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Examining the interplay of self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, and age with depression across adolescence
Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adolescence
Brief report
Examining the interplay of self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, and age with depression across adolescence
T
Alex A. Gardnera,b,∗, Chad A. Lamberta a b
Department of Sociology, Psychology, and Social Work, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Emotional intelligence Self-esteem Age differences Depressive symptoms Jamaican adolescents
Introduction: While there has been much empirical work demonstrating the deleterious effects of low self-esteem on adolescent depression, very little of this has been conducted in low-to middleincome countries. Furthermore, one's trait-emotional intelligence (TEI) has rarely been examined in interaction with self-esteem to predict adolescent depression. To address these gaps, the current brief report examined the interacting effects of TEI on the associations of self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Age differences were also considered given developmental trends indicating significant variability in depression across adolescence. Methods: A cross-sectional sample of 334 Jamaican adolescents aged 10–18 years (M = 14.74, SD = 1.95, 51% boys) completed surveys measuring self-esteem, TEI and depressive symptoms. Results & conclusions: Older adolescents reported greater depressive symptoms and less self-esteem compared to younger adolescents, and correlations showed that less self-esteem and TEI associated with more depressive symptoms. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed a significant three-way interaction whereby the buffering effect of TEI on the association of selfesteem and depressive symptoms was different for younger vs older adolescents. The findings provide further support for the effects of self-esteem and TEI on depressive symptoms, and indicate the importance for future studies in the Caribbean to examine these associations over time given the significant age differences revealed.
Developmental trends indicate that depression, a debilitating emotional disorder, typically originates in late childhood and early adolescence, with steep rates of increase noticed after puberty (Hankin et al., 2015; Rudolph, 2017; Vannucci, Flannery, & Ohannessian, 2018). Additionally, research within Jamaica have indicated that 40.7% of adolescents report experiencing moderate to severe depressive symptoms (Lipps et al., 2012), with 15.5% of adolescents classified as clinically depressed (McFarlane, Younger, Francis, Gordon-Strachan, & Wilks, 2014). Given these percentages, it is crucial to identify which factors may serve to exacerbate the risk for depression during adolescence. One factor that has often been associated with heighted depressive symptoms among adolescents is low self-esteem (Gardner & Webb, 2017; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). In one study, Leung, Leung, and Schooling (2018) found that of the four self-esteem group trajectories identified, those adolescents who were not within the stable high self-esteem group (86.1%) also reported greater depressive symptoms across adolescence. Taken together, these developmental trends could indicate age differences in self-esteem and depressive symptoms that may be important in identifying which period across adolescence is at greatest risk. Identifying protective factors that may buffer the relationship between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms within the
∗
Corresponding author. School of Applied Psychology Griffith University, G40_7.86 Parklands Drive, Southport, QLD, 4222 Australia. E-mail address: alex.gardner@griffithuni.edu.au (A.A. Gardner).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.008 Received 25 August 2018; Received in revised form 22 January 2019; Accepted 29 January 2019 Available online 07 February 2019 0140-1971/ © 2019 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
A.A. Gardner, C.A. Lambert
Jamaican context is also important, as prior work has only focused on identifying prevalence rates or direct correlates of depressive symptoms (e.g., Lipps et al., 2012). One such protective factor is perceived emotional intelligence, often referred to as trait-EI (TEI), conceptualized as one's perceived ability to recognize, express, and utilize emotional information to aid in problem solving (GomezBaya, Mendoza, Paino, & De Matos, 2017; Schutte et al., 1998). While TEI has been shown as a negative correlate of depressive symptoms (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Resurrección, Salguero, & Ruiz-Aranda, 2014; Salguero, Palomera, & Fernández-Berrocal, 2012), as well as to be associated with greater self-esteem (Petrides et al., 2016), rarely have studies examined how TEI may interact with low self-esteem to buffer its effect on depressive symptoms. However, previous studies examining additional effects of TEI with other indices of emotional adjustment presents some support for a potential buffering effect. In their review of studies, Resurrección et al. (2014) presented two studies showing that higher levels (relative to lower levels) of TEI