic complexity associated with globalization and advocates for solutions based on how firms compete abroad (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1999; Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990; Levy et al., 2007). Within this organizational-strategic approach, one possible strategic response is local responsiveness where MNCs differentiate their products and services to suit the preferences of their clients, the characteristics of the sector, and the cultural and legal environment of each one of the national markets in which they operate. The second possible response is the global integration of each MNC’s operations in order to take advantage of different national factors of production, leverage economies of scale in all activities, and share costs and investments across different markets and business units. The third response is to develop innovation and a learning organization, which requires the different units (headquarters or subsidiaries) to learn from each other and exchange innovations in management systems and processes. These approaches in the post-1990 reality produced a wider range of research and practice on how global mobility can be used to help execute on more differentiated strategies. Specifically, we have seen – and continue to see – a broader diversity of reasons for expatriation, a broader diversity in the assignments location and nationalities, and the increasing interest in host country nationals’ perspectives. Each will be considered below. 1.1.1. Reasons for expatriates In the 1970s, as companies began to accelerate their global reach, there was an interest in understanding the strategic reasons for expatriate assignments. To this end, Edstro¨m and Galbraith (1977), in their seminal article, identified three key functions or reasons for expatriates: control, to fill positions, and management development. Across articles, Harzing (2001) classified nine subsequent articles on the topic of expatriate functions into the same three categories. The first possible function of expatriates, the control role, is for expatiates to represent the parent company’s interest in the subsidiary. Headquarters sends expatriates to liaise between the hose and host country interests, safeguard the organization’s overall interests, and ensure that the decisions made in the subsidiary do not compromise the organization as a whole (Boyacigiller, 1990; Brewster, 1991; Harzing, 2002; Mayrhofer &

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Brewster, 1996). Edstro¨m and Galbraith (1977) noted that the control function also tends to involve an element of coordination, especially in firms in industries with a high overall integration of their operations (e.g., automobiles). Expatriates are familiar with the firm’s international network, they are aware of the impact a subsidiary’s decisions may have on the rest of the corporation, and they develop numerous contacts, which thereby permit them to act as go-betweens across interdependent units (Boyacigiller, 1990). In this organizational development role, expatriates have formal position power to control, are socializing agents to impart culture, or can use informal communication to foster network ties (Harzing, 2001). The second expatriate function identified by Edstro¨m and Galbraith ‘‘to fill positions’’ or transfer knowledge from headquarters to the subsidiary. This knowledge may be of a general nature (e.g., corporate culture) or more technical and specific, such as that referring to the processes of purchasing inputs (e.g., purchasing or negotiating skills), transformation (e.g., product design, process engineering), or outputs (e.g., marketing skills). Much of this knowledge is tacit as it cannot be coded or set out in manuals, but instead is steeped in the experience and skills of the organization’s members (Polanyi, 1962). This means that its global dissemination can be achieved only by posting staff abroad (Athanassiou & Nigh, 2000; Bonache & Brewster, 2001). It should be noted that Edstro¨m and Galbraith do not refer to knowledge transfer, per se; it was later, especially after the knowledge-based view of the firm was introduced in the management literature (Argote & Ingram, 2000; Barney, 1991; Grant, 1996; Peteraf, 1993), that the expatriates performing this function became known as ‘‘knowledge agents’’ (e.g., Beavestock, 2004; Bonache & Brewster, 2001; Bonache & Za´rraga-Oberty, 2008). A final expatriate function identified by Edstro¨m and Galbraith (1977) is management development. Through international assignments, high-potential executives become immersed in a wide array of new and challenging intercultural situations (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992), which will enable them to develop a holistic approach and global business acumen (Welch, 2003). This experience will lead to greater career opportunities for those executives seeking professional growth (Brewster, 1991), as well as provide the MNC with a competitive advantage (Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahoney, 1997). Far from having a merely historical interest, the contribution made by Edstro¨m and Galbraith is one of the topics in expatriate literature that is deemed to be widely accepted or ‘‘normal’’ (Kuhn, 1970), appearing in studies that seek to explain the deployment of expatriates in MNCs (Tan & Mahoney, 2006), whether as a way of controlling and coordinating cross-border operations (e.g., Belderbos & Heijltjes, 2005; O’Donnell, 2000), as a way of transferring knowledge (Bjorkman, Barner-Rasmussen, & Li, 2004), or as a vehicle for management development (e.g., Athanassiou & Nigh, 2000). While labels have morphed to reflect a modern corporate vernacular, the same three expatriate functions continue to emerge. To illustrate, Groysberg, Nohria, and Herman (2011), in a case study of the Solvay Group, noted an executive’s response for the function of expatriates: ‘‘Expatriation in our organization is driven on three axes. We need people to transfer knowledge. So there are typically engineers, who have an expertise that is needed in different places in the world. Then we have positions where what is desired by the organization is to transfer the corporate culture and also ensure control, so typically CFOs, general managers of big companies or regions. And then you have a smaller number of expatriations which are based clearly on developmental opportunities, where the end jobs, or where the people go, are less important than that the people go somewhere, and when

