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Experimental study on usability of various construction wastes as fine aggregate in asphalt mixture
Construction and Building Materials 185 (2018) 369–379
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Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Experimental study on usability of various construction wastes as fine aggregate in asphalt mixture Sevil Kofteci ⇑, Mansor Nazary Department of Civil Engineering, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
h i g h l i g h t s Effects of waste materials on performance properties of HMA were evaluated. Waste materials satisfy Marshall mix design specifications. Ceramic could improve the high-low temperature properties of asphalt mastic. Asphalt samples with marble could improve some performance property of HMA.
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Article history: Received 16 May 2018 Received in revised form 9 July 2018 Accepted 10 July 2018
Keywords: Recycled aggregate Hot Mix Asphalt Asphalt mastic Ceramic Marble Redbrick
a b s t r a c t In this study, some properties of asphalt mixture containing ceramic, marble and redbrick as recycled waste materials were investigated. Because of the low strength, recycled waste materials were used only as fine aggregate and filler. Various tests including moisture susceptibility, Marshall stability, Cantabro, mechanical composition, mineral composition and physical properties test were conducted. In addition, softening point and penetration properties of asphalt mastic containing the above-recycled waste materials as powder were researched. The results indicated marble mixture exhibited better performance than other mixtures, especially in 25% content. In addition, from asphalt mastic test results, ceramic asphalt mastic showed the superiority of high and low-temperature properties. Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) which is consists of bitumen and aggregate is most commonly used construction materials in road construction. Aggregate is usually obtained from natural resources such as granite and limestone. By increasing economic cost and lack of accessibility to natural aggregates, have opened the opportunity to explore locally available waste materials. Several countries and global institutions have been working to minimize and reuse the produced wastes. By using the suitable waste material in the road construction the pollution and disposal problem will decrease. The use of waste material in road construction becomes an interesting subject for the purpose of green environment and sustainable development. Many investigators have been working to substitute multiple types of waste material such as fly ash [1,2],
⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Kofteci). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.059 0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
ceramic [3–6], marble [7,8], construction and demolition wastes [9–12], redbrick [13–15] and recycled tyre rubber [16] as aggregate as well as filler in Hot Mix Asphalt. Ismail et al. [17] used crushed ceramic tiles as an aggregate from the size of 5.0 mm down included filler. The results of this study indicated that the use of ceramic tile can be potentially used in HMA mixture. Especially they mentioned that physical properties tests for waste ceramics were fulfilled the standard requirements [17]. Akbulut and Gürer researched by replacing marble waste in asphalt pavements, they reported the suitability of marble waste in medium traffic roads as well as in binder course [18]. Karasahin and Terzi used marble dust in the asphalt mixtures as filler material. In the study, Marshall test as well as dynamic deformation tests were performed. End of the study, they reported that marble wastes, which are in the dust form could be used as filler material in asphalt mixtures [19]. Wu, Zhong, and Wang investigated on related properties of asphalt mastic by replacing recycled Red Brick Powder (RBP) and stated positive effects of RBP on high-temperature properties of asphalt mastic [20]. Chen and Lin studied by substituting recycled
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red brick powder as filler and concluded the feasibility of using recycled red brick powder as mineral filler in asphalt mixture [21]. It was proved that these types of recycled waste materials gave acceptable results and can be used in HMA. However, some essential problems still exist to use recycled waste materials in road construction. Antalya is one of the preferred touristic city in Turkey. The city has the fastest population growth in recent years. The immigration increased significantly to this province from other cities, consequently increased construction activity and waste material. According to investigations, it was determined that most of these waste materials are ceramic, marble and redbrick. The aim of present research is to investigate the feasibility of using these waste materials as the fine aggregate as well as filler in HMA. Different waste material contents were used for the preparation of Marshall mixture design specimens. The limestone aggregate was also used as the control in the experimental program. Various laboratory tests including Asphalt mastic tests, Cantabro and moisture susceptibility were conducted to evaluate the related properties of the mixture. In addition, the above issued recycled waste materials also replaced as the powder in asphalt mastic, to evaluate the penetration and softening point of asphalt mastic.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Natural aggregates In the research program, limestone was used as coarse aggregate and obtained from Bog˘açayı quarry, Antalya. Table1 gives the physical properties of the limestone.
2.2. Bitumen To prepare testing specimens, the bitumen used in this study has the penetration grade 50/70 and obtained from Aliaga refinery; Izmir/Turkey. Laboratory tests were performed to know the properties of the bitumen. Bitumen was evaluated in two stages: Before aging and after aging. Aging process was performed with TFOT (Thin Film Oven Test) method at 163 °C. Before aging, penetration, softening point and ductility tests were performed in order to determine the performance of bitumen. According to the test results, it found to be within the acceptable limits. Penetration index was calculated for identifying the temperature sensitivity of bituminous binder. According to the calculated result, it can be said that bitumen used in the study is somewhat susceptible against to the temperature. Flash point test was performed with Cleveland open cup method in order to determine resistance against flammability of the bitumen. The obtained result found to be higher than the minimum specification limit. After the short-term aging process, bitumen determined to be within the specification limits. The results of the conventional bitumen tests are shown in Table 2.