were protective for adolescents, as it conditioned the relations between depressive symptoms and somatic complaints and separately for family dysfunction and disruptive behaviours. Additionally, though limited, few studies have shown linear changes in TEI across adolescence (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Petrides et al., 2016), although Gomez-Baya et al. (2017) also found non-significant age cohort differences for all perceived emotional skills, and indicated that further research was required in this area. Given these findings, the aim of the study was to examine age differences within self-esteem and TEI as predictive of depressive symptoms. We firstly examined whether age differences were evident among self-esteem, TEI, and symptoms. Secondly, we examined the moderating effect of TEI on the association of low self-esteem and depressive symptoms, hypothesizing that the relationship between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms would be weaker for those higher in TEI (compared to those lower in TEI). Finally, we tested whether age differences existed within this conditional effect (i.e., a three-way interaction of self-esteem x TEI x age). 1. Method 1.1. Participants and procedure Participants included 334 adolescents aged 10–18 years (M = 14.74, SD = 1.95, 51% boys) attending secondary school (between grades 6–13) in Jamaica. The total sample pool was 350, but of these, 334 gave and received parental consent to participate resulting in a 95% response rate. More than half of the students lived primarily with their biological parents (58.9%) within a marital union (55.1%). Additionally, more than half of the participants perceived themselves to be well off (within 50–75% of the general population) with regards to their socio-economic status (SES). Ethical approval was given by the University of the West Indies, Faculty of Medical Sciences ethics committees. After contact with the principal, a random sampling technique was utilized where two classes from each grade level were selected for participation. 1.2. Measures Please note that for each of the main measures, the mean score was used, and higher scores indicated higher levels of the construct. Depressive symptoms were measured using the 7-item depression subscale of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-Short Form (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Participants responded to items (e.g., “I felt down-hearted and blue) ranging from 0 (did not apply to me at all) to 3 (applied to me very much). Cronbach's α was 0.87. Self-Esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), where participants responded to 10 items (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself), ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Cronbach's α was 0.88. Trait-emotional intelligence (TEI) was measured using the 33-item Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998). Participants responded to items (e.g., “I am aware of my emotions as I experience them) ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach's α was 0.89. 1.2.1. Covariates These included perceived SES (Which of the following best describes you in terms of your social class: quite poor, not very well off, quite well off, and wealthy?); age (How old are you?); parent's marital status (What are your parents' marital status: married, separated/divorced, never been married?) and sex (What is your sex: male and female?). 1.3. Overview of statistical analyses Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among all the variables were first examined.1 Pearson's correlations were used to assess the associations among the continuous variables, while the categorical variables were dichotomized and analyzed using point-biserial correlations. These included: age [0 = younger adolescents (10–14); 1 = older adolescents (15–18)]; perceived SES [0 = Upper status (quite well off & wealthy); 1 = Lower status (quite poor & not very well off)]; and parent's marital status [0 = Married; 1 = Not-married (divorced, separated, never been married etc.)]. Correlations were followed by a hierarchical multiple regression, regressing depressive symptoms on self-esteem, TEI, relevant covariates (as ascertained by the correlations), and 1 N.B. that 2 × 2 factorial ANOVAs were used to examine age and gender differences among self-esteem, TEI, and depressive symptoms, but all of these were non-significant (p's ranged between 0.06 and 0.51).
163
Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
A.A. Gardner, C.A. Lambert
Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations and correlations between depressive symptoms, self-esteem, TEI, and covariates (N = 334).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Depressive symptoms Self-esteem TEI Parent's marital statusa Perceived SESb Sexc Aged
M (SD)
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.85 (0.72) 2.98 (0.64) 3.66 (0.52) – – – 14.74 (1.95)
– -.69** -.50** .08 .16* .12* .16**
– .48** -.01 -.12* -.10 -.19**
– -.00 -.05 -.04 -.08
– .16** .09 -.00
– .00 .09
– .02
∗ p < .05. ∗∗p < .001. TEI = Trait-emotional intelligence. Note: a (0 = married; 1 = not-married). b (0 = upper status; 1 = lower status). c (0 = male; 1 = female). d (0 = younger adolescents; 1 = older adolescents).