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they come back they have a different expertise, and we can build on that’’ (Groysberg et al., 2011; p. 10). Although it is true that the three expatriate functions identified by Edstro¨m and Galbraith are still valid in organizations today, it is also true that the mix of these functions has changed dramatically. Through late 1980s the control function dominated. Today, only 3% of firms identify ‘‘transfer corporate culture’’ as the primary objective for international assignments. Instead, many firms (over 50%) identify objectives that fall into the category of ‘‘filling roles’’, to use Edstrom and Galbraith’s parlance, as the primary reason for sending expatriates on assignment (Brookfield, 2015). This is an important change. Rather than expatriates as control-oriented subsidiary leaders (positions that are now more likely held by local managers), expatriates today are more strategically oriented toward knowledge transfer/organizational development (Beavestock, 2004; Harzing, 2001; Welch, 2003) and management development (Kohonen, 2005; Shaffer, Kraimer, Chen, & Bolino, 2012; Spreitzer et al., 1997). Reflecting this change from the control function to a broader organizational development function (Harzing, 2001), we have seen burgeoning research to understand expatriation in knowledge transfer (e.g., Bird & Mukuda, 1989; Bjorkman et al., 2004; Bonache & Brewster, 2001; Chang, Gong, & Peng, 2012; Furuya, Stevens, Bird, Oddou, & Mendenhall, 2009; Hocking, Brown, & Harzing, 2004; Lazarova & Tarique, 2005; Minbaeva, Pedersen, Bjorkman, Fey, & Park, 2003; Oddou, Osland, & Blakeney, 2009; Reiche, 2011; Reiche, Harzing, & Kraimer, 2009; Riusala & Smale, 2007; Riusala & Suutari, 2004; Wang, Tong, Chen, & Kim, 2008). This focus is consistent with the strategic literature on the difficulties of knowledge transfer within a firm’s international network (Kostova, 1999; Szulanski, 1996) and has been flagged as a more arduous task than was predicted by the models of transnational firms where information flowed freely (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990). With knowledge transfer coming to the fore, recent studies now delve into the various sub-functions of knowledge transfer. One example is the work of Petison and Johri (2008) who identified the expatriates’ different roles, giving them the labels of ‘‘commander’’, ‘‘coach’’, ‘‘connector’’, and ‘‘conductor’’. They illustrate by suggesting that when engaging with host country nationals (HCNs) who have just joined a manufacturing subsidiary, the expatriate’s role will involve strict supervision and control in order to minimize costs and errors, thus acting as a commander. By contrast, when the expatriate is engaging with a team of HCN senior engineers in the same subsidiary, the expatriate’s role is to build trust and foster collaboration with headquarters, thus acting as a connector. This example provides an illustration that, what was once classified as a single expatriate function (i.e., ‘‘knowledge transferor’’), now contains a wide variety functions. Perhaps the greatest shift in the reason for expatriation has been to a greater emphasis managerial development. Today, 23% of firms identify management development as a primary objective of international assignments (Brookfield, 2015). The most research decade has brought to fore the importance for people’s professional development and their career possibilities (Cerdin & Pargneux, 2009) and underscored how the international experience of top management does indeed have a positive impact on firm performance (Carpenter, Sanders, & Gregersen, 2001; Daily, Certo, & Dalton, 2000), the level of presence in global markets (Carpenter & Fredrickson, 2001), and access to valuable knowledge with a view to formulating more effective global strategies (Athanassiou & Nigh, 2000). Across expatriate functions, there is little doubt today about the strategic value international assignments have for organizations (Scullion & Collings, 2010). Tangibly, however, measuring the

return-on-investment (ROI) from an international assignment has remained a vexing challenge for organizations (McNulty & Cieri, 2011; McNulty, De Cieri, & Hutchings, 2009). A greater refinement of expatriate functions and roles will, in part, get us closer to the goal of measuring ROI; once strategic goals are understood, we can better understand value in terms of goal achievement. Measuring expatriate ROI must extend beyond the value of achieving solely technical goals (i.e., filling a skill gap) to also capture the value of expatriates achieving goals in management development and organizational development. McNulty, De Cieri, and Hutchings (2013) in a study of expatriates in the Asia-Pacific region, found that individuals’ personal gains during the international assignment drive company-level ROI in terms of ‘‘capability development and improving internationalization efforts’’. Clearly, the role of expatriates in broader organizational development will continue to be an important topic of future research. Other important areas of future research are whether these expatriate roles – and the mix of these roles – vary depending on organizational strategy, location of headquarters, and stage of global development. 1.1.2. Location of assignments and nationality of assignees The second implication the post 1990s era of globalization had on global mobility was that the individuals sent on expatriate assignments were from more countries than just the headquarters’ country. This change was a major transition in leaders’ mindset and organizational culture – one which has its own interesting history. Before the 1990s brought the era of globalization, international assignments were the domain of US and European firms (Brewster et al., 2014). The huge investment in Japan following WWII enabled it to become a leader in the automobile and electronics industries, with it being commonplace at the time to wonder how to respond to the Japanese challenge (Ouchi, 1981). It is not surprising, therefore, that the expatriations in Japanese firms were studied closely (e.g., Tsurumi, 1978). What was remarkable was the intensive use made of expatriates, which was interpreted as a major stumbling block for the country’s future competitiveness (Bartlett & Yoshihara, 1988), which other subsequent studies did not seem to ratify (Beamish & Inkpen, 1998). Regardless of the nationality of the MNC, firms in the past had posted talent from headquarters to other parts of the world, with the developed countries being the main destinations (Coopers, 2010). This headquarters-based pattern of mobility gradually began to change in the 1990s when, for strategic and practical reasons, we started seeing a greater use of ‘‘inpatriate’’ assignments, individuals from host country subsidiaries who relocate for an expatriate assignment in to the headquarters country, and third country national assignments, individuals from one subsidiary who are relocated to another subsidiary (Tarique, Schuler, & Gong, 2006). In the context Irish subsidiaries of foreign-owned multinationals, almost half use some form of global mobility that was not from headquarters, whether inpatriation or third country nationals (Collings, McDonnell, Gunnigle, & Lavelle, 2010). The diversity of ‘‘to’’ and ‘‘from’’ locations for international assignments has strategic implications for how – and how successfully – firms complete globally (Caligiuri & Colakoglu, 2007; Colakoglu & Caligiuri, 2008; Colakoglu, Tarique, & Caligiuri, 2009; Collings, 2014; Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007; Tarique et al., 2006). The countries with headquarters sending expatriates also changed. Large MNCs began appearing in emerging countries, such as Samsung in South Korea, Mobile in China, and Reliance Industries Limited in India. The multinational label ceased to be monopolized by the developed world. By 2007 emerging market countries had 70 firms in Fortune’s ranking of the world’s 500 largest corporations, when only a decade earlier this same figure was only 20 (Guille´n & Garcı´a-Canal, 2009). The rapid

