- Email: [email protected]
Exemption of students for first courses in food and nutrition
pointments. The community workers generally are assigned in the neighborhoods from which they come as the nutrition aides would be. Progress in the Maternity and Infant Care Project can be seen in the decline from 12 to 3.4 percent of patients receiving no prenatal care prior to delivery (7). Staff has increased and will continue to do so as the need arises in order to provide more effective patient care, service, and follow-up. The best insurance for a healthy infant is to start with a healthy mother, which includes being in a state of good nutrition prior to conception and through life. This has been well st'a ted by Stearns (3) and is also our philosophy. We
will continue ,to work together for ,t otal patient care and health and also try to motivate and teach to influence fut,ure pregnancies, the health of mothers, children and ,all family members. We are trying .to strengthen and expand our program of comprehensive services during preconception, prenatal, and postnatal periods for mothers and children. Immediate results are oft,e n difficult to view; however, it is hoped our efforts will result in infants being born healthy and remaining so ,t hroughout life. REFERENCES 1. Pearse, W. R., "The Maternity and Infant Care Program," Ob. and Gyn., 35: 114, Jan., 1970.
2. Notes for Mothers, Maternity and Infant Care Project and the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha. 3. Stearns, G., "Nutrionist State of the Mother Prior to Conception," J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 168: 1955, 1958. 4. Seiler, J. K., "Factors Related to Dietary Adequacy in the Very Young Pregnant Adolescent," M.S. Thesis, Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Nebraska, 1968. 5. Tompkins, W. T., R. M. Mitchell and D. G. Wiehl, "Maternal Studies II. Prematurity and Maternal Nutrition," The Promotion of Maternal and Newborn Health, Millbank Memorial Fund, New York, 1955, pp. 25-61. 7. Annual Report, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska College of Medicine, Omaha, 1965, 1969.
EXEMPTION OF STUDENTS FOR FIRST COURSES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION Betty R. Carruth, Marg.aret E. Briley and Sujit K. Roy . . . .. . . Cl;~i..E:Gf:: Ut f.; _ _: ; An objective pretest determmed mltlal status of students prIOr to a . . . . _ , beginning course in food and nutrition. Pretesting helps the instructor to know the students and their potential for achievement.
College students represent a vast array of abilities. Each student is a singular product of his life's experiences, innate traits, and abilities. These abilities are usually grouped into three categories: the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. The affective and psycho-motor domains involve subjective evaluation; therefore, abilities in the cognitive domain (1) are more frequently assessed because one's level of knowledge and mental processes are measureable by objective methods and subject to quantitative analysis. Students begin in elementary school and continue throughout their formal learning years to take objective tests that attempt to measure the degree of attainment in a given sunject matter area, as well as general academic preparation for college. The College Entrance Examination Board's Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) 5eries, the Cooperative School and College Ability Test ("SCAT) series, and the American College Test (ACT) are standardized tests used by many colleges and universities for admittance, place-
THE A UTHORS are, respectively, Instructor, Dept. of Food and Nutrition; Research Associate, Dept. of Animal Science; and Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, all at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Tex. 79409. WINTER. 1971
1III'IIiIIDlEKt:. Of IlIlMAff IWliRlli1O'Il ~liW iA$1i
ment, and counseling of students. Schoachievement in verbal and mathematical skills, and indicate the student's readiness for college study (2). The admission of students to universities based on standardized scores and/or some other measurement does promote homogeneity and reduce student failure, but the large variance in abilities and in extent of preparation for college influences the correlations between the aptitude scores and scholastic success in college courses. These variations in abilities and interests of st,udents have prompted teachers and intradepartmental committees to develop testing instruments to measure the initial status of the student prior to instruction. Steelman (3) and Lee (4) developed pre-tests to appraise student readiness for beginning food and nutrition courses. Both researchers recommended refinements of their pre-tests to improve discrimination between students who had achieved weIl and those who had achieved poorly. To paraphrase, "achieving well 9r achieving poorly" denotes certain unknown quantities about the achiever. Was the academic preparation and accidental learning experiences of those who achieved well the same as those who achieved poorly? Is the student's performance on a pre-test predictive of a
I.AHSING. MICHIGAN
ro.ol)~
~
lastic aptitude tests are measurements of criterion established for the course, i.e., course grade, final examination score, or similar measurement? If the initial status of the student could be determined, what lengt,h of time should elapse before reexamining the validity of the evaluation instrument?
