- Email: [email protected]
Exemplary practice in science and mathematics education
448
M. J. DUNKlN
State education authorities; the strengthening of the Australian Council for Educational Research; the establishment of the Australian Association for Research in Education; and the institution of the Australian Advisory Committee on Research and Development in Education (later designated the Education Research and Development Committee). If it is true that these factors have contributed to the burgeoning of research since the end of the 196Os, the prospects for the future might not be bright, since economic and political climates have resulted in a reduction of research staff and the demise of the ERDC which provided a substantial proportion of research funds. Second, the quality of educational research has increased alongside the quantity. This is reflected in the Iarge number of Australian articles that are accepted for publication in prestigious international journals, in the prominence of Australian researchers at international conferences, and the choice of Australians as editors of important international journals. There is no need now for educationists in this country to have a research cringe; in general, within the international community of educational researchers, Australians can match it with the best. This assessment seems to be particularly true in the fields of teaching, learning and evaluation. Third, and despite what has been said above, few educational researchers from Australia have been hailed as innovative leaders on the world scene; they have tended, rather, to be indistinguishable from others within a group that trails a little behind such giants as Peters, Popper, Gage, Bruner, Tyler, and the like. This may be due to the fact that a good deal of the Australian research seems to be ‘derivative’ and does not emerge out of the distinctive warp and woof of AustraIi~tn society. Like Sadler’s educational planners, our researchers have tended to wander among the research units of the world gathering some insights from here and others from there and bringing them back to feature in comparative programs in this country. This volume clearly shows that educational research in Australia has ‘come of age’, and that there is now a large group of researchers who arc as sophisticated as any in the world. Perhaps the time is ripe to bring this expertise together in the interests of solving some of the major issues that face Australian society as it moves into the post-industrial era. The fact that our politicians cannot think beyond “training” the youth in a narrow range of work-force skills suggests that the impact of educational research in this country is much less than desirable.
K. Tobin and B. J. Fraser (Eds.), Exemplary Practice in Science and mathematics Education Perth: Curtin University of Technology, 1987, pp. 120, JSBN 090 9848 82.5 Reviewed by C. Power, Flinders University of South Australia This report fills a vacuum in the research literature in science and mathematics education. For some time, teacher educators and researchers have called for descriptions of the teaching behaviours of expert teachers. The case studies in this report focus on exemplary teachers in biology, chemistry, physics, general science, primary science and mathematics at both primary and secondary levels. The report provides data about teaching which teacher educators can use in both preparatory and continuing education programs. In addition, these studies provide a model for research on teaching which others can implement in their own teaching contexts. Thus, this report not only provides foundational
Educational
Research
in Australia
449
material but also it has the potential for stimulating similar studies of exemplary teaching in other nations and in differing teaching contexts. Of course, what counts as ‘exemplary’ may be interpreted in different ways by different educators. In this Western Australian study, the teachers were considered effective in a broad sense of providing a learning environment in which students could develop concepts, inquiry skills, and positive attitudes. Consequently, exemplary teachers were found to employ a range of teaching strategies and organizational structures successfully in order to facilitate learning. Tobin, Fraser, and members of the research team provide us with a detailed obse~ationally-based account of the work of 20 science and mathematics teachers nominated by peers, administrators, and Education Department staff as ‘exemplary’. The eleven chapters of the report are based on over 500 hours of classroom observation by 13 researchers. The case studies reported provide additional evidence that good teaching does make a difference in students’ academic achievement and their attitudes towards science and schooling. The book is a valuable mine of insights into teaching, and provides challenges to the existing personnel policies of Education Departments and teacher education programs. Some examples of these challenges are contained in the conclusions reached by several of the research teams. In Chapter 2, Tobin compares the teaching performance of three exemplary teachers (two science and one mathematics) with their colleagues who were teaching in the same school. The main feature which differentiated the exemplary teachers from their colleagues was the management of their classes. The exemplary teachers had well-ordered classes and taught them in a relaxed manner characterized by pleasant interactions and the subtle use of humour. In an important sense, management was the key to success because the exemplary teachers were able to concentrate on teaching and learning rather than on keeping control of student behaviour. Each of the three exemplary teachers encouraged active engagement for all students and emphasized understanding of science or mathematics content rather than rote learning of facts and algorithms. The main issue to emerge from Tobin’s study involved the reasons why exemplary teachers were able to create such a pleasant environment while their colleagues, who were teaching under similar conditions, could not. The three exemplary teachers operated in the same schools as the contrast teachers and their implemented curricula were exposed to the same powerful driving forces as those teachers (e.g. the influence of examinations, student motivation to learn, and support of parents). Possible reasons for the observed differences in teaching performance might be related to the extent to which the exemplary teachers controlled the environment and mastered the content which they were to teach. Because of the effective classroom management skills and the thorough understanding of the content to be taught, each of the exemplary teachers was able to foster and monitor student understanding in a systematic manner. Another case study reported the science teaching practices of two biology teachers and showed how these two exemplary teachers were effective with their classes, but taught in characteristically different ways. Shirley utilized a teacher-centred approach which emphasized whole-class activities and also used small group and individualized activities. In contrast, Les emphasized small group activities and also used whole-class and individualized activities. In each teacher’s class, there was an easy flow from one activity to the next. little time was lost in transitions and there were few instances of student