interaction terms. Preliminary analyses revealed no violations to the assumptions of homoscedasticity, normality, or linearity. All continuous variables (including depressive symptoms) included in interaction terms were first mean-centered before being entered at step 2 of the model. Significant interaction effects were plotted using simple slope analyses generated by using the mean plus or minus one standard deviation for high or low levels of TEI and self-esteem, respectively. 2. Results The zero-order correlations reveal that lower self-esteem and lower TEI associated with higher depressive symptoms, while higher self-esteem associated with higher TEI (see Table 1). Regarding the covariates, older adolescents reported higher depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem, while those perceiving themselves to be of a lower SES associated with higher depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem. Girls reported higher depressive symptoms than boys. Table 2 shows the unique and interacting effects of self-esteem, TEI, and various covariates on depressive symptoms. Here, girls, older adolescents, lower self-esteem and lower TEI all uniquely predicted higher depressive symptoms. There were significant Table 2 Results of hierarchical regression analyses regressing depressive symptoms on self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, age, and covariates (N = 334). Predictor
Step 1 Sexa Perceived SESb Agec Self-esteem TEI Step 2 Sexa Perceived SESb Agec Self-esteem TEI Self-esteem x Agec Self-esteem x TEI TEI x age Self-esteem x TEI x Agec
B
SE(B)
β
95% CI(B) Lower
Upper
.08 .11 .05 -.63 -.30
.06 .06 .06 .05 .06
.06 .07 .03 -.57** -.22**
-.03 -.01 -.06 -.73 -.42
.19 .23 .16 -.54 -.18
.11 .11 .12 -.77 -.22 .23 .38 -.11 -.41
.05 .06 .06 .08 .08 .10 .10 .12 .16
.08* .07 .08* -.69** -.16* .15* .19** -.05 -.13*
.00 -.01 .00 -.92 -.37 .03 .19 -.35 -.72
.22 .22 .24 -.62 -.07 .42 .58 .13 -.09
∗ p < .05. ∗∗p < .001. TEI = Trait emotional intelligence. Step 1: R2 = 0.52 (Adj R2 = 0.51); F(5,328) = 71.09, p < .01; R2chg = 0.52, Fchg (5,328) = 71.09**; Step 2: R2 = 0.55 (Adj R2 = 0.54); F (9,324) = 43.73, p < .01; R2chg = 0.03, Fchg (4,324) = 5.10**. Sex interactions were also tested but were not significant, so they were not included in this model. Note: a (0 = male; 1 = female). b (0 = upper status; 1 = lower status). c (0 = younger adolescents; 1 = older adolescents).
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Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
A.A. Gardner, C.A. Lambert
A
B
Fig. 1. a. Illustration of Trait-Emotional Intelligence as a moderator of the association between Self-esteem and Depressive Symptoms for younger adolescents (N = 334). b. Illustration of Trait-Emotional Intelligence as a moderator of the association between Self-esteem and Depressive Symptoms for older adolescents (N = 334).