Pre-testing An Introductory Food and Nutrition Course From Fall, 1967 through Fall 1969, the Department of Food and Nutrition at Texas Tech University administered an objective pre-test tp majors in the College of Home Economics as well as non-majors to determine the initial status of the students prior to instruction in the beginning course. Items for the object,ive pre-test were based on food and nutrition generalizations found in textbooks of home economics, chemistry, biology, and 4-H literature. When generalizations in the literature surveyed were the same as, or similar to those taught in the introductory course, the generalizations were structured into multiple choice test items. The premise of the survey was that a student may have learned the principles in certain subject matter areas or within voluntary act.ivities such as 4-H participation. Therefore, some of the content in the beginning course represented a review rather than new learnings, and the
JOURNAL OF NUTRITfON EDUCATION I 101
student would be better prepared because of these experiences and knowledge. During the 1967-1969 period, 1,052 students tpok the objective pre-test. Of the initial 340 students who took the food and nutrition pre-test in the fall of 1967 225 students were chosen by random 'sampling to determine what variable or variables influenced t,he students' final examination scores in the introductory course. The independent variables were academic subjects taken at the secondary and college level, the pre-test score, years of 4-H membership, an~ verbal SAT scores. The dependent varIable was the score on the final examination. The independent and dependent variables were entered into a step-wise regression and correlation equation to determine the most significant predictive variable. A predictive variable is a criterion, judged to be a valid measure of the same
TABLE 1 Hypotheses I. Because the sample of exempt students represents a small number (n=21), all of the variables will rank equally in predicting student performance on the final examination. 2. Because the exempt students were a homogenous group, the pre-test score will not be a significant variable for predicting student performance. 3. Because select students excel academically on standardized test, verbal SAT scores will not be significant predictors of student performance. 4. Because 4-H participation is voluntary and not part of the secondary curriculum, 4-H membership will not be a significant predictor varia ble.
ability, quality, or trait when correlated with a similar measurement, i.e., final examination raw score. Of the independent variables, the most significant predictor was the score made on the pretest; scholastic aptitude score-verbal SAT ranked second, and the number of years of 4-H membership ranked .thi~d. The academic subjects were not SIgnIficant predictors of performance on the final examination. Beginning in the spring of 1969, ~a jors in the College of Home E~onomlcs were permitted to exempt the mtroductory food and nutrition course by makinga predetermined score on the pre-t~st. If they were successful, students had. the opportunity of taking the final exammation. The final examination reflects the course content whereas the pre-test, indicates the student's level of knowledge prior to instruction. Passing the final ex'amination allows the student to exempt
TABLE 2 Comparison of Group Means for Predictor Variables and the Final Examination, Years 1967 and 1969 Year 1967 (n=225) 1969 (n 21 )
Pre-test Scores
Verbal SAT Scores
Years of 4-H Membership
62.29
431
.42
72,00*
80.76
510
1.50
66.23**
Final Examination
non-exempt group *Me,an of final examination after instruction **Mean of final examination with no instruction - exempt group
the course without credit and elect an-
~ther course in food and nutrition.
Validation of Research Validation of the evaluation instrument is an important phase of any educational research, especially an exemption instrument. Test validity is not constant but a matt,e r of degree, specific to the purpose and to the situation for which a test is used (5). The current research was to determine how the test served it,S purpose when expressed as the coefficient of validity. How well does the pre-test predict the exempt s~ud~nt'~ performance on the final exammatlOn. Is the pre-test currently the most significant predictor? Table I lists the hypothes~s for validation of the pre-testing and exemption program. Twenty-one students exempted through the pre-testing program had complete data available for the followup study. The pre-t,est and final examination scores were obtained from test records. Scholastic Aptitude Scores (SAT) were compiled from student's permanent files. Years of 4-H participation were collected through letters of inquiry sent to the exempt students. In order to validate the predictive validity of the pre~test and the other independent variables, the raw scores of the exempt students on the pre-test, verbal SAT scores, and years of 4-H membership were treated statistically with a stepwise regression and correlation equation. 1 I. Statistical
Lubbock, Tex.