450
M. J. DUNKIN
misbehaviour or time off-task. Both classes were extremely well-managed. The students in each class appeared to know what to do and how to do it. This situation might be attributable directly to the care taken by each teacher to explain task requirements. During class time, the teachers monitored student engagement and, when off-task behaviour occurred, they quickly and quietly spoke to the individual concerned in a manner that did not disrupt the work of others in the class. Happs studied two ‘exemplary’ science teachers when they were teaching a lower school science topic which was outside of their field of expertise. His results call into question the assumption that any science teacher can teach any lower school topic effectively. The ma&r problem was the difficulty faced by teachers in diagnosing student misconceptions and providing suitable cues to enable students to develop alternative conceptions. In one case study, a student misconception actually was reinforced by the inappropriate use of an analogy of thickness for the concepts of density. One associated problem was that errors in the content presented by ‘exemplary’ teachers can result in student misunderstandings which might be difficult to change because of the students’ faith in the validity of knowledge provided by “a dynamic, forceful and convincing teacher”. Happs also noted a tendency for teachers to move on to new content before they had established that most students in their classes had understood the previous content. This finding highlights the difficulties that all teachers face in covering an externally prescribed syllabus and dealing with the learning needs of 30 or more individuals in a class. (cf. Westbury’s notion of “coping” and “fudging on mastery” as a strategy). The Exemplary Practice in Science and mathematics Education study provides a substantial knowledge base concerning effective teaching practices in science and mathematics classes. One challenging outcome of the study is that, no matter how good teachers might be, inevitably there will be some area in which they can improve. However, the best way to effect change is not clear and it is unlikely that there will be only one best way. What is apparent from the study is that both pedagogical and content knowledge are important ingredients for outstanding teaching. Without an essential content base, teachers are unable to focus student thinking, unable to provide appropriate feedback to students, and unable to discuss effectively the content dealt with in different classroom environments. The challenge that faces researchers is to identify how teachers can construct knowledge about content and teaching so that their teaching performance improves. It might be that teaching is very hard to change because knowledge of teaching develops over a long period of time and the active knowledge that drives behaviour is difficult to change and to construct. As a consequence, teachers might find it difficult to improve. If classroom researchers are to address the issue of improving science and mathematics teaching and learning seriously, the book concludes, we must learn more about the role of different knowledge forms in teaching. It is a book which all interested in teaching will find challenging and useful.
M. J. DUNKlN
State education authorities; the strengthening of the Australian Council for Educational Research; the establishment of the Australian Association for Research in Education; and the institution of the Australian Advisory Committee on Research and Development in Education (later designated the Education Research and Development Committee). If it is true that these factors have contributed to the burgeoning of research since the end of the 196Os, the prospects for the future might not be bright, since economic and political climates have resulted in a reduction of research staff and the demise of the ERDC which provided a substantial proportion of research funds. Second, the quality of educational research has increased alongside the quantity. This is reflected in the Iarge number of Australian articles that are accepted for publication in prestigious international journals, in the prominence of Australian researchers at international conferences, and the choice of Australians as editors of important international journals. There is no need now for educationists in this country to have a research cringe; in general, within the international community of educational researchers, Australians can match it with the best. This assessment seems to be particularly true in the fields of teaching, learning and evaluation. Third, and despite what has been said above, few educational researchers from Australia have been hailed as innovative leaders on the world scene; they have tended, rather, to be indistinguishable from others within a group that trails a little behind such giants as Peters, Popper, Gage, Bruner, Tyler, and the like. This may be due to the fact that a good deal of the Australian research seems to be ‘derivative’ and does not emerge out of the distinctive warp and woof of AustraIi~tn society. Like Sadler’s educational planners, our researchers have tended to wander among the research units of the world gathering some insights from here and others from there and bringing them back to feature in comparative programs in this country. This volume clearly shows that educational research in Australia has ‘come of age’, and that there is now a large group of researchers who arc as sophisticated as any in the world. Perhaps the time is ripe to bring this expertise together in the interests of solving some of the major issues that face Australian society as it moves into the post-industrial era. The fact that our politicians cannot think beyond “training” the youth in a narrow range of work-force skills suggests that the impact of educational research in this country is much less than desirable.
