Exploitation, management and conservation of marine resources: the context of the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve (Moluccas, Indonesia)

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Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 97-122, 1996 ~) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Northern Ireland. All rights reserved S0964-5691 (96)00025-7 0964-5691/96515.00+0-00

ELSEVIER

Exploitation, management and conservation of marine resources: the context of the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve (Moluccas, Indonesia) G e r a r d Persoon,a Hans de I o n g h ~ & B o b W e n n o b "Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, PO Box 9518, 2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands bpusat Studi Lingkungan, Universitas Pattimura, Ambon, Indonesia (Received 13 September 1993; accepted 5 February 1996)

ABSTRACT The establishment of the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve (eastern Indonesia) is a new element in the traditional and present day use and management of the marine resources in the area. This article discusses the exploitation of that environment by different groups, including local peopi'e as well as various kinds of outsiders who are attracted to the extremely rich marine resources, including pearl oysters, sharks, turtles and shrimps. This poses particular problems for the actual implementation of the reserve, which is basically established for the conservation of the turtles and the dugongs. The conditions for the successful implementation are treated, paying particular attention to the role of the local population. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. INTRODUCTION

In 1991 tile Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve in eastern Indonesia was added to the list of protected marine national parks of that country. It covers some 114 000 ha of island ecosystems in the southeastern part of the Aru archipelago. The reserve includes the important turtle beaches on the islands of Enu, Karang and Jeh, but covers few habitats suitable for dugong, since the nearby waters are deep and turbulent. The marine park is situated close to the Pulau Baun Nature Reserve, which covers 55 000 ha of virgin and secondary forest area (lowland rainforest, fresh water swamp forest and mangroves). Both reserves form an important link in a system of protected areas with a variety of ecosystems and vulnerable 97

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areas of the Moluccan region. In all reports it is stressed that the conservation of the marine resources in the area is not only of local or provincial importance. The Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve if properly managed, would rank among the major conservation areas for marine turtles in the world. In addition to that it is recommended to consider additional protected areas in east Aru with a high value for the conservation of non-commercial species such as dugongs (Dugong dugon or sea cow) and commercial species (shrimps, prawn, pearl oyster, sea cucumber, etc.), which contribute to the safeguarding of dependent fisheries (Ref. 1). In this article we want to discuss the establishment of the marine reserve and adjacent coastal areas in southeast Aru not only in a context of traditional and local forms of exploitation and management, but also looking at modern, large-scale and commercial exploitation and management of the marine resources by outside forces. As such the establishment of the reserve is overruling traditional and long established claims and uses through state intervention, and it limits the exploitation of the area both by locals as well as outsiders by excluding part of the area from further exploitation. We want to look into the chances and possibilities of successful conservation of the marine biological diversity of this area. We will analyze the suitability of the present reserve and adjacent coastal areas, to preserve the range of marine habitats and species in the area. Attention will be paid to traditional forms of marine resource management in relation to the establishment of the reserve and the future of the protected areas within the present sociocultural, ecological and economic context of the region.

2. T H E A R E A

2.1. Physical characteristics The Aru Islands, one of the most remote areas of Indonesia, are located in the eastern part of the Maluku Province at approximately 6°S and 134°30'W (Fig. 1). The main land mass consists of six islands (Kola, Wokam, Kobroor, Maikoor, Koba and Trangan) which fit closely together and measure approximately 180 km from north to south and 80 km from east to west at the maximum width. Many smaller islands border this

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Fig. 1. Location of the Aru Islands. coherent group, especially at its eastern coastline. The total land mass is approximately 8000 km 2. The islands are located on the Sahul shelf, a broad submerged part of the Australian continental shelf. The flooding of the shelf occurred during the post-Pleistocene ice age following the melting of ice caps. The islands are built up of neogene and quartenary marls and limestones, and calcareous and non calcareous sandstones. Weathering and slight erosion of the marine limestone and marl sediments have carved a flat/undulating to rolling ~Lopography with some hilly areas. The highest point is about 90

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m above sea level, but most of the islands are very flat. The islands are dissected and separated from each other by a n u m b e r of deep channels (locally called rivers or sungai) running from east to west in the northern part and northwest to southeast in the southern part. In the south, in the sandstone area, a straight cliff, averaging 20-30 m high, stretches along the coast. The islands are dominated by limestone of different hardness, marls and sandstones. Rainwater easily infiltrates the limestone sediments and is discharged through internal drains to the sea. Rivers as such do not occur in these areas, only very small streams ending in the estuarine areas. In the sandstone areas rainwater infiltrates easily and here one also finds very small streams. Climatic data from the islands are limited. Rainfall averages 2100-3000 m m per annum with peaks in D e c e m b e r - J a n u a r y and April-May. Rainfall is higher in the northern part of the islands and supports dense evergreen forests. The drier south (rainfall estimated to be 1650-1950 mm) is characterized by wood and grassland savannah, similar to that of southern Tanimbar. Temperature averages 26.7°C in the north and 27.1°C in the south. Wind and sea conditions are important in assessing transport problems in the area and in determining the contribution wind will make to reducing stratification. The vegetation of A r u is very interesting from a botanical point of view because it is a meeting point of western-based (southeast Asia, west Malesia) elements and eastern-based elements (Australia and the Pacific). The northern islands are mainly covered with rainforest while the island of Trangan in the south has a savannah vegetation with 'islands' of rainforest. Extensive mangrove forests are to be found along the channels and the smaller islands. 2

2.2. Human population

The total population of A r u was estimated at more than 54 000 people in 1991 (40 553 in 1980). Apart from the concentrations at D o b o and Benjina the population is spread out in approximately 125 small villages over the islands. Settlements vary in size from 50 to well over 1000 inhabitants, with Dobo being an exceptional case with over 10 000 inhabitants. The majority of villages are located along the coast line or along the riverine channels. They are all built as relatively dense settlements. Land use can be characterized as rain fed upland agriculture based on regular shifting of production field. It is mainly for subsistence purposes. There is little