Program TTS004, Texas Tech University,
Results Table 2 shows a comparison of variable means: pre-test, scores, verbal SAT scores, years of 4-H membership, and final examination scores for the exempt versus non-exempt group. The lower pre-test mean and higher final examination score for the 1967 group reflects the students' growth in food and nutrition knowledge ' as a result of instruct.ion . . As shown in Table 2, the exemptIOn group had a pre-test mean significantly greater and made an acceptable final ~x amination score without benefit of mstruction in the beginning course content. The results related to SAT scores and years of 4-H membership support the initial research (1967) in that students having these backgrounds performed successfully on the final examination. The exempt group had over three times as many years of 4-H as the non-exempt group, 1.5 years compared to 0.4 ye,ar. One subject had 11 years of 4-H which elevated the mean for the exempt group but would not explain the threefold difference. In future exemption studies, the 4-H background of the student should be given consideration because of food and nutrition concepts he may have acquired through this experience. When the pre-test raw sources, verbal SAT scores, and years of 4-H membership were correlated with the final examination raw score, the pre-test was selected as the most significant predictor of student performance on the final examination (P~.OOl) without the students receiving any instruction in course
TABLE 3 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysis For 1967 and 1969 Regression Equation Number
Year 1967 (n
225)
1969 (n=21)
2 3 I
2 3
Sequence of Raw Scores Entered Pre-test Years of Verbal 4-H SAT X X X X X X
X X X
X X
Multiple
R
.60 .62 .63 .68 .76
X
.77
F Value 128 ,04* 8,24 4. 17 16.27* 11.97 8.04
n-number in sample *(P~.OOI)
102 I JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION
WINTER . 1971
content prior to taking the final examination. The years of 4-H membership and verbal SAT scores ranked second and third, respectively. (See Table 3.) Because of the ranking of the predictor variables for exemption group, hypotheses 1 and 2 were rejected. The pre-test ranked first as a predictor variable in both the large group, 1967, and the smaller homogeneous group, 1969. Hypotheses 3 and 4 were rejected on the evidence that the years of 4-H membership and verbal SAT scores were significantly related to t,he final examination raw scores (P ~. OI). The secondary predictors will not suffice as criteria for exemption but should be incorporated into the overall evaluation of the student's background. Conclusions Serendipity in research is to find that, criteria established by a prior study is current and may provide guidelines for the future. If a test mean of 80.67 is characteristic of the exempt group, then the probability of passing the final examination is greatly enhanced when a
mended procedure for helping the instructor to know the learner, re-evaluation of the instrument assures t,h at the inferences drawn about the learner are reliable and current. Exemption allows the learner to function at a level commensurat,e with his ability.
student scores 80 or better on the pretest. Further study of the accumulative data may find the pre-test, to be sufficient for exemption without taking the final examination. The other aspect of validating the predict.or variables-specifically, the pretest for the introductory food and nutrition course-is to consider the human factor in the learning-teaching situation. A grade reflects not only what a student, has learned of the course content but, moreover, the innate abilities and learning experiences that he possesses. Nutrition educators have a responsibility for learning about the learner. Food and how the body uses it is a constant of life; therefore, some degree of student success is essential for continued motivation, learning, and application of principles taught,. When students enroll in basic nutrition classes, do they come with adequate background to do the work, to go on to advanced study, or are they already predisposed to "achieve poorly?" Pre-testing of students is a recom-
REFERENCES 1. Bloom, B. S., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I; Cognitive Domain, Longmans, Green and Company, New York, 1956.
2. The Committee on Measurement and
Evaluation of the American Council on Education, College Testing. Washington, D.C., 1959. 3. Steelman, V. p " "Development of an Objective Written and Laboratory Pre-test Based on the Aims and Generalizations for a Beginning College Food Preparation Course," M. S. Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 1963. 4, Lee, V. T., "Placement of College Students in Elementary Foods Course," J. Home Econ. Assoc., 57:638-40, 1965.
5. Ebel, R. E . ."Procedures for the Analysis Classroom Tests," Educ. and Psych . Mea-
surem ent, 14: 352-64, 1954. 6. Li, J. C. R.,Statistical Inference, Edwards Brothers, Inc, Ann Arbor, 1964.