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growth of emerging economies also meant that these countries became the typical destination for MNCs from developed countries. China’s case is a particularly noteworthy one. As Bruning, Sonpar, and Wang (2012) have reported, in this new millennium China now hosts the highest number of expatriates per year, only behind the US, and it is also the country that poses the greatest number of difficulties for expatriates. It stands to reason that since the end of the 1990s many studies have sought to understand the predictors of expatriate success in China (Selmer, 1999; Weldon & Vanhonacker, 1999). Other studies have focused on different environments that are also challenging for expatriates, such as Nigeria (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011) and Iran (Soltani & Wilkinson, 2011). As Groysberg et al. (2011) note, ‘‘Expatriation no longer implies relocation to a glamorous site’’ (pp. 11). The location of the assignments and the nationality of the headquarters country are important distinction for future research. Harzing (2001) found that MNCs from developed countries do not all manage expatriation quite the same way, which can produce different developmental outcomes. It might well be the case that emerging countries follow a different approach. More research is needed on cross-national differences in global mobility practices. If countries are differentially challenging for expatriates as industry reports and recent research suggest (e.g., Brookfield, 2015), a better understanding of why countries are particularly challenging is an important area for future research. 1.1.3. Greater focus on the perspective of HCNs Although there are many people living and working outside their home country as corporate expatriates, in relative terms they make up a very small number of employees, particularly when they are compared to HCNs (i.e., local employees who work in the various countries in which MNCs operate). The relative proportion of each one of these groups is very uneven. Some surveys (see Bonache, Sa´nchez, & Za´rraga-Oberty, 2009) affirm that expatriates comprise just 0.8% of the workforces of US and European MNCs, and up to 2.7% in the case of Japanese MNCs, where it is customary to employ a larger number of expatriates (Bartlett & Yoshihara, 1988; Kopp, 1994). Despite being quantitatively far more numerous, the perspective of host national employees in relation to the expatriate experience was practically ignored by research in the 1970s and 1980s (c.f. Adler, 1987, for a notable exception). This changed in the past few decades as the host national-expatriate relationships became a focus of investigation (Bruning et al., 2012; Chen, Choi, & Chi, 2002; Toh & DeNisi, 2003). Leading this research on host nationals’ perspectives was an examination of the salary gap between host national and expatriate staff (Chen et al., 2002; Toh & DeNisi, 2003). Different financial incentives, housing allowances and other benefits made expatriate packages, traditionally, far more desirable than host nationals doing similar jobs (Guzzo, Noonan, & Elron, 1993; Tornikoski, Suutari, & Festing, 2014). Toh and DeNisi (2003) found that the perception of inequity occurs when a local employee does not perceive a salary advantage over locals in other companies, when they do not find logical reasons for high expatriate compensation, and when expatriates do not have the appropriate interpersonal skills (e.g., Bonache et al., 2009; Leung, Zhu, & Ge, 2009; Paik, Parboteeah, & Shim, 2007). Chen et al. (2002) analyzed host national reactions to these differences among Chinese employees working in MNCs and found that host national employees are more likely to feel a sense of inequity in compensation when comparing their salaries to expatriates’ salaries than when they compare their salaries to locals working for Chinese firms. Another area of focus is the role HCN play as socializing agents, sources of social support, assistance, and friendship for expatriates (Black et al., 1992; Mahajan & Toh, 2014; Toh & DeNisi, 2003;

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Varma, Budhwar, & Pichler, 2011a). For example, some research has identified how expatriates’ individual characteristics, such as ethnocentrism, can affect HCNs’ willingness to offer expatriates information and support (Varma, Pichler, & Budhwar, 2011b) and be socializing agents for them (Toh & DeNisi, 2007). The specific influence of host nationals on expatriate assignment outcomes is just starting to be understood. For example, Bruning et al. (2012) found that expatriate relationships with host national colleagues are negatively associated with expatriates’ general adjustment, but positively with their overall performance. It is important to note that the host national perspective is not homogeneous and one which warrants further investigation. In an ethnographic study on the Romanian subsidiaries of US corporations, HCNs constitute a cultural group with values influenced by their headquarters or home cultures (Caprar, 2011). Like expatriates, host nationals are not identical in their roles, positions, or perspectives (Bonache, Langinier, & Za´rraga-Oberty, in press). Studies of this nature in the future are important to enlighten research and practice on the diversity of perspectives that exist among host nationals. 1.2. Changes in assignment types As the era of globalization changed the reasons for international assignments, advances in communications and the ease of global travel expanded the options and opportunities for global mobility and how people work together across borders. They also enhance the HQs ability to oversee foreign operations, such as more easily visiting foreign facilities and communicating with managers therein. A three-minute phone call from New York to London that cost US$10.80 in 1970 costs less than US$0.20 today (Daniels, Radebaugh, & Sullivan, 2012). An internet call is virtually free. Given improvements in transportation and communication, it follows that the number of traditional expatriates are being substituted with other less costly and more project-oriented forms of international staffing (Beavestock, 2004; Tharenou & Harvey, 2006). These alternative forms of international postings include traveling and short-term assignments (Collings et al., 2007; Demel & Mayrhofer, 2010; Inkson, Arthur, Pringle, & Barry, 1997; Meyskens, Von Glinow, Werther, & Clarke, 2009; Starr & Currie, 2009; Suutari & Brewster, 2000). These alternative assignments are either short in duration or require visits to one or more subsidiaries each year and can be accomplished without the need to relocate employees or their families to the host country (Konopaske, Robie, & Ivancevich, 2009). These alternative assignments have always been present in organizations, but they are being used at a far greater level in response to both cost and strategic pressures (Collings et al., 2007). This trend is also an outcome of an ever increasing share of the labor force expressing a resistance to international mobility (Collings et al., 2007; Harvey, Buckley, & Novicevic, 2000) and a desire to solve or (at least) reduce a major organizational concern: the high cost of expatriate compensation packages (Bonache, 2006; Bonache & Stirpe, 2012; Collings et al., 2007). The nature and type of expatriate assignments is also widening. Globalization has brought with it greater flexibility (geographic, temporal) and a wider variety of contractual relations (Banai & Harry, 2004). In particular, it has led to the displacement of relational contracts – those based on loyalty and long-term service – with transactional ones –based on projects (Herriot & Pemberton, 1995). Organization-based careers are being replaced by more ‘‘protean careers’’ (Hall, 1976, 2004), careers that are self-managed rather than organization-directed and defined by greater interorganizational mobility. The driving forces behind these careers are people’s own values; career success is determined by

Please cite this article in press as: Caligiuri, P., & Bonache, J. Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility. Journal of World Business (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2015.10.001

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professional satisfaction rather than the number of organizational promotions. While traditional careers continue to exist for many people (Cappelli, 1999), there is more organizational mobility in professional careers – a change mirrored in today’s mobile expatriate population. Fifty years ago one could correctly assume that corporate expatriates were bound to their organizations by a long-term relational contract (Rousseau, 2004), a tacit agreement whereby expatriates agreed to live and work abroad for 2–5 years in exchange for a generous pay package and future career opportunities. This has changed in recent past with research suggesting that not all expatriates had a relational connection; rather, some expatriate assignments had a transactional purpose (Pate & Scullion, 2010; Yan, Zhu, & Hall, 2002). For the organization, the task to be performed by the expatriate may be technical or routine in nature and have a well-defined temporal horizon. Individuals, in turn, may look upon the position as a good opportunity for learning, developing new contacts, or applying their own knowledge in an international context. In such cases, their continuity with the organization once the project has been completed is not an option for them, which means that staff turnover should not then be seen as a failure from either the individual or the firm’s perspective (Cerdin & Pargneux, 2009; Yan et al., 2002). Another trend changing the nature of traditional expatriation is the increase in the number of self-initiated expatriates (Froese, 2012; Inkson et al., 1997; Mayrhofer, Sparrow, & Zimmermann, 2008; Suutari & Brewster, 2000). As opposed to typical expatriate assignments, those in which the initiative for the international experience comes primarily from a company, the initiative for selfinitiated expatriation comes from the individual. Although expatriations of this kind have received considerable attention in the literature, the distinction between a self-initiated expatriate and a highly skilled migrant has only recently received attention (Tharenou, 2015). Cerdin and Selmer (2014) suggest that selfinitiated expatriates have each of the following: (a) self-initiated international relocation, (b) regular employment, (c) intentions of a temporary stay, and (d) skilled/professional qualifications. The diversity of assignment types has created an important need for conceptual clarity in future research on global mobility. Research findings cannot be clearly understood without delineating the type of assignees being investigated (Tharenou, 2015) given that self-initiated expatriation follows a different logic compared to traditional expatriate assignments. In traditional expatriation organizations send individuals to another country to fill a strategic need and may have a desired developmental component. Selfinitiated assignees do not respond to either of these two dimensions. Instead, they correspond to family needs (e.g., the relocation of a partner or spouse) or personal goals (e.g., the desire to pursue personal, cultural or career development experiences abroad) in which the individual, on their own initiative, seeks a place within the firm’s international network. Whether or not they have a place in the traditional literature on expatriation, the reality is that self-initiated expatriations might fit the profile of the abovementioned protean careers, a type of resource that is increasingly being used by corporations (Hall, 2004; Yan et al., 2002). This is an important area for future studies. 1.3. Changes in the profile of expatriates While there has been a growing demand for expatriates, with 43% of firms reporting that they will likely be increasing the international assignee population in 2015 (Brookfield, 2015), some basic demographic trends have been making it harder to find individual to accept these assignments. Three demographic trends that have had the greatest impact on the demographic composition