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external input except from labour generated at the family level. Farmers cultivate their land for 2-5 years after clearing and burning the primary forest. Food crops grown are cassava, maize, rice, chili, beans and vegetables. Occasionally coconuts and coffee trees are planted after the food crop cycle. Livestock holding is limited to chickens and some pigs. Cash crops are generally not cultivated due to the problems and costs of transporting the harvest to outside markets. Fishing and the hunting of deer and pig provide regular protein. Pearl shells, sea cucumbers and seaweed (Agar agar) are collected and sold. Dugongs are hunted for their meat, teeth (cigarette holders) and tears (aphrodisiacs). Cockatoos, parrots and wallabies are hunted and sold alive to merchants in Dobo and passing traders. Feathers of birds of paradise, and deer meat are exported in limited quantities. In general the life expectancy of the people is low and infant mortality is high. Malaria is common, and hookworm and tuberculosis are endemic, resulting in a low work capacity for the adults. Contrary to pre-war decades and in particular the second half of last century, there has been very little ethnographic or anthropological research published about Aru in recent times. No major works nor articles on particular subjects have appeared on this region for quite some time. 3 Most of the data presented here were gathered during field work in 1990, 1991, 1993, and 1994. 4 The islands of the Aru archipelago constitute one administrative subdistrict (kecamatan) within the district (kabupaten) of Maluku Tenggara in the province of the Moluccas. The main village on Aru is Dobo, which is the centre of the local government as well as the main commercial centre. From this village all imports and exports take place, except from the larger commercial firms engaged in the pearl industry and fisheries--.they have their own means of transport and facilities. Though Dobo comprises something like 10 000 inhabitants, this harbour village is ethnically an interesting mixture of many different groups. Besides the Arunese numerous Chinese, Buginese and Butonese traders and fishermen have settled in this village. In governmental services one can also find people from Ambon, the Kei Islands as well as Javanese. Some Papuas from Irian Jaya have also found their way to Dobo, they are mainly employed as labourers. From the variety of ships, both traditional and modern, present in the harbour of Dobo one can easily get an impression of the importance of the waters around Aru. There are numerous ships fully equipped for pearl and oyster diving, besides shark boats and trawlers operating with powerful engines. However, there are also many colourful traditional sailing vessels from different ethnic groups like the Butonese and

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Madurese, which have their homelands in Sulawesi and the island of Madura, close to Java. These boats are equipped for fishing and hunting in the coastal waters. All these fishermen are attracted to the extremely rich exploitable marine environment. In former times more people inhabited the interior of the islands, but through colonial, missionary and other activities most of these inland villages have now been abandoned. In the past the inland people were looked upon as really primitive people, or cannibals, mainly because of the limited contacts with the outside world and because of their lack of material possessions and 'wild appearance'. They were called the Alfurs. The majority of the people are protestant and belong to the Moluccan Protestant Church (GPM--Gereja Protestan Maluku), though recently also another Semarang-based protestant church has gained adherents on the islands. A number of villages belong to the Islamic religion brought to Aru by the Buginese and Butonese sailors and traders. It was only in 1977 when the Indonesian government forced the last 'pagan' people to choose a proper, official religion if they wanted to participate in the national elections, that about 3000 people embraced Catholicism. Needless to say, fragments of the old traditions and beliefs are still to be found on the islands even though they are no longer referred to as religion or beliefs (agama or kepercayaan) but now fall under the concept of local customs (adat) in order to avoid ambiguities with the official ideas about religion and paganism. (In the census data the old religion is often referred to as Buddhism or Hinduism, however, this was most probably an 'invention' for administrative purposes.) To mention just one example, every year before the diving season of the west monsoon period starts, the people make a symbolic payment on white plates to the spirits of the sea for the pearl oysters that they are about to collect. This very important ceremony or ritual is referred to as 'adat' in order not to embarrass the religious leaders. A number of geographical sites also are considered as holy places and are treated with particular respect (e.g. the rocks near Batu Goyang at the extreme end of the island of Trangan). As a result of the external influences, the main distinction in Arunese culture is no longer between inland and coastal people; almost all villages are located along the coast. Most villages are dominated by ethnic Arunese people with one or two Chinese traders or shopkeepers. Buginese and Butonese migrants have become dominant inhabitants in a number of villages. Through their religion (Islam), their enterprising activities and their trade networks, they have influenced their Arunese co-villagers in many ways. The 'traditional' material culture of almost all

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Arunese has largely been replaced by m o d e r n products or imported designs. Villages do not greatly differ from one another with respect to the economic activities. Basically they live on the same kind of marine and land resources with some variation according to local circumstances and personal preferences. It is only with regard to the production of a number of artifacts that a particular village may have obtained a certain degree of specialisation. Boat construction, basketry and pottery are among these specialisations. Linguistically it is interesting to note that Hughes distinguishes twelve languages within the A r u language family based on a lexico-statistic analysis? These kinds of differences are also reflected in other cultural domains, but they are internal variations within the Arunese culture. 3. E X P L O I T A T I O N OF T H E E N V I R O N M E N T

3.1. Present exploitation The exploitation of the environment on Aru is basically of an extractive nature. The villagers are primarily fishermen but they are also engaged in hunting and gathering. There is little shifting agriculture in addition to these activities. In particular, the hunting of terrestrial mammals like deer and pigs is stimulated by the growing of crops. It allows for the so-called garden hunting with the use of snares and holes, and also with spears and bows and arrows. The animals are attracted to the crops on the fields, which makes hunting relatively easy. Deer were introduced on the island around 1850 by the Dutch and the animals have greatly increased in numbers. The islanders' staple food, however, is starch obtained from the sago palm (of which both planted as well as wild stands occur on the islands). The kind of subsistence activities, as well as the activities aimed at the generation of cash income, heavily depend on the time of the year. During the east m o n s o o n ( M a y - N o v e m b e r ) no diving or fishing is possible and the people are engaged in hunting and snaring wild animals like pigs, deer, walibis and various species of birds. During this period they might also build up a certain stock of sago starch. During the west monsoon, when the sea i,; much calmer and the visibility in the water much better, the majority of the m e n are to be found out at sea either diving or fishing. The w o m e n may either continue the work at the fields or go out fishing themselves. Young m e n of about 16 years join the adult men in their daily

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activities. The younger boys and girls may either stay at home, work at the field or do some fishing close to the village. The only activity which is not clearly seasonally bound is the production of copra, which takes place throughout the year. Extensive stands of coconut palms are to be found along the coastline and provide the local population with a permanent source of income.