interaction effects of self-esteem x age and self-esteem x TEI, however, these effects are best explained by examining the significant three-way interaction of self-esteem x TEI x age (see Fig. 1). As shown in Fig. 1a, for younger adolescents, TEI significantly buffered the association between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms so that this relationship was weaker at a high level of TEI (relative to a low level). However, at high levels of self-esteem there was no association between high and low TEI on depressive symptoms for younger adolescents. Fig. 1b shows that for older adolescents, the linear relationship between self-esteem and depressive symptoms was similar at low and high levels of TEI. Here, at both low and high levels of self-esteem, older adolescents who had high TEI also had lower levels of depressive symptoms. 3. Discussion Consistent with previous findings (Gardner & Webb, 2017; Leung et al., 2018; Sowislo & Orth, 2013), low self-esteem was a robust correlate of depressive symptoms, with significant age differences appearing to better identify periods of greatest risk for Jamaican youth. Results indicated that older adolescents were more likely to have lower self-esteem and greater depressive symptoms. Our findings also revealed that greater TEI associated with lower depressive symptoms, which was consistent with previous studies (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Petrides et al., 2016; Resurrección et al., 2014), and demonstrates that youth who perceive themselves to be more emotionally intelligent may be better able to regulate their emotions (or have other advantages, such as better relationships with others), which serves to reduce depressive symptoms. Although self-esteem was related to fewer depressive symptoms for both younger and older adolescents, our results showed that the buffering effect of TEI was present for younger but not older adolescents. For older adolescents, TEI may not act as a protective factor as previous research has indicated that maladaptive strategies not assessed here (e.g., rumination) tend to emerge and persist into later adolescence (Vannucci et al., 2018), which may in turn negate or alter the beneficial effects of TEI. Further research is warranted to test this suggestion among Jamaican youth. Additionally, our results also showed that unlike older adolescents, for younger adolescents, there was no association between high and low TEI on depressive symptoms at high levels of self-esteem. Selfesteem may act as a more global personal resource where younger adolescents with high self-esteem may demonstrate more positive 165
Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
A.A. Gardner, C.A. Lambert
affect and may rely more on the support of family and peer relationships (Gardner & Webb, 2017; Sowislo & Orth, 2013), in turn helping them to be more resilient against the effects of low self-esteem. However, as youth grow older and are faced with more challenges, emotional intelligence may become more pertinent by boosting older adolescents' capacity to engage in more adaptive coping strategies, irrespective of their self-esteem (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Petrides et al., 2016; Resurrección et al., 2014). It therefore appears that greater effort to boost emotional competencies and self-esteem from an early age (either before or in early adolescence) through the implementation of social-emotional learning (SEL) programs (e.g., Gomez-Baya et al., 2017) could be most useful for reducing depressive symptoms before they increase across adolescence. Despite study limitations (e.g., cross-sectional design and self-report data), the findings demonstrate that having greater selfesteem and a better capacity for being emotionally intelligent may help to reduce the likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms during adolescence. In addition, TEI can compensate to some extent for the negative impact of self-esteem on symptoms, but only for younger adolescents. Given the significant age differences found in the current sample, continued investigation using longitudinal designs are needed, possibly in more comprehensive models, that also take into consideration the factors (e.g., life events) that place youth at greater risk for lower self-esteem, less TEI, and elevated depressive symptoms. Declaration of interest None. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Acknowledgements To the students who participated in the study and the parents who gave consent for their participation. Special thanks also extend to Drs. Kai Morgan and Stacey Brodie-Walker, and Mr. Matthew McKenzie who assisted with the organization of this research project and data entry. Acknowledgements also to the guidance counsellors and administration at the school who assisted with the organization of data collection, and to Professor Melanie Zimmer-Gembeck who provided important feedback in preparation of the final draft of the manuscript. References Gardner, A. A., & Webb, H. J. (2017). A contextual examination of the associations between social support, self-esteem, and psychological well-being among Jamaican adolescents. Youth & Society, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X17707450. Gomez-Baya, D., Mendoza, R., Paino, S., & De Matos, M. G. (2017). Perceived emotional intelligence as a predictor of depressive symptoms during mid-adolescence: A two-year longitudinal study on gender differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.022. Hankin, B. L., Young, J. F., Abela, J. R. Z., Smolen, A., Jenness, J. L., Gulley, L. D., et al. (2015). Depression from childhood into late adolescence: Influence of gender, development, genetic susceptibility, and peer stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 803–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000089. Leung, C. Y., Leung, G. M., & Schooling, C. M. (2018). Behavioral problem trajectories and self-esteem changes in relation with adolescent depressive symptoms: A longitudinal study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53, 673–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1508-z. Lipps, G., Lowe, G. A., Gibson, R. C., Halliday, S., Morris, A., Clarke, N., et al. (2012). Parenting and depressive symptoms among adolescents in four Caribbean societies. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6, 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-6-31. Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/005-7967(94)00075-U. McFarlane, S., Younger, N., Francis, D., Gordon-Strachan, G., & Wilks, R. (2014). Risk behaviours and adolescent depression in Jamaica. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 19, 458–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2012.751041. Petrides, K. V., Mikolajczak, M., Mavroveli, S., Sanchez-Ruiz, M., Furnham, A., & Pérez- González, J. (2016). Developments in trait emotional intelligence research. Emotion Review, 8, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916650493. Resurrección, D. M., Salguero, J. M., & Ruiz-Aranda, D. (2014). Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in adolescence: A systematic review. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 461–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.012. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Rudolph, K. D. (2017). Advances in conceptual and empirical approaches to understanding the interpersonal context of youth depression: Commentary. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 51, 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.05.006. Salguero, J. M., Palomera, R., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2012). Perceived emotional intelligence as predictor of psychological adjustment in adolescents. European Journal of Psychological Education, 27, 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-011-0063-8. Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggarty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., et al. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00001-4. Sowislo, J. F., & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 213–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028931. Vannucci, A., Flannery, K. M., & Ohannessian, C. M. (2018). Age-varying associations between coping and depressive symptoms throughout adolescence and emerging adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 665–681. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001183.