2.3. Waste materials Ceramic, marble and redbrick wastes which were obtained from Antalya city construction sites, used as the fine aggregate as well as filler in this experimental investigation. The chemical and mineral composition of the waste materials were investigated by Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray Diffractometer (XRD). The XRD and XRF results are shown in Table3 and Fig. 1 (a-redbrick, b-marble, c-ceramic) respectively. As indicated in Table 3, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 are the major components of redbrick and ceramic. However, CaO and LOI compose the main percentage of marble. As shown in XRD patterns the main mineral phase of redbrick is muscovite, quartz and sericite. The major mineral parts of ceramic are
Table 2 Experimental results and specification limits related to bitumen. Test
Specification
Results
Specification limits
Penetration (25 °C; 0.1 mm) Softening point (°C) Penetration index (PI) Ductility (25 °C; 5 cm/min) Flash point, °C (Cleveland open cup) Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) (163 °C; 5 h) Change of mass (%) Change of softening point (°C) Retained penetration (%) Specific gravity
TS TS – TS TS
59 51 °C 0.56 >100 295 °C
50–70 46–54 – – 230 (min)
TS EN 12607-2
0.25
0.5 (max)
TS EN 1427 TS EN 1426 TS 1087
3.1 62 1.032
9 (max) 50 (min) –
EN 1426 EN 1427 119 ISO 2592
Table 3 Chemical composition of redbrick, marble and ceramic, % by mass. Component
Redbrick
Marble
Ceramic
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 MnO Cr2O3 SO3 LOI A.Za Total
50.99 21.54 8.8 2.14 6.09 0.81 4.19 1.15 0.13 0.09 0.02 1.1 2.65 – 99.7
1.49 0.42 0.23 0.53 53.3 0.08 0.07 0.06 – – – 0.09 43.53 – 99.95
70.6 18.5 2.20 0.60 1.60 3.60 2.10 0.20 <0.1 <0.1 – – – 0.20 99.6
quartz and mullite, while marble mainly composed of calcite. Both chemical and mineral compositions prove that redbrick and ceramic are more complex than marble. 2.4. Preparation of samples 2.4.1. Preparation of asphalt mastic The asphalt mastic samples were prepared with four type of aggregates (limestone, redbrick, marble, ceramic) and 50/70 penetration bitumen. Aggregates in nearly powder form were sieved with two types of sieve (No 80 and No 200) in order to obtain aggregate with the necessary thinness for the performed experimental study. Waste material and binder ratio was fixed on a ratio of 1:1by weight. After heating bitumen at 160 °C in the laboratory type oven, it was poured into the mixing vessel. Following this, the aggregate was carefully added to the bitumen. Bitumen and aggregate were mixed in the mechanical mixer (IKA RW 20) at 1000 rpm speed for almost 5 min. Finally, performance tests were performed. 2.4.2. Preparation of asphalt mixture The asphalt mixture samples used in the experimental study were prepared for the binder layer course, as per grading limits specified in Turkish Highway Construction Specification 2013. The gradation curves of the mixture design are shown in Fig. 2. In the experimental part of the study, initially, the Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) was determined. Six group of different percentage, from 3% to 5.5%, on the basis of 0.5% increment of bitumen content by weight were prepared. Three speci-
Table 1 Physical properties of limestone. Property
Specification
Corse Aggregate
Fine Aggregate
Specification limits
Specific gravity Water absorption, % Soundness of aggregate by use of magnesium sulfate (%) Flakiness index, (%) Peel strength Los Angeles abrasion %
ASTM C127 TS EN 1097/6 TS EN 1367-2 BS 812 TS EN 12697-11 AASHTO T96
2.64 0.41 12.07 18.14 89.00 27.00
2.71 0.49 – – – –
– 2.5 18 30 60 30
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(a) Redbrick
(b) Marble
(c) Ceramic Fig. 1. XRD patterns of recycled waste aggregates. mens were prepared for each group. Thus 18 test samples were used for a mix design. For each group of samples, the curves of the bulk specific gravity, stability, flow, voids filled with bitumen, voids and voids in mineral aggregate were plotted. From the plotted curves the OBC were determined 4.57%.
In this experimental study, waste materials are added as the fine aggregate (grain diameter less than 4.75 mm). The strengths of the trial samples showed the marble waste can be mixed upto 100% but redbrick and, especially the ceramic waste limited to replace up to 50% by weight. In this investigation, it was decided to
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Here pen is the penetration of asphalt mastic, T is the test temperature (°C), K and Algpen are the coefficients of the linear regression equation. The values of Algpen must be between 0.0015 and 0.06. Regression lines of penetration for studied waste materials are shown in Fig. 3. Penetration Index (PI) is used to evaluate the response of asphalt mastic to the variation of temperature, according to the equation developed by Pfeiffer and Van Doormaal (Eq. (2)) the values of PI ranges from 3 to +10. Based on the values of coefficients of linear regression lines as shown in Table 5. In addition to PI, the values of Equivalent temperature of softening (Eq. (3)), Equivalent temperature of cracking (Eq. (4)) and Flexible temperature range (Eq. (5)) also computed. Softening point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance reaches degree of softening. Ring and ball method was used to obtain values of the softening point of asphalt mastics.
Fig. 2. Grading curves of aggregates and specification limits. replace the above waste materials in the mixture by 12.5%, 25%, 37.5% and 50% by weight, and a total number of (16 5 4) 320 Marshall samples were prepared. In order to prepare samples, aggregates and bitumen were heated at separate ovens from each other. Aggregates were heated at about 165 °C and bitumen was heated at about 150 °C. Then, they were poured into the chamber of the classical laboratory type rotational mixer which has the 7.5-liter capacity. Bitumen and aggregates were mixed for 120 s. During this process, the temperature of the mixture was controlled continuously by using the infrared thermometer. After mixing completed, prepared mixtures were placed in the steel molds and their lower and upper surfaces were compacted by using Marshall compactor. The weights of Natural Aggregate and Weight of Waste Aggregate for different percentages of contents are shown in Table 4.