3.2. Fishing and hunting at sea

A great variety of fishing techniques is being employed in the waters around Aru. The fisheries sector in the Aru archipelago can be divided into two major subsectors: the traditional and the modern. Traditionally local people employ fishing nets, while hand lines with hooks are used for smaller kinds of fish. However, they are also familiar with other fishing gear such as gillnets, cast nests, fish traps (tidal and non tidal) and beach seines. Spears are used for hunting larger fish and turtles while the harpoon (adassa) is used for the dugong. Incidentally, the people also catch crocodile. For their operations at sea the people employ both dug-outs, with or without a sail, and outriggers as well as the elegant sailing boats, the belang, renowned for their solid construction and craftsmanship. Most of the fish acquired are used for own consumption, however, when in abundance the fish can be dried and sold to the Chinese middlemen. To a certain extent this traditional form of fishery is still to be found on Aru, but in addition to the activities aimed at self-sufficiency, there is also an export oriented fishery sector on the island. This sector in particular has gained tremendous importance in recent times, but it has its roots way back in history. It is focused on a variety of marine animals of which pearl oysters, sharks, prawns, rays and turtles are the most important, in addition to catching all kinds of smaller fish. The dugong is no longer an important game animal due to overexploitation. The animals mentioned will be treated here separately.

3.2.1. Pearl oysters and sea cucumbers For many centuries Aru has been known as a pearl oyster producing area. Not only local or regional traders but also foreign traders are involved in this business. Already in colonial periods the Dutch had agreements with the Japanese and Australians for the trade in pearls (oyster). The foreign interest in the pearl oyster has remained unchanged. Up to the present

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moment joint Indonesian, Chinese and Japanese firms dominate the pearl oyster industries, of which there are at least 30 in operation on Aru. Two diving methods are applied in Aru: the traditional skin-diving without any equipment other than self made glasses (this method is also called bernang polos or skin-diving) and the modern method applying an oxygen bottle carried on the diver's back allowing for great freedom of movement, prolonged diving time and collecting of oysters in much deeper waters. The diving-ball method, which was still in use in the mid-1970s:, is no longer practised on Aru. Skin-diving is carried out from small canoes or sailing boats, which are either privately or commonly owned. The catch is sold to local Chinese middlemen or directly to the pearl oyster firms at relatively standardized prices. Scuba-diving for pearl oysters is generally a local Chinese owned and managed enterprise. A Chinese, usually from Dobo, owns the boat and all the equipment on it (up to 10 or 15 bottles, compressors etc.) and also provides the divers with food and cigarettes while they are out at sea. Catches are immediately registered in name and according to size-class as soon as they are put in the hands of one of the employees. Depending on the diving site, boats may either return to one of the villages for the night or stay out at sea close to one of the smaller uninhabited islands. If they decide to do the latter, the divers might go out looking for turtles or turtles eggs on the beaches or do some night fishing. Boats may stay out at sea for two or three weeks. Around 100-150 boats equipped for diving are operating in the area, most of them owned by Dobo-based Chinese, but some are owned by people from Kei, Ambon, Ujung Pandang or other places. None however, are owned or managed by a native Arunese. This method of exploitation of the pearl oyster in large, fully equipped teams of divers was introduced in the mid-1970s and is still expanding. On the beaches around Dobo numerous boats are under construction which will be used for this purpose. 6 Various products can be obtained from pearl oysters. Wild pearls of good quallity are seldom found. Most of the pearl oysters are sold through Chinese middlemen to Japanese/Indonesian firms for pearl cultivation. Mother-of-pearl is also used for a variety of luxury items, such as cigarette boxes, spoons, bracelets and works of art. In September 1992, an unknown disease started to strike the pearl oysters. The traders and companies became reluctant to buy the oysters and the people lost their main source of income. The coastal communities had to look for another source of income--they largely shifted to the collection of sea cucumbers, which used to be second choice but has now become a year-round, intensive activity. This activity has to make up for the loss of income

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because of the pearl oyster disease and as a result people no longer practise seasonal harvest restrictions and they collect not only adult individuals but any sea cucumber they can get. A fast depletion of this resource seems unavoidable at this stage. 3.2.2. Sharkfishing Though shark fins have been an export article from A r u for centuries, it has recently grown into a very important business around the islands. A few hundred boats are engaged in this activity and they are run by Chinese and other business men. The boats operate in the Arafura Sea between A r u and Irian Jaya and also towards (and sometimes within) the Australian waters. These boats are usually rather small (up to 30/50 G R T ) with limited facilities on board. They may stay out at sea for about one or two weeks before they return to Aru. In addition to these ships, registered under Indonesian ownership there are also much larger vessels owned by Taiwanese. In 1987 there were at least 66 mostly Taiwan sponsored vessels up to 900 G R T operating in the waters around Aru. For shark fishing the so-called 'Taiwan nets' are used (with a stretched mesh size of 25 or 30 cm). The fish are sought for their fins and tail, and the rest of the animal is not used. Therefore, after pulling the fish aboard, killing it in case it is still alive, the tail and fins are cut off while the remaining part of the body is often thrown back into the sea. The meat is only occasionally considered worth drying for future consumption, since costs of transportation to the markets of Java are too high. On the roof of the boat the tails and fins are dried. In A r u the drying process is finished and the tails and fins are sorted out according to species, size class and quality. They are weighed and packed for shipping to Surabaya, from where they are exported to Singapore, Hongkong, Taipeh and Japan. A full grown shark (4-5 m in length) may yield about 3 or even 4 kg of dried tail/fins. Prices at A r u vary according to size and shark species. White shark tails/fins may yield Rp 95 000 kg -1,7 and black shark tails/fins could yield Rp 75 000 kg -1. The crew members of the ship (10-13 men, who may come from A r u as well as from other parts of the Moluccas or even other provinces) receive a low basic salary but get additional payment for every fairly big sized shark they catch. In this way they fetch a very substantial income, when compared to other jobs on the island. The actual catch figures were not available but judging from the n u m b e r of boats engaged in shark fishing, from the n u m b e r of shark boats under construction in other places and from the stocks of shark fins and tails drying in the street or packed in storage houses in Dobo, it must still be a very rewarding activity.