SOME FACTORS FOR REFUSAL TO PARTICIPATE IN NUTRITION SURVEY Patrick M. Morgan, Lorraine E. Demarest; Walter G. Unglaub* and Ruth S. Hubbard Many persons selected at random for a nutrition survey did not participate. Restructuring of procedure provided better results and recommendations for methods to make future surveys more effective.
Several states throughout the United States within the past two years have participated in a National Nutrition Survey at the request of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The purpose of the survey is to determine the prevalence and type of nutritionalj health problems within low-income groups. The National Center for Health Statistics randomly s~lected certain census enumeration districts within each state THE AUTHORS are, respectively, Associate Professor of Public Health Nutrition and Coordinator, Nutrition Training Program; Instructor, Dept. of Health Services Administration; Professor of Public Health Nutrition and Director, Nutrition Section;* and Research Associate, Nutrition Sectioll, all at School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulalle University, New Orleans, La. 70112.
"Professor Unglaub is deceased. WINTER, 1971
from which the subjects would be drawn (1). Each district had a mean family income in the lowest quartile on a national basis. Each participat,ing district was carefully mapped, a number given to each housing unit within the district, and 20 households randomly selected from each of the dis,tricts. Effort was made to contact each household of the 20 selected, soliciting cooperat,ion in the survey and affording each family member t,he opportunity to be transported to the survey loca60n and returned home. At the survey site samples of urine and blood were collected. Participants were asked to bring a fecal specimen to the clinic. Anthropometric measurements were recorded, questions were asked concerning health and dietary intake, and dental and physical examinations were conducted on each individual.
It was evident from the beginning that many persons selected as part of the sample population in the state of Louisiana would not partici'pate. However, the response in the larger cities was poor beyond expectation. New Orleans, the largest city in the state, had t,h e smallest percentage of family participation. The overall participation Toate for this city was 19.6 percent in the first 13 of the 22 selected census enumeration districts for this area. The low part,icipation rate was a cause of concern, and a decision was made to postpone the survey in the remaining nine districts in the city until recommendations could be given to possible ways of improving participation. Since Louisiana was one of the first two statest,o conduct the nutritionaljhe~th survey, any problems encountered arid solved here would benefit other states
JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION /
103
will continue ,to work together for ,t otal patient care and health and also try to motivate and teach to influence fut,ure pregnancies, the health of mothers, children and ,all family members. We are trying .to strengthen and expand our program of comprehensive services during preconception, prenatal, and postnatal periods for mothers and children. Immediate results are oft,e n difficult to view; however, it is hoped our efforts will result in infants being born healthy and remaining so ,t hroughout life. REFERENCES 1. Pearse, W. R., "The Maternity and Infant Care Program," Ob. and Gyn., 35: 114, Jan., 1970.
2. Notes for Mothers, Maternity and Infant Care Project and the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha. 3. Stearns, G., "Nutrionist State of the Mother Prior to Conception," J. Amer. Med. Assoc., 168: 1955, 1958. 4. Seiler, J. K., "Factors Related to Dietary Adequacy in the Very Young Pregnant Adolescent," M.S. Thesis, Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Nebraska, 1968. 5. Tompkins, W. T., R. M. Mitchell and D. G. Wiehl, "Maternal Studies II. Prematurity and Maternal Nutrition," The Promotion of Maternal and Newborn Health, Millbank Memorial Fund, New York, 1955, pp. 25-61. 7. Annual Report, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nebraska College of Medicine, Omaha, 1965, 1969.
EXEMPTION OF STUDENTS FOR FIRST COURSES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION Betty R. Carruth, Marg.aret E. Briley and Sujit K. Roy . . . .. . . Cl;~i..E:Gf:: Ut f.; _ _: ; An objective pretest determmed mltlal status of students prIOr to a . . . . _ , beginning course in food and nutrition. Pretesting helps the instructor to know the students and their potential for achievement.