of expatriates and the availability of expatriate candidates: (1) the increased number of women in the professional workforce, (2) the number of households with dual career couples, and (3) the increased lifespan of people globally. Regarding women in the workforce, American women, for example, comprised 18 percent of the labor force in 1900 and are now closer to 50 percent (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). Families, once traditionally having a male primary income earner and a female homemaker, have now changed. Today, in the USA as an example, married couples in which the husband is the only worker is only 19.9 percent of married-couple families (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). As life expectancy increases globally, there are a greater number of professionals who are part of the ‘‘sandwich generation’’, sandwiched between caring for children they have had later in life and caring elderly parents living longer. 1.3.1. Dual career couples The 2015 Brookfield Global Relocation Report found most international assignees are married (about 61%), are accompanied by a spouse (in about 81% of the cases) and have accompanying children (in about 52% of the cases). About 60% of the international assignees’ spouses have worked before the assignment, but only 21% of them work during the assignment. Contrast this with 50 years ago when expatriates tended to be older men, likely with a wife who did not work outside of the home. Today’s expatriates are younger (54% of expatriates are between the ages of 20 and 39). This new generation of expatriates is less likely to be married – and those who are married are more likely to have a spouse or partner with a career. These changing demographics have shifted the focus of support practices. For example, organizations are now focused on provided expatriate spouses’ career support and provisions for unmarried and same-sex partners. The issue of dual career couples in the expatriate context goes even deeper than changing demographics. It has been long understood that global mobility affects the expatriate employee and all of his or her loved ones, whether directly or indirectly. Tung (1981) conducted a comprehensive study involving 80 multinational corporations. Each company was asked to report the most important reasons for expatriate failure or the ‘‘inability to function effectively in a foreign environment’’ (p. 77). Highest on the list was the spouse’s ability to adjust to different physical and cultural environments. This is not surprising that, over decades, partners and children have had their lives disrupted for the sake of the expatriates’ relocation and their experiences in the host country can often have profound influence on the expatriates’ sense of work–life balance and, subsequently, on the outcome of the assignment (Black & Stephens, 1989; Caligiuri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bross, 1998; Lazarova, Westman, & Shaffer, 2010). These changes associated with the relocation may be even more pronounced for the accompanying partner compared to the expatriate employee; while the expatriate has the routine and the social network of his or her new position, the spouse needs to re-establish a personal and professional identity and a social network (De Cieri, Dowling, & Taylor, 1991; Shaffer & Harrison, 2001; Shimoni, Ronen, & Roziner, 2005; Takeuchi, Seakhwa Yun, & Tesluk, 2002; Takeuchi, Wang, & Marinova, 2005). The greatest transition problem for accompanying partners arises when both spouses are career professionals and, due to limited available work visas in most countries, the accompanying partner is not able to continue his or her career. Not working, and the associated change in one’s identity, can become an impediment to an accompanying partner’s adjustment in the host country (Harvey, 1993, 1994, 1997; Shaffer & Harrison, 2001). Another issue often experienced by accompanying partners is the additional parental and social demands placed on them as a result of their partners’ position in the host country. These demands may

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include, for example, expectations to host social events for the expatriates’ colleagues, to participate in organizational functions, and to support the expatriate’s career by reducing the expatriate’s role in domestic and parental responsibilities (Takeuchi, Lepak, Marinova, & Yun, 2007). 1.3.2. Female expatriates The number of expatriate women rose from 3% in the 1980s (Adler, 1984), to 10–14% in the 1990s, and to 16–20% in the new millennium (see Salamin & Hanappi, 2014 for a review). The underrepresentation of female expatriates was not due to the lack of interest among women to pursue an international career or to HCNs prejudice against women (Adler, 1987). Rather, the underrepresentation was due to supervisors’ perceptions that women were not viable candidates for international assignments because of dual-career marriages, HCNs’ unwillingness to work with women, and an assumed lack of interest expatriation (Adler, 1984; Stroh, Gregersen, & Black, 2000a). As these myths about female expatriates were busted (Adler, 1987) and the informality of expatriate selection process exposed (Harris & Brewster, 1999) and addressed directly (Varma, Stroh, & Schmitt, 2001), we began to see an increase in the presence of women on international assignments. In the past few decades, the research literature turned from selection barriers for women to predictors of adjustment and performance, women’s acceptance by HCNs, and issues related to work–life balance (Caligiuri & Tung, 1999; Caligiuri, Joshi, & Lazarova, 1999; Fischlmayr & Kollinger, 2010; Varma, Toh, & Budhwar, 2006). The demography of expatriates relative to how they are accepted in various host countries is an important area for future research. As Nancy Adler’s research in the 1980s helped question assumptions and dispel myths about women on international assignments, so should future studies examining assumptions about other individual differences such as race, disability, sexual orientation, parental status, and age. As it was with women in the 1970s, we need to first understand the barriers preventing them from being offered international assignments. Once these barriers are removed, understanding the unique issues related to their success should be examined. 1.3.3. Longevity During the last decades we have witnessed a dramatic increase in average life expectancy. Global life expectancy in the 1950s was 48 years and is predicted to rise to 75 years by 2050 (Chand & Tung, 2014). Chand and Tung (2014) report that life expectancy has risen to 82 years in the developed world. Increased longevity has had an impact on the global mobility in very specific ways. In the past decade we have seen organizations extending relocation benefits to elderly parents who are dependent on their adult children for care. In the most recent study of global mobility trends, 8% of organizations had assignment policy provisions to assist international assignees with elderly family members (Brookfield, 2015). Of those firms offering support for elderly parents, all of them offered provisions to relocate the family member to the assigned location. Going even further, 27% made a provision to obtain elder care in the assignment location. The factors affecting expatriates’ willingness or unwillingness to accept international assignments – such as elderly parents accompanying expatriates on their international assignments – will continue to be the high priority issues for global mobility research and practice. Likewise, the alternative configurations of family units and how those interact with success in various countries will be an important area for future research. It makes intuitive sense that some cultures would be more open than others to non-traditional families and that some family configurations might be easier – or more difficult – depending on the country.