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Local fishermen, operating close to the coastline and using traditional canoes or sailing boats, may also catch smaller sized sharks in their nets. Sometimes they use the meat for consumption and sell the tails and fins to the Chine,;e shopkeeper/trader. Due to the lack of reliable catch figures and the size of the shark population in general, it is hard to give an exact indication of the level of (un)sustainability of the present level of exploitation. However, it is beyond doubt that shark fishing as practised at the moment is a wasteful activity and that the populations have been overexploited in recent times. 3.2.3. Prawn fishing and fishmeal production At the moment there is one prawn processing unit in the archipelago--P. T. Daya Guna Samudera (PT DGS) at Benjina. It is a joint Indonesian/Malaysian cooperation, with some Thai, Australian and Singaporian experts. The main target, prawns, are considered abundant here and are caught by trawling boats up to 200 tons GRT. Trash fish is partly thrown b~tck into the sea and partly processed as fish meal for domestic use at the factory at Benjina. The trawlers take ice on board at Benjina and may ~stay out at sea for a few weeks. At Benjina with a total work force of 800 people, the prawns are processed and deeply frozen until they are exported to Japan and Taiwan. The P. T. Daya Guna Samudera is said to export about 50 000 kg of prawns and 150 000 kg of fish meal each month. In addition to this still rather small scale trawling, big fleets of fully equipped boats exploit the Arafura Sea. These boats, owned by joint ventures and sailing under Indonesian, Japanese, Australian or Thai flags, roam around searching for prawns, especially at night. Processing is done on board and these boats never come ashore in Aru. They operate directly from Ambon, the capital of the province. Catch figures were not available at Dobo but it is beyond doubt that in the long run this way of exploiting the Arafura Sea must be detrimental to the fish population in the area and it must also have a negative impact on the catches for the local population. 3.2.4. Turdes Aru probably used to harbour the biggest green turtle (Chelonia mydas) population in Indonesia. The density around the islands of Enu and Karang was traditionally extraordinarily high. A clear downward movement is noticed in the number of nesting turtles nowadays. In 1980 at Enu an average of 50-100 green turtles came nesting every night. 8 In 1989, through the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and

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Natural Resources (IUCN) supported Marine Turtle Conservation and Management Programme, Schulz and Soemantri reported 30 nests per night at Enu and Karang together, while in 1991 Soemantri reported 14 nests per night at Enu and Karang. 9 There does not seem to be any specific nesting season apart from the fluctuations according to the tides. Due to the limited accessibility of the islands, meat and eggs had no real commercial value and were mostly consumed locally. Moreover, the human population density is relatively low and the Moslems do not consume turtle meat. Probably due to these facts, Compost 8 stated that he observed no signs of decline of the green turtle populations and he had no reason to believe that egg collection and hunting as practised by the local people represented a danger to the green turtle population in this area. He observed, however, indications of a coming disturbance of the balance between yield and natural reproduction. Motor boats in search of pearl oysters or fishing with nets in the surrounding areas, have taken more and more to the habit of visiting the turtle islands and loading live turtles and eggs--as many as their boats can hold--usually before returning to Dobo. In 1980, 32 motor boats were operating from Aru and this number has increased tremendously in recent years. The rapidly decreasing numbers of turtles must largely be attributed to the catching of turtles for export to Bali. In Bali there is a large market for turtles as turtle meat is very much sought for ritual celebrations. 1° Due to the depletion of turtle populations around Bali and neighbouring islands, Aru has now become one of the locations where turtle hunters are active. Local Arunese are not involved in this business, this trade is fully in the hands of Butonese and Buginese sailors and traders. They catch the animals in nets set out in front of the nesting beaches or they catch the animals once they have come ashore to lay their eggs. They store the animals in pens made of mangrove poles until they have caught a ship load (up to 200 animals). Then they leave for Bali where they are landed at Tanjung Benoa at Nusa Dua Peninsula. The fisheries service in Bali estimated that in Bali at least 20 000 turtles are slaughtered on the island yearly, which is way beyond the official limit of 5000.11'12 It is beyond doubt that a large proportion of these animals are caught on the Arunese turtle islands or in the surrounding waters. The Butonese and Buginese sailors obtain the right to catch the animals from the local population (village heads), who claim traditional territorial rights (petuanan) over the turtle islands. These sailors/hunters pay in kind or in cash before they start collecting the turtles. Village heads still allow the animals to be collected in spite of the fact that this takes place inside the reserve area and in spite of the fact that most turtle species are officially protected.

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3.2.5. Dugongs The first extensive account of dugong exploitation dating from 1979/1980 is based ola the survey by Compost s. He estimated that between 550 and 1000 dugong were caught yearly in eight areas (not covering the entire archipelago). They were caught either by hunting purposely for them or by catching t h e m with the so-called Taiwan nets, set out for sharks. Compost's estimates are based on interviews with the local fishermen, Chinese traders and crew members of fishing boats. During our survey we tried to get evidence of the present occurrence and hunting pressure of the dugong by interviewing the local people, as well as ethnic strangers such as Chinese middlemen, and Keiese and Butonese fishermen. During the trips out at sea and along the coast we also looked for evidence of the occurrence and hunting intensity of the dugong. Comparing Compost's results with our findings one decade later it is beyond doubt that the population of dugongs around A r u has very dramatically decreased. It is very hard to obtain exact numbers of dugong catches from the villagers. Ambiguous words like 'many', 'few' and 'a long time ago' are often used in discussions without a c o n c r e t e point of reference. It is very difficult to reveal the actual facts behind these terms. Without exception, however, all villagers agreed that herds of dugongs (of more than two or three) are not encountered any more, the introduction of powerful motor boats has scared the animals off--they no longer approach ~Lheseagrass fields near the coast during daytime. Very few people go out hunting for the dugong with the traditional harpoon (ardassa) nowadays, as the chances of catching an animal are very small. Other activities yield more income. All catches that were reported to us were said to have taken place with the aid of fishing nets, set out for sharks or turtles. 13 Though all informants of the study area in east Aru are aware of the basic facts with regards to the physical requirements of the dugong, most of t h e m refused to accept the possibility of extinction due to the disturbance and hunting pressure in the coastal waters. They tend to believe that the animal is capable of hiding in safer places, even though the people know that the dugongs live off seagrass, which is not to be found in deeper waters and that they have to breath every few minutes. To us it seemed an example of true or simulated local environmental ignorance, a blind spot across the boundaries of their knowledge or willingness to know (see e.g. Johannes, Ref. 41). The exploitation of the marine resources has rapidly increased during the last two decades. The original abundance of resources has attracted many out:siders who did not recognise the traditional rights of tenure of

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the local population. Due to these encroaching outsiders, but also due to technological innovations, changes in the religion and increasing incorporation in the market economy, the extractive nature of the exploitation has led to serious depletion of marine resources. The relevant socioeconomic and political context in which the depletion on Aru takes place has changed enormously. At present it is dominated by highly capitalized international ventures covered by protective institutional linkages with the central authorities. The strength of the trade networks in marine resources, the depletion power of Chinese culinary culture and the political acceptance of the Balinese ritual argument for turtle slaughter all contribute to the exploitation of the marine natural wealth around Aru. It is largely because of this rapid rate of depletion, which started only recently, that the need for protection emerged.