166
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Adolescence journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adolescence
Brief report
Examining the interplay of self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, and age with depression across adolescence
T
Alex A. Gardnera,b,∗, Chad A. Lamberta a b
Department of Sociology, Psychology, and Social Work, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Emotional intelligence Self-esteem Age differences Depressive symptoms Jamaican adolescents
Introduction: While there has been much empirical work demonstrating the deleterious effects of low self-esteem on adolescent depression, very little of this has been conducted in low-to middleincome countries. Furthermore, one's trait-emotional intelligence (TEI) has rarely been examined in interaction with self-esteem to predict adolescent depression. To address these gaps, the current brief report examined the interacting effects of TEI on the associations of self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Age differences were also considered given developmental trends indicating significant variability in depression across adolescence. Methods: A cross-sectional sample of 334 Jamaican adolescents aged 10–18 years (M = 14.74, SD = 1.95, 51% boys) completed surveys measuring self-esteem, TEI and depressive symptoms. Results & conclusions: Older adolescents reported greater depressive symptoms and less self-esteem compared to younger adolescents, and correlations showed that less self-esteem and TEI associated with more depressive symptoms. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed a significant three-way interaction whereby the buffering effect of TEI on the association of selfesteem and depressive symptoms was different for younger vs older adolescents. The findings provide further support for the effects of self-esteem and TEI on depressive symptoms, and indicate the importance for future studies in the Caribbean to examine these associations over time given the significant age differences revealed.
Developmental trends indicate that depression, a debilitating emotional disorder, typically originates in late childhood and early adolescence, with steep rates of increase noticed after puberty (Hankin et al., 2015; Rudolph, 2017; Vannucci, Flannery, & Ohannessian, 2018). Additionally, research within Jamaica have indicated that 40.7% of adolescents report experiencing moderate to severe depressive symptoms (Lipps et al., 2012), with 15.5% of adolescents classified as clinically depressed (McFarlane, Younger, Francis, Gordon-Strachan, & Wilks, 2014). Given these percentages, it is crucial to identify which factors may serve to exacerbate the risk for depression during adolescence. One factor that has often been associated with heighted depressive symptoms among adolescents is low self-esteem (Gardner & Webb, 2017; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). In one study, Leung, Leung, and Schooling (2018) found that of the four self-esteem group trajectories identified, those adolescents who were not within the stable high self-esteem group (86.1%) also reported greater depressive symptoms across adolescence. Taken together, these developmental trends could indicate age differences in self-esteem and depressive symptoms that may be important in identifying which period across adolescence is at greatest risk. Identifying protective factors that may buffer the relationship between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms within the
∗
Corresponding author. School of Applied Psychology Griffith University, G40_7.86 Parklands Drive, Southport, QLD, 4222 Australia. E-mail address: alex.gardner@griffithuni.edu.au (A.A. Gardner).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.01.008 Received 25 August 2018; Received in revised form 22 January 2019; Accepted 29 January 2019 Available online 07 February 2019 0140-1971/ © 2019 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
A.A. Gardner, C.A. Lambert
Jamaican context is also important, as prior work has only focused on identifying prevalence rates or direct correlates of depressive symptoms (e.g., Lipps et al., 2012). One such protective factor is perceived emotional intelligence, often referred to as trait-EI (TEI), conceptualized as one's perceived ability to recognize, express, and utilize emotional information to aid in problem solving (GomezBaya, Mendoza, Paino, & De Matos, 2017; Schutte et al., 1998). While TEI has been shown as a negative correlate of depressive symptoms (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Resurrección, Salguero, & Ruiz-Aranda, 2014; Salguero, Palomera, & Fernández-Berrocal, 2012), as well as to be associated with greater self-esteem (Petrides et al., 2016), rarely have studies examined how TEI may interact with