3.2. Marshall stability
3. Experimental program
Marshall Method was used to test the stability of the asphalt mixture. The mix design was prepared according to the design method of Asphalt Institute MS-2. In this method, cylindrical briquettes formed and the resistance to plastic flow is measured by loading to the lateral sides of samples. The specimens were compacted 75 blows at each side by Marshall drop hammer. The weights of specimens were measured in air and water, the densities determined according to ASTM D2726. Finally, the samples immersed 40 mints, in 60 °C water tank. The specimens tested in Marshall Testing Machine for stability and flow.
3.1. Asphalt mastic
3.3. Moisture susceptibility
Limestone, redbrick, ceramic and marble powder were used in the preparation of Asphalt mastic samples. Penetration and softening point tests were conducted to investigate the related properties of asphalt mastic. Penetration (0.1 mm at 100 g and 5 °C) was conducted at 15, 25 and 40 °C. By plotting the common logarithm of penetration (lgpen) against temperature (T) the linear regression equation (Eq. (1)) is obtained.
Moisture susceptibility value of each sample was calculated by proportioning the indirect tensile stress of conditioned and unconditioned specimens according to AASHTO T-283. In this test, first, the specimens were separated according to specific weights by close to each other and then divided into two triple groups for conditioned and unconditioned. The unconditioned samples immersed in 25 °C water for two hours and broken axially. The preconditioned samples saturated to 70%–80% in a vacuum desiccator and left 16 h in 18 °C. The samples immersed in a 60 °C water tank for 24 h to ensure the damage with the freeze-thaw effect. Finally, the preconditioned specimens immersed in a 25 °C water tank and tested similarly to unconditioned samples. Asphalt mixtures resistance to the freeze-thaw effect of water is expressed by the ratio of the indirect tensile strength of the conditioned samples to unconditioned samples. According to the AASHTO T-283 minimum tensile strength ratio (TSR) is 0.80.
lgpen ¼ K þ Algpen x T PIlgpen ¼
20 500Algpen 1 þ 50Algpen
ð2Þ
lg800 k Algpen
ð3Þ
lg1:2 k Algpen
ð4Þ
3.4. Cantabro
ð5Þ
In the laboratory circumstances, the Cantabro test is conducted to calculate the mass losses of asphalt mixtures. The Cantabro test
T800 ¼ T1:2 ¼
ð1Þ
DT ¼ T800 T1:2
Table 4 Weights of Natural Aggregates (WNA) and Waste Aggregates (WWA) in the mixtures. Sieve diameter (mm)
25.4–19.1 19.1–12.7 12.7–9.52 9.52–4.75 4.75–2 2–0.42 0.42–0.177 0.177–0.075 <0.075
0%
12.50%
25%
37.50%
50%
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
237 173 95 169 183 184 43 16 51
– – – – – – – – –
237 173 95 169 160 161 38 14 45
– – – – 23 23 5 2 6
237 173 95 169 137 138 32 12 38
– – – – 46 46 11 4 13
237 173 95 169 115 115 27 10 32
– – – – 68 69 16 6 19
237 173 95 169 92 92 22 8 26
– – – – 91 92 21 8 25
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Fig. 3. Regression lines of penetration.
Table 5 Linear regression equations of penetration. Samples Marble asphalt mastic Limestone asphalt mastic Red Brick asphalt mastic Ceramic asphalt mastic
Linear regression equations lgpen = 0.601 + 0.0444 T lgpen = 0.323 + 0.0495 T lgpen = 0.359 + 0.0452 T lgpen = 0.516 + 0.0403 T
Table 6 Asphalt mastic test results. Correlation coefficients 0.999 0.971 0.962 0.989
is generally used for OGFC (Open-Graded Friction Courses) but in literature, there are some studies which tried for dense-graded mixes [22–24].In the current study, the Cantabro test was applied to two groups of samples. The first group of test specimens consists of Marshall samples which are not exposed to any aging effect. The specimens weighted first and placed directly into the Los Angeles drum machine without the metal balls, and the machine was rotated 300 gyrations with a speed of 30–33 rpm. The weights of each damaged specimen, removed from the machine were measured again, the weight losses were determined as %. The second group of test specimens aged for 7 days in 60 °C inside the oven. The aged samples after waiting at room temperature tested as above, and the percentage of weight loss calculated. 4. Results and discussion 4.1. Asphalt mastic test results As shown in Table 6, ceramic asphalt mastic has the highest T800 and lowest T1.2 values among all other materials, meaning that ceramic asphalt mastic has the advantage of high and lowtemperature properties. Limestone asphalt mastic keeps flexible in a small temperature range as it has the lowest flexible temperature range, DT. As observed from the results of softening point in Fig. 4, ceramic asphalt mastic has the highest softening point which confirms the results obtained from calculation of T800.
Samples
PIlgpen
T800
T1.2
DT
Marble asphalt mastic Limestone asphalt mastic Redbrick asphalt mastic Ceramic asphalt mastic
0.63 1.37 0.8 0.05
51.8 52.12 56.2 59.2
11.75 4.92 6.2 14.4
63.5 57 62.4 73.6
4.2. Marshall stability test results For the present investigation, all the samples were prepared according to optimal bitumen content which was 4.57%. The plotted curves of the bulk specific gravity, stability, flow, voids, voids in mineral aggregate and voids filled with bitumen are shown in Figures from 5 to 10. The outcomes of the figures briefly discussed below. As indicated in the Fig. 5 bulk specific gravity values of the ceramic and redbrick sharply decreased by increasing the percentage of the waste material content. Between the types of waste materials used in this study, marble has the highest unit weight in all percentage of content and ceramic has the lowest one except 12.5%. The Marshall stability test results are shown in Fig. 6, the results show that Marshall stability of all researched waste materials increases with increasing the percentage of contents up to 37.5% and thereafter decrease from this point. Marble with 37.5% have the highest stability and redbrick with 50% has the minimum stability. Turkish Highway Construction Specification specifies stability value should be greater than 750 kg (7.36 kN) in binder course. Although all specimens have greater stability than 750 kg, and among them, marble has the best results in the percentage of contents. Flow value which is an indicator of the plasticity and flexibility properties of asphalt mixtures is the total movement or strain occurring in the sample between no load and maximum load during the stability test [25]. As shown in Fig. 7, marble with 12.5%
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Fig. 4. Softening point test results.