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2. Enduring challenges of global mobility Thus far, we have highlighted the key changes and trends in global mobility. While these changes have been significant, there are expatriate issues that have remained steadfast across decades – even centuries. In this section, we will consider these enduring expatriate issues and consider the reasons why they have been relatively unchanged over time. Across the various forms and reasons for global mobility, only about 3.2 percent of the world’s population will relocate from their home country for an extended period of time The UN Population Division in 2013 stated that 232 million individuals globally are living outside their country of origin. Despite the ease of transportation and the expansion of trade blocs as discussed among the evolving trends, the vast majority of the world’s population – 96.8% – lives in their country of birth. Thus, global mobility remains a novel activity, one with predictable human responses and challenges based in the fundamentals of neuroscience, cognition, and perception. This section will focus on those enduring and predictable issues for expatriates. While increasing in methodological and theoretical sophistication over the past 50 years, research has found two steadfast results among expatriates: The first highlights the importance of personality characteristics and motivation related to expatriates’ success abroad. The second highlights the change in individuals’ competencies as a function of living and working in another country. With respect to the former, research has found that relatively immutable personality and motivational factors affect expatriates’ decision to engage in global mobility and the level of success and adjustment expatriates experience when in their host country. With respect to the latter, decades of research and centuries of observation has drawn a clear conclusion: global mobility can change people. Development of new competencies, whether desired or unanticipated by organizations, will oftentimes occur as a function of living and working in another country. The sections below explore these enduring issues. 2.1. Expatriates’ personality and motivation related to adjustment and performance Relocating from a familiar home country to the more unfamiliar host country can produce predictable psychological challenges. In 1970, David Heenan wrote about global mobility as the ‘‘assignment to ambiguity’’ noting that ‘‘One major shortcoming of foreign service is the discomfort of living far from home.’’ This discomfort has been called culture shock, defined as the period of anxiety before an individual feels comfortable in a new culture (Oberg, 1960). Overcoming cultural shock is ‘‘cross-cultural adjustment’’. Cross-culturally adjusted expatriates ‘‘represent a more integrative approach to a new culture, (they). . . are open to the host culture, but integrate new behavior, norms and roles into the foundation provided by (their) home cultures’’ (Church, 1982). On the contrary, maladjusted expatriates show signs of emotional stress such as depression and homesickness (Church, 1982). Crosscultural adjustment has been described as ‘‘the individual’s affective psychological response to the new environment’’ (Black, 1990) and the extent to which expatriates are psychologically comfortable with living abroad (Black, 1990; Black & Gregersen, 1991). More recently, research has expanded this understanding of expatriate adjustment to reflect the importance of the idiosyncratic person–environment relationship (Haslberger, Brewster, & Hippler, 2013; Hippler, Caligiuri, & Johnson, 2014). In this view, the most salient facets of the expatriates’ host country environment – when compared to their home country – are individually determined and the response to those facets, whether better or

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worse, are most critical for understanding the affective response of adjustment. This person–environment fit approach explains why general perceived organizational support positively affect adjustment (Takeuchi, Wang, Marinova, & Yao, 2009); issues might vary from person to person, but organizations’ support of expatriates’ issues are important (Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001; Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999). Likewise, the person–environment fit approach explains why repatriation (even to one’s home country) can pose significant adjustment challenges as a new set of salient facets emerge for the expatriates (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Black et al., 1992; Gregersen & Stroh, 1997). For individuals, global mobility produces not only an affective psychological response, but also a physiological one. Anderzen and Arnetz (1999) compared professionals working in their home countries with a matched sample of expatriates working in host countries, taking blood samples to test for physiological changes in stress hormones over the duration of a few years. Their results suggest that during the same few years, expatriates had increases in their prolactin levels and decreases in testosterone levels. The comparison group of domestic employees did not. These physiological responses were at their worst in the first year but remained challenging while living and working abroad. Consistent with studies on affective state of cross-cultural adjustment, the bloodsample study also found that the negative effects of living in the host country were mitigated when individuals had the individual characteristics necessary to adjust to life in their new country. This leads us to the next enduring issue of global mobility – individual differences. Through the past five decades, research has found that successful and adjusted international assignees possess certain immutable personality traits driving them to be open and receptive to learning the norms of new cultures, to initiate contact with host nationals, to gather cultural information, and to handle the higher amounts of stress associated with the ambiguity of living in a host country (e.g., Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a, 2000b; Church, 1982; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Shaffer, Harrison, Gregersen, Black, & Ferzandi, 2006; Tung, 1981). Both meta-analysis and large scale studies found that the relatively immutable and universal Big Five personality traits of extraversion, openness, emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness predict of expatriate success (Mol, Born, Willemsen, & Van Der Molen, 2005; Shaffer et al., 2006). Management research has linked these personality characteristics to motivated behaviors at working, making the distinction between cognitive abilities (what someone ‘‘can do’’) versus personality (what someone ‘‘will do’’) and demonstrating that both were critical for predicting performance (Borman, White, Pulakos, & Oppler, 1991; Mount & Barrick, 1995). Each of the Big Five personality characteristics relate to international assignee success for different reasons. For example, extroversion and agreeableness – important for relational skills – propel expatriates to form stronger with host nationals and other expatriates in the host country, enabling them to more effectively adjust to work and life in the host country (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005; Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a, 2000b; Dinges, 1983; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985, 1986; Searle & Ward, 1990). Agreeable expatriates, who interpret the behaviors of others more generously, have natural inclinations for collaboration, and are less competitive, report greater crosscultural adjustment and success as expatriates (Black, 1990; Caligiuri, 2000a, 2000b; Tung, 1981). Given that stress is often associated with the ambiguity of an unfamiliar host country (Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005), having a higher level of emotional stability is related to expatriate adjustment (Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1988; Gudykunst, 1988; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985), expatriate thriving