low self-esteem to buffer its effect on depressive symptoms. However, previous studies examining additional effects of TEI with other indices of emotional adjustment presents some support for a potential buffering effect. In their review of studies, Resurrección et al. (2014) presented two studies showing that higher levels (relative to lower levels) of TEI were protective for adolescents, as it conditioned the relations between depressive symptoms and somatic complaints and separately for family dysfunction and disruptive behaviours. Additionally, though limited, few studies have shown linear changes in TEI across adolescence (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Petrides et al., 2016), although Gomez-Baya et al. (2017) also found non-significant age cohort differences for all perceived emotional skills, and indicated that further research was required in this area. Given these findings, the aim of the study was to examine age differences within self-esteem and TEI as predictive of depressive symptoms. We firstly examined whether age differences were evident among self-esteem, TEI, and symptoms. Secondly, we examined the moderating effect of TEI on the association of low self-esteem and depressive symptoms, hypothesizing that the relationship between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms would be weaker for those higher in TEI (compared to those lower in TEI). Finally, we tested whether age differences existed within this conditional effect (i.e., a three-way interaction of self-esteem x TEI x age). 1. Method 1.1. Participants and procedure Participants included 334 adolescents aged 10–18 years (M = 14.74, SD = 1.95, 51% boys) attending secondary school (between grades 6–13) in Jamaica. The total sample pool was 350, but of these, 334 gave and received parental consent to participate resulting in a 95% response rate. More than half of the students lived primarily with their biological parents (58.9%) within a marital union (55.1%). Additionally, more than half of the participants perceived themselves to be well off (within 50–75% of the general population) with regards to their socio-economic status (SES). Ethical approval was given by the University of the West Indies, Faculty of Medical Sciences ethics committees. After contact with the principal, a random sampling technique was utilized where two classes from each grade level were selected for participation. 1.2. Measures Please note that for each of the main measures, the mean score was used, and higher scores indicated higher levels of the construct. Depressive symptoms were measured using the 7-item depression subscale of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-Short Form (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Participants responded to items (e.g., “I felt down-hearted and blue) ranging from 0 (did not apply to me at all) to 3 (applied to me very much). Cronbach's α was 0.87. Self-Esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), where participants responded to 10 items (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself), ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Cronbach's α was 0.88. Trait-emotional intelligence (TEI) was measured using the 33-item Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998). Participants responded to items (e.g., “I am aware of my emotions as I experience them) ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach's α was 0.89. 1.2.1. Covariates These included perceived SES (Which of the following best describes you in terms of your social class: quite poor, not very well off, quite well off, and wealthy?); age (How old are you?); parent's marital status (What are your parents' marital status: married, separated/divorced, never been married?) and sex (What is your sex: male and female?). 1.3. Overview of statistical analyses Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among all the variables were first examined.1 Pearson's correlations were used to assess the associations among the continuous variables, while the categorical variables were dichotomized and analyzed using point-biserial correlations. These included: age [0 = younger adolescents (10–14); 1 = older adolescents (15–18)]; perceived SES [0 = Upper status (quite well off & wealthy); 1 = Lower status (quite poor & not very well off)]; and parent's marital status [0 = Married; 1 = Not-married (divorced, separated, never been married etc.)]. Correlations were followed by a hierarchical multiple regression, regressing depressive symptoms on self-esteem, TEI, relevant covariates (as ascertained by the correlations), and 1 N.B. that 2 × 2 factorial ANOVAs were used to examine age and gender differences among self-esteem, TEI, and depressive symptoms, but all of these were non-significant (p's ranged between 0.06 and 0.51).