Fig. 5. Bulk specific gravity.
content has the highest and redbrick with 50% content has the lowest flow values. Flow values of all three materials decrease by increasing the percentage of content. The flow value results indicate that the marble has the maximum plasticity behavior, and the ceramic is more brittle. The void is one of the important parameter of the asphalt mixture. As it can be seen in Fig. 8, void content of all three-waste
materials mixture increases by increasing the percentage of the waste material content up to 37.5% and decrease again from this point. The increase of void content in the mixture allows water to flow throughout the mixture and the mixture becomes more permeable to water, and too low air void can lead to flushing by squeezing excess asphalt out of the mixture to the surface. According to Turkish Highway Construction Specification, air void content
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Fig. 6. Marshall Stability.
Fig. 7. Marshall flow values.
in the binder course must be between 4 and 6%. Void content of ceramic and redbrick is beyond the specification limit. At this void level, ceramic and redbrick is more susceptible to moisture damage which agrees with the results of the TSR values.
Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) is the voids between aggregate particles in the mixture, including voids filled by bitumen. The higher VMA means more durable mixture, the lower VMA means less durable mixture. As indicated in Fig. 9, ceramic with
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Fig. 8. Percentage of voids.
Fig. 9. Percentage of voids in mineral aggregate.
50% content has the highest VMA than other mixtures. It may be because of high levels of porosity in the surface of ceramic particles. Turkish Highway Construction Specification limit for binder layer is between 13 and 15%. Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFA) is very important design property in the mixture. Too high level of bitumen will bleed under traffic, and too low level means there is no enough bitumen to provide
durability. Turkish Highway Construction Specification determines the VFA limit for binder course between 60 and 75%. As shown in Fig. 10, ceramic’s and red brick’s VFA decrease more sharply by increasing the percentage content. Ceramic and redbrick have the lowest VFA in 50% content. Marble has better results in all percentages of contents than ceramic and redbrick. However, all the materials have lower VFA than the control samples.
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Fig. 10. Percentage of void filled by bitumen.
4.3. Moisture susceptibility test results The indirect tensile strength test results of the asphalt mixtures before and after freeze-thaw cycle are shown in Fig. 11. As delineated in the figure the tensile strength of all mixtures decreased by freeze-thaw cycle, by comparing between the types of waste materials the marble has better results, and by comparing between percentages of contents in the mixture, the 25% have better tensile strength. The 25% marble mixture has the highest indirect tensile strength among all the other asphalt mixtures including the control sample. Fig. 12 shows the Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) values
of the used waste materials after one cycle. 25% marble mixture has the highest TSR value between all the investigated asphalt mixtures, so it may be concluded that the marble mixture has better resistance to moisture damages, Redbrick and ceramic have inferior resistance to moisture damages. 4.4. Cantabro test results The Abrasion Resistance or Cantabro test were conducted to estimate the internal cohesion between the particles. This test is done by subjecting the specimens in Los Angeles drum without
Fig. 11. Indirect tensile strength of asphalt mixtures.
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Fig. 12. TSR values of the asphalt mixtures.
any metal balls. Fig. 13 shows the Cantabro test results for one series of the specimen before exposure to aging and another series of the specimen after exposure to aging. The results show that by comparing the specimens before exposure to aging marble has the minimum mass loss in the 12.5% and ceramic has maximum
with 37.5%. After exposure to aging again marble with 12.5% has the minimum but redbrick with 37.5% has maximum particle loss. However, almost the entire specimen confirms the results of air void content where the mixture with higher wear loss also has higher air void content.
Fig. 13. Mass loss percentage of asphalt mixtures.
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5. Conclusion In this study, usability of various construction wastes were investigated. From the various tests, the following results are drawn. By analyzing and studying asphalt mastic tests results it is concluded that the ceramic asphalt mastic has more the advantage of high and low-temperature properties and limestone has smallest flexible temperature range. In literature, Shaopeng et al. [12] used limestone and red brick powder in asphalt mastic. Obtained results indicated that limestone aggregate showed lower T800 value than the red brick aggregate as in this study. Marble 37.5%, redbrick37.5%, and ceramic 37.5% showed the best Marshall stability results respectively. However, even the minimum value of Marshall stability is greater than technical requirement specified in the Turkish Standard. Tuncan et al. [27] showed in their experimental study that addition of marble powder increased samples stability value by 10% compared to the control specimen. Obtained results from this study supports this conclusion. Flow value indicates the flexibility of the mixture. In this study from the flow value results, it can be concluded flow values were decreased in samples with waste aggregates. Control samples with limestone aggregate showed best flexibility performance. If the waste materials are classified within themselves, marble has the maximum flexibility behavior, and the ceramic has minimum flexibility behavior. The indirect tensile strength test results determined marble has higher indirect tensile strength than redbrick and ceramic. The results obtained from the moisture susceptibility test showed that marble mixture has better resistance to moisture damages. Obtained this result support conclusions obtained from experimental test performed by Nejad et al. [26]. They explained this result by material in marble (SiO2). Taking into account of this result, further research is needed to determine especially for lower rates. Cantabro test results conclude before exposure to aging ceramic has the maximum mass loss and after exposure to aging redbrick has the maximum mass loss. However, between all the studied waste materials marble showed better resistance to abrasion wear than ceramic and redbrick before and after exposure to aging.