and completion of an international assignee assignment (Caligiuri, 2000a). More emotionally stable expatriates will likely be able to engage in the proactive tactics and coping mechanisms necessary for feelings of embeddedness and psychological well-being in the host country (Ren, Shaffer, Harrison, Fu, & Fodchuk, 2014; Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005). Expatriates with greater openness, have less rigidity of what is deemed to be appropriate and inappropriate and are able to suspend judgment in the host country for a longer period of time (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Black, 1990; Caligiuri, Jacobs, & Farr, 2000; Cui & Van Den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983; Finney & Von Glinow, 1988; Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman, 1979). At least some portion of these Big Five personality traits is hardwired into individuals’ DNA. Monozygotic twin studies (the way researchers examine the nurture-nature effects) have found that a large percentage – up to 50% – of expressed personality traits have a genetic link (Borkenau, Riemann, Angleitner, & Spinath, 2001) with the balance a function of environmental and developmental differences. Thus, expatriates’ genetic code will affect the personality traits needed to manage the novelty and challenge of relocating to a host country. To illustrate, we know that successful and adjusted expatriates are higher in openness (Caligiuri, 2000a; Shaffer et al., 2006). Openness has its roots in a certain genetic polymorphism affecting the body’s dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward-motivated behavior (among other things) and approach-related behaviors such as novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking. This hard-wiring of DNA produces individuals’ desire to seek, try, and enjoy new things and novel situations and engage with different people. When presented with an international opportunity at work, individuals wired in this way will view global mobility as highly desirable. Once expatriated, they succeed and increase their cross-cultural adjustment because they actively engage in the novel surroundings of the host country and with host nationals who can serve as cultural guides. Successful and adjusted expatriates are also higher in emotional stability, another personality trait linked with heritable roots. Once faced with the challenge of living and working in another culture, variants in the 5-HTTLPR gene related to serotonin transporters have an influence on the type of experience expatriates will have. The serotonin transporter gene has been linked to whether individuals attend to positive signals and avoid negative signals in the environment. Variants in this gene also affect whether individuals respond to situations with a greater level of optimism, affecting their willingness to work harder because they believe the goal is achievable. Variants around this gene affect whether challenges are considered pleasurable or stressful – and whether individuals are naturally motivated to seek challenges in the first place. This constellation of traits is found in countries with a greater level of immigration (Gartner, 2011). While expatriates, who are only in a host country temporarily, are not immigrants the research findings on both groups is similar. Personality is a critical predictor of expatriate success and companies seem to, on the surface, understand this. Rosalie Tung’s seminal research in the Columbia Journal of World Business in 1981 found that companies, for the most part, recognized the importance of personality traits across different type of expatriate assignments (e.g., high level CEO, functional, operative). Using the case of emotional stability, her study found that between 75% and 98% of senior leaders believed this to be a very important criterion to use when selecting expatriates. The expatriates recognize this in themselves; Arthur and Bennett (1995) found that expatriates identified the same critical predictors of their success as expatriates as the leaders did in the Tung (1981) study. Despite the widespread recognition of the importance of personality traits in predicting assignment success, the most

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recent Brookfield Global Relocation trends survey (2015) found that only 22% of firms use candidate assessment tools to assess expatriate candidates for these more immutable characteristics. The reality is that selection, while critical, seems to be challenging for organizations still needing individuals with critical skills in certain locations at specific times. Finding individuals who are willing to relocate remains the most important selection criterion. Tung (1981) found that between 83% and 94% found ‘‘interest in overseas work’’ to be used as a criterion for selection. Today, 77% of firms look for an individual’s willingness to go on an international assignment as part of selection (Brookfield, 2015). The distinction between an expatriates’ willingness to accept an international assignment and being truly motivated to have the cross-cultural experience of an international assignment is an important distinction in predicting subsequent expatriate adjustment (Chen, Kirkman, Kim, Farh, & Tangriala, 2010; Firth, Chen, Kirkman, & Kim, 2014). Research has identified the motivational pull for a global career as an international career orientation or career anchor (Lazarova, Cerdin, & Liao, 2014; Suutari & Taka, 2004; Suutari, Tornikoski, & Ma¨kela¨, 2012). Career anchors and orientations are deep motivating factors propelling people to make career decisions consistent with their self-identities. Like personality (or possibly because of personality), career anchors are relatively stable (Schein, 1990). In the global mobility context, those with an international career orientation actively seek and initiate international assignments and are highly motivated by them. Both of the aforementioned personality and motivational factors will remain critical for predicting expatriate success for as long as there is an element of novelty and challenge inherent in global mobility. It is basic biology. 2.2. Development from global mobility ‘‘. . .It is good to know something of the customs of various peoples, so as to judge our own more soundly and so as not to think that everything that is contrary to our ways is ridiculous and against reason, as those who have seen nothing have a habit of doing. But when one takes too much time traveling, one eventually becomes a stranger in one’s own culture.’’ Rene´ Descartes, The Discourse on the Method (1637) The words of Rene´ Descartes are as true today as they were almost 400 years ago. Global mobility has the power to shape individuals’ perceptions and competencies, such as cultural humility and perspective-taking, as noted in Descartes’ quote. International assignments have been labeled as the ‘‘most powerful experience in shaping the perspective and capabilities of effective global leaders’’ (Black, Gregersen, Mendenhall, & Stroh, 1999, p. 2). Joyce Osland (2000) demonstrated how expatriates, irrespective of their home or host country, experience predictable stages and challenges and are, ultimately, transformed at the end of their stints abroad. Kayes, Kayes, and Yamazaki (2005) found that professionals can learn from global mobility experiences through a variety of knowledge absorption abilities, including valuing difference cultures, building relationships, listening and observing, coping with ambiguity, managing others, translating complex ideas, and taking action. Many cross-cultural competencies can be developed during an international assignment. Allan Bird (2013) identified over 160 cross-cultural competencies, which fall into three broad categories: self-management, relationship-management, and business-management. Competencies related to self-management, or the ability to manage one’s own emotional and cognitive responses within a cross-cultural context, include tolerance of