College students represent a vast array of abilities. Each student is a singular product of his life's experiences, innate traits, and abilities. These abilities are usually grouped into three categories: the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. The affective and psycho-motor domains involve subjective evaluation; therefore, abilities in the cognitive domain (1) are more frequently assessed because one's level of knowledge and mental processes are measureable by objective methods and subject to quantitative analysis. Students begin in elementary school and continue throughout their formal learning years to take objective tests that attempt to measure the degree of attainment in a given sunject matter area, as well as general academic preparation for college. The College Entrance Examination Board's Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) 5eries, the Cooperative School and College Ability Test ("SCAT) series, and the American College Test (ACT) are standardized tests used by many colleges and universities for admittance, place-
THE A UTHORS are, respectively, Instructor, Dept. of Food and Nutrition; Research Associate, Dept. of Animal Science; and Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, all at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Tex. 79409. WINTER. 1971
1III'IIiIIDlEKt:. Of IlIlMAff IWliRlli1O'Il ~liW iA$1i
ment, and counseling of students. Schoachievement in verbal and mathematical skills, and indicate the student's readiness for college study (2). The admission of students to universities based on standardized scores and/or some other measurement does promote homogeneity and reduce student failure, but the large variance in abilities and in extent of preparation for college influences the correlations between the aptitude scores and scholastic success in college courses. These variations in abilities and interests of st,udents have prompted teachers and intradepartmental committees to develop testing instruments to measure the initial status of the student prior to instruction. Steelman (3) and Lee (4) developed pre-tests to appraise student readiness for beginning food and nutrition courses. Both researchers recommended refinements of their pre-tests to improve discrimination between students who had achieved weIl and those who had achieved poorly. To paraphrase, "achieving well 9r achieving poorly" denotes certain unknown quantities about the achiever. Was the academic preparation and accidental learning experiences of those who achieved well the same as those who achieved poorly? Is the student's performance on a pre-test predictive of a
I.AHSING. MICHIGAN
ro.ol)~
~
lastic aptitude tests are measurements of criterion established for the course, i.e., course grade, final examination score, or similar measurement? If the initial status of the student could be determined, what lengt,h of time should elapse before reexamining the validity of the evaluation instrument?
Pre-testing An Introductory Food and Nutrition Course From Fall, 1967 through Fall 1969, the Department of Food and Nutrition at Texas Tech University administered an objective pre-test tp majors in the College of Home Economics as well as non-majors to determine the initial status of the students prior to instruction in the beginning course. Items for the object,ive pre-test were based on food and nutrition generalizations found in textbooks of home economics, chemistry, biology, and 4-H literature. When generalizations in the literature surveyed were the same as, or similar to those taught in the introductory course, the generalizations were structured into multiple choice test items. The premise of the survey was that a student may have learned the principles in certain subject matter areas or within voluntary act.ivities such as 4-H participation. Therefore, some of the content in the beginning course represented a review rather than new learnings, and the
JOURNAL OF NUTRITfON EDUCATION I 101
student would be better prepared because of these experiences and knowledge. During the 1967-1969 period, 1,052 students tpok the objective pre-test. Of the initial 340 students who took the food and nutrition pre-test in the fall of 1967 225 students were chosen by random 'sampling to determine what variable or variables influenced t,he students' final examination scores in the introductory course. The independent variables were academic subjects taken at the secondary and college level, the pre-test score, years of 4-H membership, an~ verbal SAT scores. The dependent varIable was the score on the final examination. The independent and dependent variables were entered into a step-wise regression and correlation equation to determine the most significant predictive variable. A predictive variable is a criterion, judged to be a valid measure of the same
TABLE 1 Hypotheses I. Because the sample of exempt students represents a small number (n=21), all of the variables will rank equally in predicting student performance on the final examination. 2. Because the exempt students were a homogenous group, the pre-test score will not be a significant variable for predicting student performance. 3. Because select students excel academically on standardized test, verbal SAT scores will not be significant predictors of student performance. 4. Because 4-H participation is voluntary and not part of the secondary curriculum, 4-H membership will not be a significant predictor varia ble.