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Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Experimental study on usability of various construction wastes as fine aggregate in asphalt mixture Sevil Kofteci ⇑, Mansor Nazary Department of Civil Engineering, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
h i g h l i g h t s Effects of waste materials on performance properties of HMA were evaluated. Waste materials satisfy Marshall mix design specifications. Ceramic could improve the high-low temperature properties of asphalt mastic. Asphalt samples with marble could improve some performance property of HMA.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 16 May 2018 Received in revised form 9 July 2018 Accepted 10 July 2018
Keywords: Recycled aggregate Hot Mix Asphalt Asphalt mastic Ceramic Marble Redbrick
a b s t r a c t In this study, some properties of asphalt mixture containing ceramic, marble and redbrick as recycled waste materials were investigated. Because of the low strength, recycled waste materials were used only as fine aggregate and filler. Various tests including moisture susceptibility, Marshall stability, Cantabro, mechanical composition, mineral composition and physical properties test were conducted. In addition, softening point and penetration properties of asphalt mastic containing the above-recycled waste materials as powder were researched. The results indicated marble mixture exhibited better performance than other mixtures, especially in 25% content. In addition, from asphalt mastic test results, ceramic asphalt mastic showed the superiority of high and low-temperature properties. Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) which is consists of bitumen and aggregate is most commonly used construction materials in road construction. Aggregate is usually obtained from natural resources such as granite and limestone. By increasing economic cost and lack of accessibility to natural aggregates, have opened the opportunity to explore locally available waste materials. Several countries and global institutions have been working to minimize and reuse the produced wastes. By using the suitable waste material in the road construction the pollution and disposal problem will decrease. The use of waste material in road construction becomes an interesting subject for the purpose of green environment and sustainable development. Many investigators have been working to substitute multiple types of waste material such as fly ash [1,2],
⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Kofteci). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.059 0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
ceramic [3–6], marble [7,8], construction and demolition wastes [9–12], redbrick [13–15] and recycled tyre rubber [16] as aggregate as well as filler in Hot Mix Asphalt. Ismail et al. [17] used crushed ceramic tiles as an aggregate from the size of 5.0 mm down included filler. The results of this study indicated that the use of ceramic tile can be potentially used in HMA mixture. Especially they mentioned that physical properties tests for waste ceramics were fulfilled the standard requirements [17]. Akbulut and Gürer researched by replacing marble waste in asphalt pavements, they reported the suitability of marble waste in medium traffic roads as well as in binder course [18]. Karasahin and Terzi used marble dust in the asphalt mixtures as filler material. In the study, Marshall test as well as dynamic deformation tests were performed. End of the study, they reported that marble wastes, which are in the dust form could be used as filler material in asphalt mixtures [19]. Wu, Zhong, and Wang investigated on related properties of asphalt mastic by replacing recycled Red Brick Powder (RBP) and stated positive effects of RBP on high-temperature properties of asphalt mastic [20]. Chen and Lin studied by substituting recycled
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red brick powder as filler and concluded the feasibility of using recycled red brick powder as mineral filler in asphalt mixture [21]. It was proved that these types of recycled waste materials gave acceptable results and can be used in HMA. However, some essential problems still exist to use recycled waste materials in road construction. Antalya is one of the preferred touristic city in Turkey. The city has the fastest population growth in recent years. The immigration increased significantly to this province from other cities, consequently increased construction activity and waste material. According to investigations, it was determined that most of these waste materials are ceramic, marble and redbrick. The aim of present research is to investigate the feasibility of using these waste materials as the fine aggregate as well as filler in HMA. Different waste material contents were used for the preparation of Marshall mixture design specimens. The limestone aggregate was also used as the control in the experimental program. Various laboratory tests including Asphalt mastic tests, Cantabro and moisture susceptibility were conducted to evaluate the related properties of the mixture. In addition, the above issued recycled waste materials also replaced as the powder in asphalt mastic, to evaluate the penetration and softening point of asphalt mastic.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Natural aggregates In the research program, limestone was used as coarse aggregate and obtained from Bog˘açayı quarry, Antalya. Table1 gives the physical properties of the limestone.
2.2. Bitumen To prepare testing specimens, the bitumen used in this study has the penetration grade 50/70 and obtained from Aliaga refinery; Izmir/Turkey. Laboratory tests were performed to know the properties of the bitumen. Bitumen was evaluated in two stages: Before aging and after aging. Aging process was performed with TFOT (Thin Film Oven Test) method at 163 °C. Before aging, penetration, softening point and ductility tests were performed in order to determine the performance of bitumen. According to the test results, it found to be within the acceptable limits. Penetration index was calculated for identifying the temperature sensitivity of bituminous binder. According to the calculated result, it can be said that bitumen used in the study is somewhat susceptible against to the temperature. Flash point test was performed with Cleveland open cup method in order to determine resistance against flammability of the bitumen. The obtained result found to be higher than the minimum specification limit. After the short-term aging process, bitumen determined to be within the specification limits. The results of the conventional bitumen tests are shown in Table 2.