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ambiguity, self-efficacy, and cultural humility (Bird, Mendenhall, Stevens, & Oddou, 2010; Caligiuri, 2012). Descartes’ observations of competency development were in the next category of relationship-management. This category includes competencies such as perspective-taking and valuing diversity. Global mobility also affects cross-cultural competencies related to business management. These cross-cultural competencies include a willingness to adopt diverse ideas and an ability to think creatively, which enables global professionals to understand and integrate broader bases of knowledge, and balance the demands of global integration with local responsiveness described in the previous section (Levy et al., 2007). How do expatriates change? Osland (2000) found that expatriates develop as they overcome obstacles and experience paradoxes, such as feeling concurrently both powerful and powerless in the host country. The time expatriates spend living in a host country enables them to create a new cognitions and behavioral responses to be more effective in their host country. In a host country, expatriates can develop culturally appropriate cognitive schema and learn different, more appropriate, behaviors and norms for the host country (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Furnham & Alibhai, 1985; Furnham & Bochner, 1982; Louis, 1980). Without global mobility, an individual’s mental data gathered over the years to explain social behavior in a work environment is limited to a single cultural context. This active shaping of cognitive schema and behaviors through global mobility, as Descartes sagely professed, changes people. Drawing on neuroscience for a moment, when individuals are working in their home country, they can rely on their brain’s limbic system and its split second emotional responses to intuitively process facial expressions, gestures, and situational cues – and have a good chance at being accurate. Applying the same splitsecond judgments in the host country, their accuracy will go down. When working in a host country, successful expatriates process more deliberately, slowing their cognitive processing and not judging situations instinctively. This is a skill, a practiced act, one that changes the neural pathways of many expatriates. The intuitive responses to what is judged as right or wrong, good or bad, pretty or ugly, and so forth are expanded and are complex. While the developmental gains from global mobility can be significant, merely breathing the air of another country does not foster development. Research has suggested that the amount of competency development occurs as a function of both the experience’s quantity (e.g., tenure, amount of times a task has been performed) and quality (i.e., diversity in experience, level of challenge; McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994; Tesluk & Jacobs, 1998). Applied to the global mobility context, Dragoni et al. (2014) found that the cultural novelty was critical for development to occur. Exposure to cultural novelty provides expatriates with a set of cultural contrasts through which they can develop more elaborated cognitive structures that represent more advanced levels of professional competencies, especially as applied to business leadership (Dragoni et al., 2014; Lord & Hall, 2005). Engaging in work challenges in cultures that differ from the expatriates’ home cultures’ predominant societal values are the hallmark of what makes these global mobility experiences truly developmental (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2002). Applying theories of human development, both social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) and the contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954) have been used as the theoretical basis for understanding how global mobility becomes a developmental experience. Both theories state that development happens through interactions with people from different cultures. Applied to the development of cross-cultural competencies, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that development occurs when expatriates are able to practice newly learned behaviors in the host country, when

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they receive feedback on their behaviors, and when the environment is professionally or emotionally safe to take risks and possibly make a mistake (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2009, 2012; Maznevski & DiStefano, 2000). Applying the contact hypothesis (Amir, 1969), the more peer-level interaction expatriates have with others from a given cultural group, the more positive their attitudes will be toward the people from that cultural group. Amir’s theory suggests that the experiences should offer meaningful peer-level interactions, opportunities to work together toward a common goal, and an environment that supports the interactions (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). Taken together, developmentally rich ‘‘high contact’’ global mobility experiences are related to greater cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri, 2000b) and global leadership success (Caligiuri & Tarique, 2009, 2012). Whether intended or unintended, global mobility is a developmental experience for most people (Cerdin & Duboulogy, 2004) and most expatriates would like to use their newly developed competencies upon repatriation (Stahl, Miller, & Tung, 2002; Tung, 1998). The unintended development of expatriates who now wish to use their cross-cultural competencies is at the heart of the ‘‘repatriation problem’’ that has been highlighted for over thirty years (Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001; Reiche, Kraimer, & Harzing, 2011; Stroh, Varma, & Valy-Durbin, 2000b; Tung, 1998). Research has reported that many repatriates voluntarily turnover within a few years after repatriation, limiting the return on any developmental gain the expatriate might have brought to the globalization efforts of the company in the future (Baruch, Steele, & Quantrill, 2002; Black et al., 1992, 1999; Carpenter, Sanders, & Gregersen, 2000; Harvey, 1982; Lazarova & Cerdin, 2007; Suutari & Brewster, 2003; Yan et al., 2002). One study found that 42 percent of expatriates had seriously considered leaving the company and 26 percent had been actively searching for an alternative employment (Black et al., 1992). One of the primary reasons repatriates most often give for leaving their organization is that there are limited career opportunities to use the cross-cultural competencies developed during the international assignment (Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001; Lazarova & Cerdin, 2007; Stahl, Chua, Caligiuri, Cerdin, & Taniguchi, 2009). Offering expatriate career advancement opportunities that are consistent with expatraites’ new internationally oriented identities are critical to increase repatriation retention (Bolino, 2007; Festing & Maletzky, 2011; Harvey & Novicevic, 2006; Kraimer, Shaffer, & Bolino, 2009; Kraimer, Shaffer, Harrison, & Ren, 2012; Ren, Bolino, Shaffer, & Kraimer, 2013; Riusala & Suutari, 2004). For as long as the developmental outcome is ignored, this repatriation challenge will likely persist. Given the strategic demands increasing for culturally competent professionals, organizations will need to become more effective in leveraging expatriates’ competencies or finding those who already possess these competencies. This is not a new talent management approach. Some of the earliest articles in the Columbia Journal of World Business were dedicated to the growing need for globally effective managers and how companies could purposefully implement global mobility into leadership development practices to meet that demand for leaders. In 1966, Michael Haider outlined Standard Oil Company’s managerial development practices stating that ‘‘Expansion by existing companies of their international commitments has also enlarged the need for managers. American business interests abroad have increased tremendously, with a noticeable acceleration in recent years.’’ (1966, 107). The need is still accelerating today. A recent PWC survey of global CEOs found that a dearth of global business leaders is one of the greatest risks for the firms’ future growth – and developing global business leaders is critical for the firms’ competitiveness. Noting the importance of developed cross-cultural competencies Henry (1965) encouraged companies to hire Returned Peace

Corps Volunteers who have already developed competencies living and volunteering abroad. He noted: ‘‘. . .Business can profit from the [Peace] Corps even more directly by employing volunteers after they return. They have been screened, selected and trained. They have demonstrated that they can. . .learn a foreign language. They have had an individual maturing experience overseas. . .that demands initiative, responsibility, adaptability.’’ (Henry, 1965, p. 10) Whether by hiring those who have lived and worked abroad or by offering international assignments, companies can leverage the cross-cultural competencies developed during periods of global mobility. For this reason, among others, we have seen an increasing integration between the global mobility and talent management functions (Cerdin & Brewster, 2014; Collings, 2014). 2.3. The future of global mobility practices The goal of this paper was to share some of the aspects of global mobility that are evolving and some that are enduring. These issues, when fused together, have broad implications for the future of global mobility practices. While an exhaustive list of these practices are beyond the scope of this paper, we believe that there are five practices – both new and changing – that are emerging for global mobility and HR professionals: (1) a tighter integration of the global mobility and talent management functions, (2) systems to measure cross-cultural competency development, (3) tailoring of a far wider range of expatriate support practices, (4) assessment of future potential for global roles, and (5) systems to manage the expatriate contractors. 2.3.1. Integration of global mobility with talent management The integration between global mobility and global talent management will be important for the organizations to manage for the supply and demand for globally mobile professionals (Cerdin & Brewster, 2014; Collings, 2014). Ensuring that professionals with the right set of cross-cultural competencies and technical skills are in the right assignments at the right time will require both the talent management and global mobility functions work more closely (Farndale, Scullion, & Sparrow, 2010; Schuler, Jackson, & Tarique, 2011). As global mobility remains a developmental opportunity, talent or leadership development and global mobility also will need to work more closely to construct expatriate experiences that are cross-culturally rich while, at the same time, supporting expatriate families (Caligiuri, 2012). Developmental properties of international assignments are limited if international assignees live in expatriate communities that mirror life in their home country. In such communities, while helpful for family adjustment, might limit opportunities for valuable developmental relationships with host nationals. This delicate balance – between making families comfortable and giving expatriates a developmentally rich cultural experience – needs to be a found in with input from both global mobility and talent management. As the demand for culturally agile business professionals increases, there is a greater need for a wider array of international experiences to help these professionals gain cross-cultural competencies. Gone are the days when an expatriate assignment is the only possible ‘‘ticket punch’’ for future global roles. The picture today is more nuanced; we know that not all expatriates develop from their international assignments and not all expatriate assignments are developmental (Caligiuri, 2012; Dickmann & Harris, 2005). As discussed above, there are many types of assignments and some of them may simply involve filling a skill gap and application of technical knowledge with little novelty and interaction with locals. Alternative forms of international experience, such as self-initiated