163
Journal of Adolescence 71 (2019) 162–166
A.A. Gardner, C.A. Lambert
Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations and correlations between depressive symptoms, self-esteem, TEI, and covariates (N = 334).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Depressive symptoms Self-esteem TEI Parent's marital statusa Perceived SESb Sexc Aged
M (SD)
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.85 (0.72) 2.98 (0.64) 3.66 (0.52) – – – 14.74 (1.95)
– -.69** -.50** .08 .16* .12* .16**
– .48** -.01 -.12* -.10 -.19**
– -.00 -.05 -.04 -.08
– .16** .09 -.00
– .00 .09
– .02
∗ p < .05. ∗∗p < .001. TEI = Trait-emotional intelligence. Note: a (0 = married; 1 = not-married). b (0 = upper status; 1 = lower status). c (0 = male; 1 = female). d (0 = younger adolescents; 1 = older adolescents).
interaction terms. Preliminary analyses revealed no violations to the assumptions of homoscedasticity, normality, or linearity. All continuous variables (including depressive symptoms) included in interaction terms were first mean-centered before being entered at step 2 of the model. Significant interaction effects were plotted using simple slope analyses generated by using the mean plus or minus one standard deviation for high or low levels of TEI and self-esteem, respectively. 2. Results The zero-order correlations reveal that lower self-esteem and lower TEI associated with higher depressive symptoms, while higher self-esteem associated with higher TEI (see Table 1). Regarding the covariates, older adolescents reported higher depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem, while those perceiving themselves to be of a lower SES associated with higher depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem. Girls reported higher depressive symptoms than boys. Table 2 shows the unique and interacting effects of self-esteem, TEI, and various covariates on depressive symptoms. Here, girls, older adolescents, lower self-esteem and lower TEI all uniquely predicted higher depressive symptoms. There were significant Table 2 Results of hierarchical regression analyses regressing depressive symptoms on self-esteem, trait-emotional intelligence, age, and covariates (N = 334). Predictor
Step 1 Sexa Perceived SESb Agec Self-esteem TEI Step 2 Sexa Perceived SESb Agec Self-esteem TEI Self-esteem x Agec Self-esteem x TEI TEI x age Self-esteem x TEI x Agec
B
SE(B)
β
95% CI(B) Lower
Upper
.08 .11 .05 -.63 -.30
.06 .06 .06 .05 .06
.06 .07 .03 -.57** -.22**
-.03 -.01 -.06 -.73 -.42
.19 .23 .16 -.54 -.18
.11 .11 .12 -.77 -.22 .23 .38 -.11 -.41
.05 .06 .06 .08 .08 .10 .10 .12 .16
.08* .07 .08* -.69** -.16* .15* .19** -.05 -.13*
.00 -.01 .00 -.92 -.37 .03 .19 -.35 -.72
.22 .22 .24 -.62 -.07 .42 .58 .13 -.09
∗ p < .05. ∗∗p < .001. TEI = Trait emotional intelligence. Step 1: R2 = 0.52 (Adj R2 = 0.51); F(5,328) = 71.09, p < .01; R2chg = 0.52, Fchg (5,328) = 71.09**; Step 2: R2 = 0.55 (Adj R2 = 0.54); F (9,324) = 43.73, p < .01; R2chg = 0.03, Fchg (4,324) = 5.10**. Sex interactions were also tested but were not significant, so they were not included in this model. Note: a (0 = male; 1 = female). b (0 = upper status; 1 = lower status). c (0 = younger adolescents; 1 = older adolescents).