2.3. Waste materials Ceramic, marble and redbrick wastes which were obtained from Antalya city construction sites, used as the fine aggregate as well as filler in this experimental investigation. The chemical and mineral composition of the waste materials were investigated by Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray Diffractometer (XRD). The XRD and XRF results are shown in Table3 and Fig. 1 (a-redbrick, b-marble, c-ceramic) respectively. As indicated in Table 3, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 are the major components of redbrick and ceramic. However, CaO and LOI compose the main percentage of marble. As shown in XRD patterns the main mineral phase of redbrick is muscovite, quartz and sericite. The major mineral parts of ceramic are
Table 2 Experimental results and specification limits related to bitumen. Test
Specification
Results
Specification limits
Penetration (25 °C; 0.1 mm) Softening point (°C) Penetration index (PI) Ductility (25 °C; 5 cm/min) Flash point, °C (Cleveland open cup) Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) (163 °C; 5 h) Change of mass (%) Change of softening point (°C) Retained penetration (%) Specific gravity
TS TS – TS TS
59 51 °C 0.56 >100 295 °C
50–70 46–54 – – 230 (min)
TS EN 12607-2
0.25
0.5 (max)
TS EN 1427 TS EN 1426 TS 1087
3.1 62 1.032
9 (max) 50 (min) –
EN 1426 EN 1427 119 ISO 2592
Table 3 Chemical composition of redbrick, marble and ceramic, % by mass. Component
Redbrick
Marble
Ceramic
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 MnO Cr2O3 SO3 LOI A.Za Total
50.99 21.54 8.8 2.14 6.09 0.81 4.19 1.15 0.13 0.09 0.02 1.1 2.65 – 99.7
1.49 0.42 0.23 0.53 53.3 0.08 0.07 0.06 – – – 0.09 43.53 – 99.95
70.6 18.5 2.20 0.60 1.60 3.60 2.10 0.20 <0.1 <0.1 – – – 0.20 99.6
quartz and mullite, while marble mainly composed of calcite. Both chemical and mineral compositions prove that redbrick and ceramic are more complex than marble. 2.4. Preparation of samples 2.4.1. Preparation of asphalt mastic The asphalt mastic samples were prepared with four type of aggregates (limestone, redbrick, marble, ceramic) and 50/70 penetration bitumen. Aggregates in nearly powder form were sieved with two types of sieve (No 80 and No 200) in order to obtain aggregate with the necessary thinness for the performed experimental study. Waste material and binder ratio was fixed on a ratio of 1:1by weight. After heating bitumen at 160 °C in the laboratory type oven, it was poured into the mixing vessel. Following this, the aggregate was carefully added to the bitumen. Bitumen and aggregate were mixed in the mechanical mixer (IKA RW 20) at 1000 rpm speed for almost 5 min. Finally, performance tests were performed. 2.4.2. Preparation of asphalt mixture The asphalt mixture samples used in the experimental study were prepared for the binder layer course, as per grading limits specified in Turkish Highway Construction Specification 2013. The gradation curves of the mixture design are shown in Fig. 2. In the experimental part of the study, initially, the Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) was determined. Six group of different percentage, from 3% to 5.5%, on the basis of 0.5% increment of bitumen content by weight were prepared. Three speci-
Table 1 Physical properties of limestone. Property
Specification
Corse Aggregate
Fine Aggregate
Specification limits
Specific gravity Water absorption, % Soundness of aggregate by use of magnesium sulfate (%) Flakiness index, (%) Peel strength Los Angeles abrasion %
ASTM C127 TS EN 1097/6 TS EN 1367-2 BS 812 TS EN 12697-11 AASHTO T96
2.64 0.41 12.07 18.14 89.00 27.00
2.71 0.49 – – – –
– 2.5 18 30 60 30
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(a) Redbrick
(b) Marble
(c) Ceramic Fig. 1. XRD patterns of recycled waste aggregates. mens were prepared for each group. Thus 18 test samples were used for a mix design. For each group of samples, the curves of the bulk specific gravity, stability, flow, voids filled with bitumen, voids and voids in mineral aggregate were plotted. From the plotted curves the OBC were determined 4.57%.
In this experimental study, waste materials are added as the fine aggregate (grain diameter less than 4.75 mm). The strengths of the trial samples showed the marble waste can be mixed upto 100% but redbrick and, especially the ceramic waste limited to replace up to 50% by weight. In this investigation, it was decided to
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Here pen is the penetration of asphalt mastic, T is the test temperature (°C), K and Algpen are the coefficients of the linear regression equation. The values of Algpen must be between 0.0015 and 0.06. Regression lines of penetration for studied waste materials are shown in Fig. 3. Penetration Index (PI) is used to evaluate the response of asphalt mastic to the variation of temperature, according to the equation developed by Pfeiffer and Van Doormaal (Eq. (2)) the values of PI ranges from 3 to +10. Based on the values of coefficients of linear regression lines as shown in Table 5. In addition to PI, the values of Equivalent temperature of softening (Eq. (3)), Equivalent temperature of cracking (Eq. (4)) and Flexible temperature range (Eq. (5)) also computed. Softening point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance reaches degree of softening. Ring and ball method was used to obtain values of the softening point of asphalt mastics.
Fig. 2. Grading curves of aggregates and specification limits. replace the above waste materials in the mixture by 12.5%, 25%, 37.5% and 50% by weight, and a total number of (16 5 4) 320 Marshall samples were prepared. In order to prepare samples, aggregates and bitumen were heated at separate ovens from each other. Aggregates were heated at about 165 °C and bitumen was heated at about 150 °C. Then, they were poured into the chamber of the classical laboratory type rotational mixer which has the 7.5-liter capacity. Bitumen and aggregates were mixed for 120 s. During this process, the temperature of the mixture was controlled continuously by using the infrared thermometer. After mixing completed, prepared mixtures were placed in the steel molds and their lower and upper surfaces were compacted by using Marshall compactor. The weights of Natural Aggregate and Weight of Waste Aggregate for different percentages of contents are shown in Table 4.
3.2. Marshall stability
3. Experimental program
Marshall Method was used to test the stability of the asphalt mixture. The mix design was prepared according to the design method of Asphalt Institute MS-2. In this method, cylindrical briquettes formed and the resistance to plastic flow is measured by loading to the lateral sides of samples. The specimens were compacted 75 blows at each side by Marshall drop hammer. The weights of specimens were measured in air and water, the densities determined according to ASTM D2726. Finally, the samples immersed 40 mints, in 60 °C water tank. The specimens tested in Marshall Testing Machine for stability and flow.