4. T H E R E S E R V E : HISTORY, B O U N D A R I E S A N D P R E S E N T STATUS The history of the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve dates back to the late 1970s, when first reports were written about the fast depletion of the resources. In particular, reference was made to the decline of the dugong population and the pressure on the various turtle species. Starting from 1980 a number of reports have been written about various aspects of the reserve. Compost made a strong plea for a reserve area in 1980 based on a field survey during which he noticed a drastic decline in marine and coastal wildlife (dugong, crocodiles and turtles). The study was made on behalf of the Yayasan Indonesia Hijau, the Green Indonesia Foundation, a Jakartabased environmental organisation. He proposed a marine reserve in the southeast corner of the Aru Islands, which could be connected with the nature reserve on the island of Baun, with its threatened population of birds of paradise. Compost's study s was the first to document in recent times the existence of the rich marine resources and in particular to point out the largest population of dugong in Indonesia. At the same time, however, he had to record the pressure put on this animal through overkilling, either on purpose (for meat and tusks) or accidentally by catching the animals in the nets set out for the sharks. Large scale prawn and shark fishing were the main threats to both dugong and turtle populations. The area which he selected for a proposed reserve would not only include the nesting sites of the turtles but would also include the largest dugong population in the

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area and their seagrass fields. In addition to that, the reserve would also have contained within its boundaries the rich water bird fauna. The report does not deal with possible conflicts with the local population once the restrictions connected with the establishment of the reserve would be imposed upon them. Under t]ae United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) National Park Development Project a study was made for a proposal of the reserve which would cover an area of approximately 250 000 ha. ~4 The area covered a variety of marine and coastal ecosystems. Mangroves (about 10000 ha) are found in fringes along the coast of the bigger, and on some of the smaller, islands. The intertidal mangrove swamps form important breeding and feeding grounds for many commercially exploited fish and shrimp species. Seagrass beds (about 40 000 ha) on sandy bottoms throughout the area are the important feeding grounds for the dugong and several species of marine turtles. Coral reefs (about 45000 ha) contain an enormous diversity of fish species. A shallow shelf area (about 145 000 ha) with water depths up to 18 m consists of a sandy and muddy bottom often covered with seaweed. The total land mass within the originally proposed marine park, however, covers about 10 000 ha and consists of nine bigger islands (more than 100 ha) and dozens of smaller ones. The report makes particular mention of the relevance of the park for the dugong population, the sea turtle species (four species) and the crocodiles (two species). There are about 15 villages along the boundaries of the reserve, with 5500 inhabitants. Because of the dependence of the people on the marine resources it was suggested that the people would be compensated for the loss of income from hunting and fishing. Alternative sources of income such as seaweed farming and agriculture should be generated or stimulated. During the IUCN National Parks Symposium in Bali in 1982 the Indonesian delegation announced the early establishment of the 250 000 ha southeast Aru Reserve. The area was identified as suitable for long-term development as a national park or equivalent status. Regarding the development needs of that area the following classification was given: protection (low); recreation (low); research (moderate) and buffer zones (low). Regarding the processing of its protection status it was stated as 'partially processed' (see Sumardja et al., p. 223~5). However, it would still take years of preparation (and continued exploitation of the area) before less than half of that area would be declared a marine reserve. In 1985 an Indonesian team made an extensive field survey. Their report provides information on the status of the turtle islands Jeh, Mar, Karang and the Pulau Baun Nature Reserve. In 1989 another team of the

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Indonesian D e p a r t m e n t for Nature Conservation went to the proposed reserve area for additional information. The report which came out of this survey provides information on the flora and fauna of the area, in particular of the islands of Enu, Jeh and Mar. It also took a closer look at the boundaries of the proposed reserve in relation to the local population. In the recommendations a reduced reserve surface of 102500 ha was proposed. 39 In her report on marine conservation (in Section 6.2) Rili Djohani gives a n u m b e r of suggestions for effective implementation of m a n a g e m e n t of the A r u Reserve. 16 She is opposed to a strict nature marine r e s e r v e - according to her opinion the area should be managed and zoned for multiple use: controlled commercial harvest, tourist development, and strict protection of critical areas and traditional use zones for local fishermen. Schulz 1 also gives a n u m b e r of m a n a g e m e n t recommendations. He suggests that the area should be managed as a multiple use reserve (Kawasan Konservasi). In the meantime, various maps were drawn of the proposed reserve. Different kinds of arguments were used for the boundaries of the reserve: in some cases the ecological habitat requirements prevailed, but then corrections were made in order not to put too much pressure on the local communities surrounding the reserve. In the proposals it was r e c o m m e n d e d that the transport facilities of the park staff would be improved immediately and that there should be a very good coordination and cooperation with all institutions involved regarding the exploitation of marine resources in the waters around Aru. The proposal was approved upon by the head of the district (bupati) in Tual (Kei Islands) and forwarded to the governor in A m b o n . With t h e governor's recommendation the proposal was sent to the headquarters of the Indonesian D e p a r t m e n t for Nature Conservation and finally the A r u Tenggara Marine Reserve was gazetted in early 1991, covering an area of 114 000 ha ~v (Fig. 2). The reserve was added to the list of Marine National Parks in Indonesia. It should be mentioned here that the original A r u Tenggara Marine Reserve, as proposed by Smiet and Siallagan 18 covered 250 000 ha of a large variety of habitats including seagrass fields, m u d flats and coral reefs, and formed a link between the turtle islands of Enu, Jeh, Mar, Karang and the Pulau Baun Nature Reserve. The present boundaries of the Marine Park covering only 114 000 ha is restricted to the turtle islands of Enu, Jeli, Mar and Karang and surrounding waters, which are relatively deep and turbulent and include no suitable feeding and breeding habitat for dugongs and crocodiles. So far, relatively little attention has been paid to the actual