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A
B
Fig. 1. a. Illustration of Trait-Emotional Intelligence as a moderator of the association between Self-esteem and Depressive Symptoms for younger adolescents (N = 334). b. Illustration of Trait-Emotional Intelligence as a moderator of the association between Self-esteem and Depressive Symptoms for older adolescents (N = 334).
interaction effects of self-esteem x age and self-esteem x TEI, however, these effects are best explained by examining the significant three-way interaction of self-esteem x TEI x age (see Fig. 1). As shown in Fig. 1a, for younger adolescents, TEI significantly buffered the association between low self-esteem and depressive symptoms so that this relationship was weaker at a high level of TEI (relative to a low level). However, at high levels of self-esteem there was no association between high and low TEI on depressive symptoms for younger adolescents. Fig. 1b shows that for older adolescents, the linear relationship between self-esteem and depressive symptoms was similar at low and high levels of TEI. Here, at both low and high levels of self-esteem, older adolescents who had high TEI also had lower levels of depressive symptoms. 3. Discussion Consistent with previous findings (Gardner & Webb, 2017; Leung et al., 2018; Sowislo & Orth, 2013), low self-esteem was a robust correlate of depressive symptoms, with significant age differences appearing to better identify periods of greatest risk for Jamaican youth. Results indicated that older adolescents were more likely to have lower self-esteem and greater depressive symptoms. Our findings also revealed that greater TEI associated with lower depressive symptoms, which was consistent with previous studies (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Petrides et al., 2016; Resurrección et al., 2014), and demonstrates that youth who perceive themselves to be more emotionally intelligent may be better able to regulate their emotions (or have other advantages, such as better relationships with others), which serves to reduce depressive symptoms. Although self-esteem was related to fewer depressive symptoms for both younger and older adolescents, our results showed that the buffering effect of TEI was present for younger but not older adolescents. For older adolescents, TEI may not act as a protective factor as previous research has indicated that maladaptive strategies not assessed here (e.g., rumination) tend to emerge and persist into later adolescence (Vannucci et al., 2018), which may in turn negate or alter the beneficial effects of TEI. Further research is warranted to test this suggestion among Jamaican youth. Additionally, our results also showed that unlike older adolescents, for younger adolescents, there was no association between high and low TEI on depressive symptoms at high levels of self-esteem. Selfesteem may act as a more global personal resource where younger adolescents with high self-esteem may demonstrate more positive 165
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affect and may rely more on the support of family and peer relationships (Gardner & Webb, 2017; Sowislo & Orth, 2013), in turn helping them to be more resilient against the effects of low self-esteem. However, as youth grow older and are faced with more challenges, emotional intelligence may become more pertinent by boosting older adolescents' capacity to engage in more adaptive coping strategies, irrespective of their self-esteem (Gomez-Baya et al., 2017; Petrides et al., 2016; Resurrección et al., 2014). It therefore appears that greater effort to boost emotional competencies and self-esteem from an early age (either before or in early adolescence) through the implementation of social-emotional learning (SEL) programs (e.g., Gomez-Baya et al., 2017) could be most useful for reducing depressive symptoms before they increase across adolescence. Despite study limitations (e.g., cross-sectional design and self-report data), the findings demonstrate that having greater selfesteem and a better capacity for being emotionally intelligent may help to reduce the likelihood of experiencing depressive symptoms during adolescence. In addition, TEI can compensate to some extent for the negative impact of self-esteem on symptoms, but only for younger adolescents. Given the significant age differences found in the current sample, continued investigation using longitudinal designs are needed, possibly in more comprehensive models, that also take into consideration the factors (e.g., life events) that place youth at greater risk for lower self-esteem, less TEI, and elevated depressive symptoms. Declaration of interest None. Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Acknowledgements To the students who participated in the study and the parents who gave consent for their participation. Special thanks also extend to Drs. Kai Morgan and Stacey Brodie-Walker, and Mr. Matthew McKenzie who assisted with the organization of this research project and data entry. Acknowledgements also to the guidance counsellors and administration at the school who assisted with the organization of data collection, and to Professor Melanie Zimmer-Gembeck who provided important feedback in preparation of the final draft of the manuscript. References Gardner, A. A., & Webb, H. J. (2017). A contextual examination of the associations between social support, self-esteem, and psychological well-being among Jamaican adolescents. Youth & Society, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X17707450. Gomez-Baya, D., Mendoza, R., Paino, S., & De Matos, M. G. (2017). 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