3.1. Asphalt mastic
3.3. Moisture susceptibility
Limestone, redbrick, ceramic and marble powder were used in the preparation of Asphalt mastic samples. Penetration and softening point tests were conducted to investigate the related properties of asphalt mastic. Penetration (0.1 mm at 100 g and 5 °C) was conducted at 15, 25 and 40 °C. By plotting the common logarithm of penetration (lgpen) against temperature (T) the linear regression equation (Eq. (1)) is obtained.
Moisture susceptibility value of each sample was calculated by proportioning the indirect tensile stress of conditioned and unconditioned specimens according to AASHTO T-283. In this test, first, the specimens were separated according to specific weights by close to each other and then divided into two triple groups for conditioned and unconditioned. The unconditioned samples immersed in 25 °C water for two hours and broken axially. The preconditioned samples saturated to 70%–80% in a vacuum desiccator and left 16 h in 18 °C. The samples immersed in a 60 °C water tank for 24 h to ensure the damage with the freeze-thaw effect. Finally, the preconditioned specimens immersed in a 25 °C water tank and tested similarly to unconditioned samples. Asphalt mixtures resistance to the freeze-thaw effect of water is expressed by the ratio of the indirect tensile strength of the conditioned samples to unconditioned samples. According to the AASHTO T-283 minimum tensile strength ratio (TSR) is 0.80.
lgpen ¼ K þ Algpen x T PIlgpen ¼
20 500Algpen 1 þ 50Algpen
ð2Þ
lg800 k Algpen
ð3Þ
lg1:2 k Algpen
ð4Þ
3.4. Cantabro
ð5Þ
In the laboratory circumstances, the Cantabro test is conducted to calculate the mass losses of asphalt mixtures. The Cantabro test
T800 ¼ T1:2 ¼
ð1Þ
DT ¼ T800 T1:2
Table 4 Weights of Natural Aggregates (WNA) and Waste Aggregates (WWA) in the mixtures. Sieve diameter (mm)
25.4–19.1 19.1–12.7 12.7–9.52 9.52–4.75 4.75–2 2–0.42 0.42–0.177 0.177–0.075 <0.075
0%
12.50%
25%
37.50%
50%
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
WNA (g)
WWA (g)
237 173 95 169 183 184 43 16 51
– – – – – – – – –
237 173 95 169 160 161 38 14 45
– – – – 23 23 5 2 6
237 173 95 169 137 138 32 12 38
– – – – 46 46 11 4 13
237 173 95 169 115 115 27 10 32
– – – – 68 69 16 6 19
237 173 95 169 92 92 22 8 26
– – – – 91 92 21 8 25
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Fig. 3. Regression lines of penetration.
Table 5 Linear regression equations of penetration. Samples Marble asphalt mastic Limestone asphalt mastic Red Brick asphalt mastic Ceramic asphalt mastic
Linear regression equations lgpen = 0.601 + 0.0444 T lgpen = 0.323 + 0.0495 T lgpen = 0.359 + 0.0452 T lgpen = 0.516 + 0.0403 T
Table 6 Asphalt mastic test results. Correlation coefficients 0.999 0.971 0.962 0.989
is generally used for OGFC (Open-Graded Friction Courses) but in literature, there are some studies which tried for dense-graded mixes [22–24].In the current study, the Cantabro test was applied to two groups of samples. The first group of test specimens consists of Marshall samples which are not exposed to any aging effect. The specimens weighted first and placed directly into the Los Angeles drum machine without the metal balls, and the machine was rotated 300 gyrations with a speed of 30–33 rpm. The weights of each damaged specimen, removed from the machine were measured again, the weight losses were determined as %. The second group of test specimens aged for 7 days in 60 °C inside the oven. The aged samples after waiting at room temperature tested as above, and the percentage of weight loss calculated. 4. Results and discussion 4.1. Asphalt mastic test results As shown in Table 6, ceramic asphalt mastic has the highest T800 and lowest T1.2 values among all other materials, meaning that ceramic asphalt mastic has the advantage of high and lowtemperature properties. Limestone asphalt mastic keeps flexible in a small temperature range as it has the lowest flexible temperature range, DT. As observed from the results of softening point in Fig. 4, ceramic asphalt mastic has the highest softening point which confirms the results obtained from calculation of T800.
Samples
PIlgpen
T800
T1.2
DT
Marble asphalt mastic Limestone asphalt mastic Redbrick asphalt mastic Ceramic asphalt mastic
0.63 1.37 0.8 0.05
51.8 52.12 56.2 59.2
11.75 4.92 6.2 14.4
63.5 57 62.4 73.6
4.2. Marshall stability test results For the present investigation, all the samples were prepared according to optimal bitumen content which was 4.57%. The plotted curves of the bulk specific gravity, stability, flow, voids, voids in mineral aggregate and voids filled with bitumen are shown in Figures from 5 to 10. The outcomes of the figures briefly discussed below. As indicated in the Fig. 5 bulk specific gravity values of the ceramic and redbrick sharply decreased by increasing the percentage of the waste material content. Between the types of waste materials used in this study, marble has the highest unit weight in all percentage of content and ceramic has the lowest one except 12.5%. The Marshall stability test results are shown in Fig. 6, the results show that Marshall stability of all researched waste materials increases with increasing the percentage of contents up to 37.5% and thereafter decrease from this point. Marble with 37.5% have the highest stability and redbrick with 50% has the minimum stability. Turkish Highway Construction Specification specifies stability value should be greater than 750 kg (7.36 kN) in binder course. Although all specimens have greater stability than 750 kg, and among them, marble has the best results in the percentage of contents. Flow value which is an indicator of the plasticity and flexibility properties of asphalt mixtures is the total movement or strain occurring in the sample between no load and maximum load during the stability test [25]. As shown in Fig. 7, marble with 12.5%
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Fig. 4. Softening point test results.