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management of the park. Officially the management of the marine reserve falls under the responsibility of the Department for Nature Conservation (PHPA), which is part of the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry. The provincial office of this department in Ambon is supervising and coordinating the management activities through its staff at the district (kabupaten) and sub-district (kecamatan) level. The national head office and finally the Minister of Forestry have to approve the management plans and allocate funds for this kind of reserve, but it is at the lower levels that day-to-day decisions are being taken. So far, a number of initiatives have been taken to actually implement the new status of the area. They have largely come not from within the Department of Nature Conservation itself, but from two support projects, though both of them have worked through the Nature Conservation Department. The first is the IUCN Marine Turtle Project which was aimed at the study and protection of the turtle populations in southeast Aru. Through its activities and mostly because of its energetic staff, this project has contributed to the actual protection of the turtles. It has also provided boats and other facilities to the local field officials to allow them to perform their duties. Illegal turtle holding pens were destroyed and information on boats involved in hunting or transporting turtles was passed on to the authorities in charge. In 1993, however, the project came to an end. 19 The second project which has supported the Department of Nature Conservation was the Environmental Programme Moluccas. 2° This programme aimed, among other things, to contribute to initiating coastal zone management plans. Southeast Aru was one of the focal areas for the conservation and sustainable use of coastal natural resources. Apart from scientific research and manpower development, this programme has also provided material support and it has implemented an awareness and education programme for community-based management on southeast A r u . 2~'22 This project came to an end in December 1994. At the present moment, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Jakarta has designed a programme and allocated a budget for Aru and some other international organisations have expressed their interest to get involved in the conservation and development of this area. In the long run, however, it will be mainly the provincial and local staff of the Department of Nature Conservation who will be in charge of implementing the reserve regulations. Whether or not this will be effective will depend on the one hand on the moral and material support they will get from within their own organisation (PHPA), that is from the offices of the Nature Conservation Department in Jakarta, Ambon and Tual. The local administration and the police could certainly contribute to that end,

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however, on the other hand it will also d e p e n d on whether the other groups of actors can be convinced, persuaded or forced to live up to the new status of the marine resources in southeast Aru. Although involvement and participation of the local people have been m e n t i o n e d several times in the report, little thought is given to the actual implementation of these ideas. In the latest proposal and, therefore, also in the final agreement there is no more mention of compensation for the loss of fishing and hunting grounds for the local people or of the stimulation of alternative sources of income. Also, the concept of a traditional use zone with particular allowable forms of exploitation is no longer being mentioned.

5. C O N D I T I O N S F O R S U C C E S S F U L I M P L E M E N T A T I O N As the actual and detailed m a n a g e m e n t plan of the reserve and the surrounding area still have to be written, there are various options regarding the aims and implementation methods of the reserve theoretically, ranging from a strict nature reserve as one extreme to the restoration of traditional forms of m a n a g e m e n t in the area as the opposite extreme. A plan based on different zonations could form an intermediate solution. First of all we will refer to the 'traditional forms' of management. In his excellent article on traditional marine reserves, Polunin states that he could not find any reference to forms of m a n a g e m e n t on Aru. 23 This is surprising as in the Moluccas the institution of 'sasi' is or was widespread. 24,z5 In general terms sasi refers to the practices and institutions related to the periodic prohibition on the harvesting of specified domesticated and non-domesticated land resources. These prohibitions refer to l~lnd as well as sea resources. 26 U p o n closer reading of the old literature on Aru, reference is made to the m a n a g e m e n t of marine resources, conflicts of ownership and established ways of dispute settlement .27 Certain clusters of villages constitute a kind of adat community which controls the natural resources, both marine and terrestrial. This system is also referred to as sasi. Through communal decision and based on tradition (of which modernised versions are also kept) the villagers have access to particular resources during certain periods of the year. The regulations traditionally referred not only to the timing of the fishing and hunting season, but also to the types of gear and fishing techniques that could be used, as well as to the boundaries between areas over which these adat communities exercised jurisdiction. This community-managed

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marine territory is called petuanan. During the closed period they are not allowed to hunt, to fish or to collect pearl oysters. For pearl diving, for instance, a particular ritual should be performed first by the community before the people of the village are allowed to go to the sea. These rights of exploitation are vested with the local community and are to be respected by outsiders. This is particularly relevant if people from another village-cluster or ethnic strangers and outsiders wish to penetrate the area to hunt or to fish. The villages belonging to such a sasi-unit should come to an agreement and decide on the amount of compensation to be paid and on its division between the villages and the families within the villages. Quite regularly disputes between the villages within such a cluster arise over the division of the payments obtained in this way. The question which Polunin raises in his article (Do traditional 'reserves' conserve?) is also relevant in the case of Aru. Do these forms of management and tenure restrict the exploitation and are the ideas on which these forms are based relevant for maintaining a kind of ecological balance? Is this sasi-system, for instance, to be considered as a conservation method or not? Polunin is in general quite clear about his answer to the question he has posed. He feels that traditional forms of marine tenure do not exist for the sake of maintaining such a balance and that they come into existence for a variety of reasons of which most refer to a process to limit access to resources in order to gain and not to conserve. 23 Within the context of the management options of the planned reserve, sasi has been mentioned as a key to local support for the idea of a marine park. However, sasi, as has convincingly been argued by Von BendaBeckmann 26 is not a contextless institution of which only one idealized aspect, that is the limitations it puts on resource utilization, can be taken without attention to its cultural-religious, economic and sociopolitical aspects. It should not be equated with a 'traditional marine conservation ethic' (see Polunin, p. 11328). Sasi as a traditional institution has undergone great changes due to the christianization of the area, the penetration of many different groups exploiting the marine resources without respect to the local forms of management and the imposed governmental structure. As a result of that local people have also changed their ways of exploiting the environment. Reference to sasi as a way to limit or even periodically prohibit the use of natural resources is bound to be unsuccessful within the context of the reserve if no attention is being paid to the changes that have taken place in recent times. 29 Based on experiences in southeast Asia, Australia and the Melanesian Pacific, Polunin warns against the romanticized view that traditional tenure systems can also regulate resource extraction in modern times and that the local people can be entrusted with protected-area management if