ability, quality, or trait when correlated with a similar measurement, i.e., final examination raw score. Of the independent variables, the most significant predictor was the score made on the pretest; scholastic aptitude score-verbal SAT ranked second, and the number of years of 4-H membership ranked .thi~d. The academic subjects were not SIgnIficant predictors of performance on the final examination. Beginning in the spring of 1969, ~a jors in the College of Home E~onomlcs were permitted to exempt the mtroductory food and nutrition course by makinga predetermined score on the pre-t~st. If they were successful, students had. the opportunity of taking the final exammation. The final examination reflects the course content whereas the pre-test, indicates the student's level of knowledge prior to instruction. Passing the final ex'amination allows the student to exempt
TABLE 2 Comparison of Group Means for Predictor Variables and the Final Examination, Years 1967 and 1969 Year 1967 (n=225) 1969 (n 21 )
Pre-test Scores
Verbal SAT Scores
Years of 4-H Membership
62.29
431
.42
72,00*
80.76
510
1.50
66.23**
Final Examination
non-exempt group *Me,an of final examination after instruction **Mean of final examination with no instruction - exempt group
the course without credit and elect an-
~ther course in food and nutrition.
Validation of Research Validation of the evaluation instrument is an important phase of any educational research, especially an exemption instrument. Test validity is not constant but a matt,e r of degree, specific to the purpose and to the situation for which a test is used (5). The current research was to determine how the test served it,S purpose when expressed as the coefficient of validity. How well does the pre-test predict the exempt s~ud~nt'~ performance on the final exammatlOn. Is the pre-test currently the most significant predictor? Table I lists the hypothes~s for validation of the pre-testing and exemption program. Twenty-one students exempted through the pre-testing program had complete data available for the followup study. The pre-t,est and final examination scores were obtained from test records. Scholastic Aptitude Scores (SAT) were compiled from student's permanent files. Years of 4-H participation were collected through letters of inquiry sent to the exempt students. In order to validate the predictive validity of the pre~test and the other independent variables, the raw scores of the exempt students on the pre-test, verbal SAT scores, and years of 4-H membership were treated statistically with a stepwise regression and correlation equation. 1 I. Statistical
Lubbock, Tex.
Program TTS004, Texas Tech University,
Results Table 2 shows a comparison of variable means: pre-test, scores, verbal SAT scores, years of 4-H membership, and final examination scores for the exempt versus non-exempt group. The lower pre-test mean and higher final examination score for the 1967 group reflects the students' growth in food and nutrition knowledge ' as a result of instruct.ion . . As shown in Table 2, the exemptIOn group had a pre-test mean significantly greater and made an acceptable final ~x amination score without benefit of mstruction in the beginning course content. The results related to SAT scores and years of 4-H membership support the initial research (1967) in that students having these backgrounds performed successfully on the final examination. The exempt group had over three times as many years of 4-H as the non-exempt group, 1.5 years compared to 0.4 ye,ar. One subject had 11 years of 4-H which elevated the mean for the exempt group but would not explain the threefold difference. In future exemption studies, the 4-H background of the student should be given consideration because of food and nutrition concepts he may have acquired through this experience. When the pre-test raw sources, verbal SAT scores, and years of 4-H membership were correlated with the final examination raw score, the pre-test was selected as the most significant predictor of student performance on the final examination (P~.OOl) without the students receiving any instruction in course
TABLE 3 Results of Stepwise Regression Analysis For 1967 and 1969 Regression Equation Number
Year 1967 (n
225)
1969 (n=21)
2 3 I
2 3
Sequence of Raw Scores Entered Pre-test Years of Verbal 4-H SAT X X X X X X
X X X
X X
Multiple
R
.60 .62 .63 .68 .76
X
.77
F Value 128 ,04* 8,24 4. 17 16.27* 11.97 8.04
n-number in sample *(P~.OOI)
102 I JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION
WINTER . 1971
content prior to taking the final examination. The years of 4-H membership and verbal SAT scores ranked second and third, respectively. (See Table 3.) Because of the ranking of the predictor variables for exemption group, hypotheses 1 and 2 were rejected. The pre-test ranked first as a predictor variable in both the large group, 1967, and the smaller homogeneous group, 1969. Hypotheses 3 and 4 were rejected on the evidence that the years of 4-H membership and verbal SAT scores were significantly related to t,he final examination raw scores (P ~. OI). The secondary predictors will not suffice as criteria for exemption but should be incorporated into the overall evaluation of the student's background. Conclusions Serendipity in research is to find that, criteria established by a prior study is current and may provide guidelines for the future. If a test mean of 80.67 is characteristic of the exempt group, then the probability of passing the final examination is greatly enhanced when a
mended procedure for helping the instructor to know the learner, re-evaluation of the instrument assures t,h at the inferences drawn about the learner are reliable and current. Exemption allows the learner to function at a level commensurat,e with his ability.