Fig. 5. Bulk specific gravity.
content has the highest and redbrick with 50% content has the lowest flow values. Flow values of all three materials decrease by increasing the percentage of content. The flow value results indicate that the marble has the maximum plasticity behavior, and the ceramic is more brittle. The void is one of the important parameter of the asphalt mixture. As it can be seen in Fig. 8, void content of all three-waste
materials mixture increases by increasing the percentage of the waste material content up to 37.5% and decrease again from this point. The increase of void content in the mixture allows water to flow throughout the mixture and the mixture becomes more permeable to water, and too low air void can lead to flushing by squeezing excess asphalt out of the mixture to the surface. According to Turkish Highway Construction Specification, air void content
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Fig. 6. Marshall Stability.
Fig. 7. Marshall flow values.
in the binder course must be between 4 and 6%. Void content of ceramic and redbrick is beyond the specification limit. At this void level, ceramic and redbrick is more susceptible to moisture damage which agrees with the results of the TSR values.
Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) is the voids between aggregate particles in the mixture, including voids filled by bitumen. The higher VMA means more durable mixture, the lower VMA means less durable mixture. As indicated in Fig. 9, ceramic with
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Fig. 8. Percentage of voids.
Fig. 9. Percentage of voids in mineral aggregate.
50% content has the highest VMA than other mixtures. It may be because of high levels of porosity in the surface of ceramic particles. Turkish Highway Construction Specification limit for binder layer is between 13 and 15%. Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFA) is very important design property in the mixture. Too high level of bitumen will bleed under traffic, and too low level means there is no enough bitumen to provide
durability. Turkish Highway Construction Specification determines the VFA limit for binder course between 60 and 75%. As shown in Fig. 10, ceramic’s and red brick’s VFA decrease more sharply by increasing the percentage content. Ceramic and redbrick have the lowest VFA in 50% content. Marble has better results in all percentages of contents than ceramic and redbrick. However, all the materials have lower VFA than the control samples.
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Fig. 10. Percentage of void filled by bitumen.
4.3. Moisture susceptibility test results The indirect tensile strength test results of the asphalt mixtures before and after freeze-thaw cycle are shown in Fig. 11. As delineated in the figure the tensile strength of all mixtures decreased by freeze-thaw cycle, by comparing between the types of waste materials the marble has better results, and by comparing between percentages of contents in the mixture, the 25% have better tensile strength. The 25% marble mixture has the highest indirect tensile strength among all the other asphalt mixtures including the control sample. Fig. 12 shows the Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) values
of the used waste materials after one cycle. 25% marble mixture has the highest TSR value between all the investigated asphalt mixtures, so it may be concluded that the marble mixture has better resistance to moisture damages, Redbrick and ceramic have inferior resistance to moisture damages. 4.4. Cantabro test results The Abrasion Resistance or Cantabro test were conducted to estimate the internal cohesion between the particles. This test is done by subjecting the specimens in Los Angeles drum without
Fig. 11. Indirect tensile strength of asphalt mixtures.
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Fig. 12. TSR values of the asphalt mixtures.
any metal balls. Fig. 13 shows the Cantabro test results for one series of the specimen before exposure to aging and another series of the specimen after exposure to aging. The results show that by comparing the specimens before exposure to aging marble has the minimum mass loss in the 12.5% and ceramic has maximum
with 37.5%. After exposure to aging again marble with 12.5% has the minimum but redbrick with 37.5% has maximum particle loss. However, almost the entire specimen confirms the results of air void content where the mixture with higher wear loss also has higher air void content.
Fig. 13. Mass loss percentage of asphalt mixtures.
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5. Conclusion In this study, usability of various construction wastes were investigated. From the various tests, the following results are drawn. By analyzing and studying asphalt mastic tests results it is concluded that the ceramic asphalt mastic has more the advantage of high and low-temperature properties and limestone has smallest flexible temperature range. In literature, Shaopeng et al. [12] used limestone and red brick powder in asphalt mastic. Obtained results indicated that limestone aggregate showed lower T800 value than the red brick aggregate as in this study. Marble 37.5%, redbrick37.5%, and ceramic 37.5% showed the best Marshall stability results respectively. However, even the minimum value of Marshall stability is greater than technical requirement specified in the Turkish Standard. Tuncan et al. [27] showed in their experimental study that addition of marble powder increased samples stability value by 10% compared to the control specimen. Obtained results from this study supports this conclusion. Flow value indicates the flexibility of the mixture. In this study from the flow value results, it can be concluded flow values were decreased in samples with waste aggregates. Control samples with limestone aggregate showed best flexibility performance. If the waste materials are classified within themselves, marble has the maximum flexibility behavior, and the ceramic has minimum flexibility behavior. The indirect tensile strength test results determined marble has higher indirect tensile strength than redbrick and ceramic. The results obtained from the moisture susceptibility test showed that marble mixture has better resistance to moisture damages. Obtained this result support conclusions obtained from experimental test performed by Nejad et al. [26]. They explained this result by material in marble (SiO2). Taking into account of this result, further research is needed to determine especially for lower rates. Cantabro test results conclude before exposure to aging ceramic has the maximum mass loss and after exposure to aging redbrick has the maximum mass loss. However, between all the studied waste materials marble showed better resistance to abrasion wear than ceramic and redbrick before and after exposure to aging.
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