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assignments, can be highly developmental compared to more traditional company-initiated assignments (Jokinen, Brewster, & Suutari, 2008) and are another point of integration between global mobility and talent management. 2.3.2. Measure cross-cultural competency development Central to this need to integrate global mobility functions and talent management practices is the need for HR managers to assess actual competencies gained rather than to assume that competencies have been gain while abroad. This will require more effective expatriate performance management systems (Caligiuri, 2006; Gregersen, Hite, & Black, 1996) which can accurately account for both the technical and developmental facets of the expatriate assignment. As an expatriate assignment describes a job context and not a job description, we cannot construct a single set of technical performance dimensions that will fit every expatriate role. However, developmental dimensions, once identified, are more homogenous across assignments. Developmental dimensions may be knowledge-based, such as language acquisition or having an understanding of the geopolitical factors affecting the company’s business in a certain region of the world. These dimensions may be ability-based, such as managing a global team or project, negotiating internationally, or having greater political skill in another country. They should include cross-cultural competencies, such as humility, perspective-taking, resilience, and a tolerance of ambiguity. 2.3.3. Tailor expatriate support practices With greater heterogeneity of expatriate populations, individual needs and family demographics will continue to be more idiosyncratic in the future. While cafeteria-style benefits have been around for decades, a wider range of expatriate-specific benefits, such as eldercare, extension of benefits to non-married partners, and the like, will need to be expanded in the future. The way expatriates manage the demands of their assignments – and the support practices needed – will also need to account for differences in time on the assignment, prior experience, host country language fluency, level in the organization, and the culture of the host country (Shaffer et al., 1999; Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005). 2.3.4. Assess early-career potential for global roles Appreciating the immutable nature of some of the predictors of expatriate success, we encourage organizations to begin, far earlier in the pipeline, to select employees who have the predisposition and motivation for global work. Having individuals with key personality characteristics and competencies in the talent pool will provide a deeper and more effective bench of talent to succeed in international assignments in the future (Shaffer et al., 2006). This will require a more structured approach to expatriate selection rather than the ad hoc method that emerges in response to staffing needs in the host countries (Caligiuri, 2012; Harris & Brewster, 1999). It is easy to ignore the need for these relatively immutable traits in light of the perception, among some, that expatriation is easier today given that shared cosmopolitan lifestyle of global business professionals. This belief could produce complacency for the novelty and challenge embedded in the expatriate experience – and the critical need for the relatively immutable traits and motivation needed to adjust to and succeed in the host country. 2.3.5. The management of expatriate contractors With a growing trend for transactional work coupled with the increase in self-initiated expatriation, organizations will continue to see an increase in the number of individuals who are brought into the organization for international contract work. More market oriented mechanisms will need to be in place to ensure

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performance can be effectively monitored, sometimes at a distance, and without traditional organizational reward and recognition systems. Organizations should continue to develop an even more refined contingency approach linking a broader array of expatriate assignment types (such a contractors or short term assignments) to well-aligned global mobility practices (Bonache & Noethen, 2014). While already on this trajectory, there will be an increasing level of internal differentiation in the management of international assignments. Global mobility managers and researchers might be tempted to think that, given that today’s context is so different from the one of decades past, there is little they can learn from early literature and management practice. This is not true. The break with traditional approaches and concerns has not been a radical one. Quite the contrary, as argued in the second part of this article, many of the problems and decisions still remain and (more importantly) will remain largely unchanged. 2.4. Conclusion In this article we started by reviewing the expatriate issues that have changed as a function of economic, competitive, and demographic trends. Each one of the changes analyzed highlights how the scope of expatriation has become much more complex and diverse. As opposed to the unilateral standpoint of early research, today we have a huge variety of expatriation experiences. In addition to the common categories of duration (long versus short), level (managerial versus technical), nationality (HCN, TCN, and PCN), and desired outcomes (e.g., control, coordination, knowledge transfer, and management development), we now have additional sources of differentiation, depending on whether we focus on their role as knowledge transferors (e.g., commander, coach, connector, and conductor; Petison & Johri, 2008), the issues associated to their use and management (male versus female expatriates), the type of employment relationship (relational versus transactional), or who takes the initiative of the assignment (assigned expatriate versus self-initiated expat). We believe that a deeper and theoretically sound understanding of individual-level issues predicting expatriate adjustment and performance will continue to enhance our understanding of the human response to living and working in a situation of unfamiliarity. Taken together, future studies should examine the context in which expatriates are working. Someday, perhaps, global mobility will lose its novelty as the global professional world continuous to become more similar. Or, just maybe, the differences among us will always provide international opportunities for us to grow and develop. These authors hope so. References Abe, H., & Wiseman, R. L. (1983). A cross-cultural confirmation of the dimensions of intercultural effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 7(1): 53–67. Adler, N. J. (1984). Expecting international success: Female managers overseas. Columbia Journal of World Business, 19(3): 79–85. Adler, N. J. (1987). Pacific basin managers: A gaijin, not a woman. Human Resource Management, 26(2): 169–191. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Amir, Y. (1969). Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin, 71(5): 319. Anderzen, I., & Arnetz, B. B. (1999). Psychophysiological reactions to international adjustment. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 68(2): 67–75. Argote, L., & Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge transfer: A basis for competitive advantage in firms. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 82(1): 150–169. Arthur, W., & Bennett, W. (1995). The international assignee: The relative importance of factors perceived to contribute to success. Personnel Psychology, 48(1): 99–114. Athanassiou, N., & Nigh, D. (2000). Internationalization, tacit knowledge and the top management teams of MNCs. Journal of International Business Studies, 31(3): 471–487.

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