K. Tobin and B. J. Fraser (Eds.), Exemplary Practice in Science and mathematics Education Perth: Curtin University of Technology, 1987, pp. 120, JSBN 090 9848 82.5 Reviewed by C. Power, Flinders University of South Australia This report fills a vacuum in the research literature in science and mathematics education. For some time, teacher educators and researchers have called for descriptions of the teaching behaviours of expert teachers. The case studies in this report focus on exemplary teachers in biology, chemistry, physics, general science, primary science and mathematics at both primary and secondary levels. The report provides data about teaching which teacher educators can use in both preparatory and continuing education programs. In addition, these studies provide a model for research on teaching which others can implement in their own teaching contexts. Thus, this report not only provides foundational
Educational
Research
in Australia
449
material but also it has the potential for stimulating similar studies of exemplary teaching in other nations and in differing teaching contexts. Of course, what counts as ‘exemplary’ may be interpreted in different ways by different educators. In this Western Australian study, the teachers were considered effective in a broad sense of providing a learning environment in which students could develop concepts, inquiry skills, and positive attitudes. Consequently, exemplary teachers were found to employ a range of teaching strategies and organizational structures successfully in order to facilitate learning. Tobin, Fraser, and members of the research team provide us with a detailed obse~ationally-based account of the work of 20 science and mathematics teachers nominated by peers, administrators, and Education Department staff as ‘exemplary’. The eleven chapters of the report are based on over 500 hours of classroom observation by 13 researchers. The case studies reported provide additional evidence that good teaching does make a difference in students’ academic achievement and their attitudes towards science and schooling. The book is a valuable mine of insights into teaching, and provides challenges to the existing personnel policies of Education Departments and teacher education programs. Some examples of these challenges are contained in the conclusions reached by several of the research teams. In Chapter 2, Tobin compares the teaching performance of three exemplary teachers (two science and one mathematics) with their colleagues who were teaching in the same school. The main feature which differentiated the exemplary teachers from their colleagues was the management of their classes. The exemplary teachers had well-ordered classes and taught them in a relaxed manner characterized by pleasant interactions and the subtle use of humour. In an important sense, management was the key to success because the exemplary teachers were able to concentrate on teaching and learning rather than on keeping control of student behaviour. Each of the three exemplary teachers encouraged active engagement for all students and emphasized understanding of science or mathematics content rather than rote learning of facts and algorithms. The main issue to emerge from Tobin’s study involved the reasons why exemplary teachers were able to create such a pleasant environment while their colleagues, who were teaching under similar conditions, could not. The three exemplary teachers operated in the same schools as the contrast teachers and their implemented curricula were exposed to the same powerful driving forces as those teachers (e.g. the influence of examinations, student motivation to learn, and support of parents). Possible reasons for the observed differences in teaching performance might be related to the extent to which the exemplary teachers controlled the environment and mastered the content which they were to teach. Because of the effective classroom management skills and the thorough understanding of the content to be taught, each of the exemplary teachers was able to foster and monitor student understanding in a systematic manner. Another case study reported the science teaching practices of two biology teachers and showed how these two exemplary teachers were effective with their classes, but taught in characteristically different ways. Shirley utilized a teacher-centred approach which emphasized whole-class activities and also used small group and individualized activities. In contrast, Les emphasized small group activities and also used whole-class and individualized activities. In each teacher’s class, there was an easy flow from one activity to the next. little time was lost in transitions and there were few instances of student
450
M. J. DUNKIN
misbehaviour or time off-task. Both classes were extremely well-managed. The students in each class appeared to know what to do and how to do it. This situation might be attributable directly to the care taken by each teacher to explain task requirements. During class time, the teachers monitored student engagement and, when off-task behaviour occurred, they quickly and quietly spoke to the individual concerned in a manner that did not disrupt the work of others in the class. Happs studied two ‘exemplary’ science teachers when they were teaching a lower school science topic which was outside of their field of expertise. His results call into question the assumption that any science teacher can teach any lower school topic effectively. The ma&r problem was the difficulty faced by teachers in diagnosing student misconceptions and providing suitable cues to enable students to develop alternative conceptions. In one case study, a student misconception actually was reinforced by the inappropriate use of an analogy of thickness for the concepts of density. One associated problem was that errors in the content presented by ‘exemplary’ teachers can result in student misunderstandings which might be difficult to change because of the students’ faith in the validity of knowledge provided by “a dynamic, forceful and convincing teacher”. Happs also noted a tendency for teachers to move on to new content before they had established that most students in their classes had understood the previous content. This finding highlights the difficulties that all teachers face in covering an externally prescribed syllabus and dealing with the learning needs of 30 or more individuals in a class. (cf. Westbury’s notion of “coping” and “fudging on mastery” as a strategy). The Exemplary Practice in Science and mathematics Education study provides a substantial knowledge base concerning effective teaching practices in science and mathematics classes. One challenging outcome of the study is that, no matter how good teachers might be, inevitably there will be some area in which they can improve. However, the best way to effect change is not clear and it is unlikely that there will be only one best way. What is apparent from the study is that both pedagogical and content knowledge are important ingredients for outstanding teaching. Without an essential content base, teachers are unable to focus student thinking, unable to provide appropriate feedback to students, and unable to discuss effectively the content dealt with in different classroom environments. The challenge that faces researchers is to identify how teachers can construct knowledge about content and teaching so that their teaching performance improves. It might be that teaching is very hard to change because knowledge of teaching develops over a long period of time and the active knowledge that drives behaviour is difficult to change and to construct. As a consequence, teachers might find it difficult to improve. If classroom researchers are to address the issue of improving science and mathematics teaching and learning seriously, the book concludes, we must learn more about the role of different knowledge forms in teaching. It is a book which all interested in teaching will find challenging and useful.