student scores 80 or better on the pretest. Further study of the accumulative data may find the pre-test, to be sufficient for exemption without taking the final examination. The other aspect of validating the predict.or variables-specifically, the pretest for the introductory food and nutrition course-is to consider the human factor in the learning-teaching situation. A grade reflects not only what a student, has learned of the course content but, moreover, the innate abilities and learning experiences that he possesses. Nutrition educators have a responsibility for learning about the learner. Food and how the body uses it is a constant of life; therefore, some degree of student success is essential for continued motivation, learning, and application of principles taught,. When students enroll in basic nutrition classes, do they come with adequate background to do the work, to go on to advanced study, or are they already predisposed to "achieve poorly?" Pre-testing of students is a recom-
REFERENCES 1. Bloom, B. S., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I; Cognitive Domain, Longmans, Green and Company, New York, 1956.
2. The Committee on Measurement and
Evaluation of the American Council on Education, College Testing. Washington, D.C., 1959. 3. Steelman, V. p " "Development of an Objective Written and Laboratory Pre-test Based on the Aims and Generalizations for a Beginning College Food Preparation Course," M. S. Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 1963. 4, Lee, V. T., "Placement of College Students in Elementary Foods Course," J. Home Econ. Assoc., 57:638-40, 1965.
5. Ebel, R. E . ."Procedures for the Analysis Classroom Tests," Educ. and Psych . Mea-
surem ent, 14: 352-64, 1954. 6. Li, J. C. R.,Statistical Inference, Edwards Brothers, Inc, Ann Arbor, 1964.
SOME FACTORS FOR REFUSAL TO PARTICIPATE IN NUTRITION SURVEY Patrick M. Morgan, Lorraine E. Demarest; Walter G. Unglaub* and Ruth S. Hubbard Many persons selected at random for a nutrition survey did not participate. Restructuring of procedure provided better results and recommendations for methods to make future surveys more effective.
Several states throughout the United States within the past two years have participated in a National Nutrition Survey at the request of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The purpose of the survey is to determine the prevalence and type of nutritionalj health problems within low-income groups. The National Center for Health Statistics randomly s~lected certain census enumeration districts within each state THE AUTHORS are, respectively, Associate Professor of Public Health Nutrition and Coordinator, Nutrition Training Program; Instructor, Dept. of Health Services Administration; Professor of Public Health Nutrition and Director, Nutrition Section;* and Research Associate, Nutrition Sectioll, all at School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulalle University, New Orleans, La. 70112.
"Professor Unglaub is deceased. WINTER, 1971
from which the subjects would be drawn (1). Each district had a mean family income in the lowest quartile on a national basis. Each participat,ing district was carefully mapped, a number given to each housing unit within the district, and 20 households randomly selected from each of the dis,tricts. Effort was made to contact each household of the 20 selected, soliciting cooperat,ion in the survey and affording each family member t,he opportunity to be transported to the survey loca60n and returned home. At the survey site samples of urine and blood were collected. Participants were asked to bring a fecal specimen to the clinic. Anthropometric measurements were recorded, questions were asked concerning health and dietary intake, and dental and physical examinations were conducted on each individual.
It was evident from the beginning that many persons selected as part of the sample population in the state of Louisiana would not partici'pate. However, the response in the larger cities was poor beyond expectation. New Orleans, the largest city in the state, had t,h e smallest percentage of family participation. The overall participation Toate for this city was 19.6 percent in the first 13 of the 22 selected census enumeration districts for this area. The low part,icipation rate was a cause of concern, and a decision was made to postpone the survey in the remaining nine districts in the city until recommendations could be given to possible ways of improving participation. Since Louisiana was one of the first two statest,o conduct the nutritionaljhe~th survey, any problems encountered arid solved here would benefit other states
JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION /
103