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there is no sound understanding of the present context of the people and the ecologJLcal requirements. 2~ However, apart from the idea of m a n a g e m e n t based on traditional systems of tenure there are other options. One is a strictly managed reserve area (cagar alam) without exploitation by whatever group of people: that is a nature reserve in the strict sense of the word. At the m o m e n t this is the status of the A r u Tenggara Marine Reserve. The nearby PulLau Baun Reserve with its populations of birds of paradise and cockatoos has the status of a game reserve. Observing the dramatic decrease of nesting turtles during the past years, this seems at present a necessary measure in order to allow the turtle populations to recover from depletion. This status, however, rules out traditional use. A reserve like this needs very strict implementation and maintenance of the rules. It not only requi:res devoted, incorruptible staff and sufficient means of transport to execute the permanent monitoring, but also a clear demarcation of the boundarie~ and a severe and consequent prosecution of trespassers in order to c o m m a n d compliance with the regulations. The recent demolition of the turtle pens in the village Krei at Solea island and of the village Longarapara at Kelapa Island, both within the reserve boundaries, is in line with tlais option. Within these pens turtles were stored for shipment to Bali where there were going to be slaughtered for Balinese 'ritual' ceremonies. It is stressed that the village-headmen of Krei and Longarapara both claim traditional rights over the turtle islands because these islands fall under their community-managed marine territority (petuanan) (Fig. 2). Based on recognition of these rights they used to receive money or imported goods from each ship visiting their area. These revenues have become illegal through the establishment of the reserve, which makes local villagers feel unhappy with the situation because they feel they, more than others, suffer from the reserve. As yet there are no adequate compensation measures taken. Unless something is done about these issues maintenance of the reserve regulations will be a very difficult job. Compliance with the rules by the local people will be hard to obtain, because they feel injustice is done to them through the establishment of the reserve while more powerful groups exploiting the marine resources (like shrimp trawlers and shark boats) can practically continue their operations undisturbed. Efforts to find a way out of these sorts of conflicts have been made in a n u m b e r of cases. Trying to combine local interests with the aims of nature conservation has resulted in some cases in rather successful communitybased marine and coastal reserves. Based on experiences in other parts of the world and in particular in southeast Asia, a n u m b e r of authors have

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proposed guidelines for the establishment and management of this kind of reserve or protected area. 3°-32 Recently there has been a growing literature emerging about interesting experiments with various kinds of comanagement and community-based management. 33'34 This seems a very promising direction, trying to avoid previous mistakes made in top-down planning while paying sufficient attention to local people's needs without losing sight of supra-local interests or of nature for its own, non-unitarian value. At this moment the situation on Aru seems too complicated for such an option in the short term, although it is certainly a promising direction to head for. The situation in southeast Aru is complicated mainly because of the large number of interest groups, some of which are being backed up by central authorities, and because of the rather fragmented and weak village structure. At the present moment the local communities themselves are not able to withstand the pressures from outside to protect the resources which fall under their petuanan. We feel, however, that the local people should be given adequate compensation for the loss of natural resources that is imposed upon them by the establishment of the reserve. Compensation measures could be in the field of agriculture, local infrastructure such as drinking water, schools and other community facilities, and income generating or income substituting activities, such as seaweed farming (Eucheuma and Gracilaria), pearl oyster farming, Trochus farming and the establishment of a giant clam hatchery, even though the latter requires substantial technological knowledge, equipment and infrastructure. The problem with seaweed is the low prices they fetch in the world market. Maybe other options provide better alternatives. Instead of just overruling the local communities and taking away their responsibilities towards resource management, efforts should be geared towards strengthening and backing up the communities in facing encroaching outsiders and towards comanagement of the resources in urgent need of protection. A legal framework should be developed and maintained to protect the interests of the local populations. This framework should be based on principles of sustainable use, once it had been assured that threatened populations of turtles and other animals have sufficiently recovered from depletion in recent times. It would require good cooperation and coordination between various governmental agencies in order to ensure mutual enforcement of the implemented activities in the areas. It also seems reasonable to establish a number of zones around the islands in which particular and quantified activities by qualified persons or villagers could be allowed. Experiences elsewhere have proven that such approaches can be successful if they are planned carefully, devoting sufficient time to the involvement of the relevant interest groups and if they are

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i m p l e m e n t e d according to the ideas and principles set out in a carefully designed m a n a g e m e n t plan. A r u will remain a fascinating example to follow in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors w o u l d like to thank H e n k Blaauw and Marc van der Wal of the E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o g r a m m e M a l u k u for their support during this research. T h e y are also indebted to the staff m e m b e r s of the E n v i r o n m e n tal Study ,Centre of Universitas Pattimura ( A m b o n ) for their assistance. T w o a n o n y m o u s reviewers m a d e useful c o m m e n t s and suggestions to an earlier version of this article.

REFERENCES 1. Schulz, J., Report on Observations on Sea Turtles in East Indonesia (with Notes on Nature Conservation in General). IUCN, Geneva, 1989. 2. Van Balgooy, M. M. J., Aru islands: Preliminary Survey of the Land Flora. Leiden, Rijksherbarium, 1993. 3. The only known exception to this is the work of Patricia Speyer, a Dutch American anthropologist whose work will be published shortly. See Speyer, P., The Memory of Trade: Circulation, Autochthony and the Past in the Aru Islands (Eastern Indonesia). University of Chicago (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation), 1992. 4. The authors were members of a team involved in a project entitled 'Monitoring, management and conservation of populations of dugong and their habitat in Aru, Indonesia'. This project is a cooperation between Pattimura University (Ambon, Moluccas), the foundation Aid Environment (Amsterdam) and the Centre of Environmental Science at Leiden University (Netherlands). The project is financed by the European Community. The field work by the authors took place in relatively short periods from three to six weeks. Apart from their own data, the authors have also made use of internal project documents and field reports of other researchers to which references are made in the text. 5. Hughes, J., The languages of Kei, Tanimbar and Aru: a lexico-statistic classification. Nusa, 27 (1987) 71-110. 6. As a consequence of insufficient instruction and training there are many accidents in diving activities: the men make too many dives a day, they dive too deep and they do not make decompression stops. In a recent report by the provincial health department, great concern was expressed about the physical condition of the generally young divers who are prepared to take great risks because of the money they can earn from collecting the pearl oysters. 7. At the time of the field research in 1993 U S $ 1 was equivalent to Rp 1850.

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8. Compost, A., Pilot Survey of Exploitation of Dugong and Sea Turtle in the Aru Islands. Yayasan Indonesia Hijau, Jakarta, 1980. 9. Soemantri, A., Laporan Kemajuan Proyek Marine Turtle Conservation and Management Programme for the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve, Aru Islands (Internal Report). PHPA, Maluku, 1991, pp. 27. 10. Due to international action, turtle steak no longer prevails on the menu list of the numerous restaurants aimed at the tourists. 11. Jakarta Post, Turtle Slaughter, 5 August 1994. 12. A couple of years ago the governor of Bali successfully convinced the Ministry of Forestry, who is also in charge of nature conservation, that turtles should not be totally protected--an exception should be made for the ceremonial use of turtles, closely connected to Bali-Hindu rituals. It was agreed that the Balinese could slaughter up to 5000 animals a year. Up to now, however, there is little if any effective control of the Balinese market for turtle meat. No records are being kept and turtle meat is available from local traders at market prices which are competitive with other kinds of meat. Recently, religious leaders in Bali have admitted that they would not need more than about 3000 turtles per year. See Jakarta Post (1994) op. cit. 13. It is interesting to note that a similar sharp decline in dugong catches during 1977-1982 was reported for the Western Province of Papua New Guinea by Hudson: Hudson, B. E. T., Dugongs--traditional harvesting and conservation. In: Endangered Species: Social, Scientific, Economic and Legal Aspects in Australia and the South Pacific, ed. S. Burgin. Total Environmental Centre, Sydney, 1986, pp. 188-205. According to the author, the decline was mainly caused by the introduction of nets for barramundi fishing and the fact that the rapidity of change from traditional hunting to the use of advanced fishing methods was phenomenal. As a result of declining catches, in 1982 a ban on the sale of dugong meat was instituted. 14. Smiet, F. & Siallagan, T., Proposal for the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve in the Aru Archipelago, Maluku, Indonesia. U N D P / P A O , Bogor, 1981. 15. Sumardja, E. A., Harsono & MacKinnon. J., Indonesia's network of protected areas. In: National Parks, Conservation, and Development. The role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society, ed. J. A. McNeeley & K. R. Miller. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 1984, pp. 214-223. 16. Djohani, R., Marine Conservation Development in Indonesia. Coral Reef Policy. Recommendations and Project Concepts for the Implementation of Management of Marine Protected Area in Indonesia. WWF, Jakarta, 1989. 17. Decree by the Minister of Forestry, No. 72/Kpts-II]1991, 4 February 1991. 18. Smiet and Siallagan, 1981, op. cit. 19. Schulz, J., Marine Turtle Conservation and Management Programme for the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve, Maluku (Indonesia) (Final Report). IUCN, Jakarta, 1993. 20. A European Union funded project for cooperation between the Environmental Study Centre of Pattimura University in Ambon, the Amsterdam-based foundation Aid Environment and the Centre of Environmental Science of Leiden University (The Netherlands). 21. Moosa, M. K., de Iongh, H. H., Blaauw, H. J. A. & Norimarna, M. K. J., Coastal Zone Management of Small Island Ecosystems. Universitas Pattimura, Ambon, 1993. 22. Hitipeuw, C., Raymakers, C., Ruhunlela, V. S., Putra, K. S., Lefmanut, J. &

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24. 25.

26.

27.

28.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

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van de!r Wal, M., Awareness and Education Programme for a Communitybased Management of the Marine Resources in Southeast Aru Strict Nature Reserve. Universitas Pattimura, Ambon, WWF, Jakarta and Aid Environment, Amsterdam, 1994. Poluni~, N. V. C., Do traditional marine 'reserves' conserve? A view of Indonesian and New Guinea evidence. In: Maritime Institutions in the Western Pacific, ed. K. Ruddle & R. Akimichi. Senri Ethnological Studies No. 17.. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, 1984, pp. 267-283. Zerner., C., Through a Green Lens: Constructing Customary Environmental Law and Community in Indonesia's Maluku Islands. Paper presented at the AAS meeting, 25 March 1994, Boston, 1994. Zerner, C., Transforming customary law and coastal management practices in the 1V[aluku Islands, Indonesia, 1870-1992. In: Natural Connections. Perspectives in Community-based Conservation, ed. D. Western et al. Island Press, 'Washington DC, 1994, pp. 80-113. Von Benda-Beckmann, F., Brouwer, K. & Brouwer, A., Changing Indigenous Environmental Law in the Central Moluccas: Communal Regulation and Privatisation of Sasi. Paper presented to the 1992 Congress of the Commission on Folk Law and Legal Pluralism, Wellington, New Zealand, 27-30 August, 1992. See foz instance Hoevell, G. W. & van Baron, W. C., De Aroe-Eilanden, geographisch, ethnographisch en commercieel. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indi~, 33 (1890) 57-101; and Ribbe, C., Die Aru Inseln. In: Festschrifi zur Jubelfeier des 25 Jiihrigen Bestehens des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden. Dresden, 1888, pp. 153-203. Polunin, N. V. C., Delimiting nature: regulated area management in the coastal[ zone of Malesia. In: Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation, ed. P. C. West & S. R. Brechin. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, 1991, pp. 107-113. In a number of interesting publications Charles Zerner has developed this theme for the Moluccan area in general (Refs 24 and 25, op. cit.). White, A. T., Marine reserves: how effective as management strategies for Philippine, Indonesian and Malaysian coral reef environments? Ocean Management, 10 (1986) 137-159. White, A. T., The effect of community-managed marine reserves in the Philippines on their associated coral reef fish populations. Asian Fisheries Science, 2 (1988) 27-41. White, A. T., Comparison of coastal resources planning and management in the ASEAN countries. In: Proceedings of Sixth Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management. Charleston, SC, 1989. Kemf, E. (ed.) The Law of the Mother. Protecting Indigenous Peoples in Protected Areas. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, 1993 Western, D., Wright, R. M. & Strum, S. (ed.), Natural Connections. Perspectives in Community-based Conservation. Island Press, Washington DC, 1994. Bailey, C. & Zerner, C., Role of Traditional Fisheries Resource Management SysterA~s for Sustainable Resource Utilization. Paper presented at: Forum Perikanan II (18-21 June 1991), Sukabumi, 1991. Bosscher, C., Statistieke aantekeningen omtrent de Aroe-Eilanden. In: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indi~ deel H, 1854, pp. 337-378.

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37. D. G., Aroe-eilanden. Tijdschrifi van de Vereniging van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen, 3 (1904) 130-133. 38. De Iongh, H. H. & Persoon, G., Dugong Management and Conservation Project, Final Report. Aid Environment, Amsterdam, 1991, pp. 42. 39. Departemen Kehutanan, Laporan Survai Calon Taman Laut Aru, Kecamatan Pulau-pulau Aru. Departemen Kehutanan PHPA, Ambon, 1989. 40. Gijlstra, M. & Philipsen, P., Guidelines for Developing a Coastal Zone Management Plan for Southeast Aru. Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden, 1995. 41. Johannes, R. E., Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania and their demise. Annual Review of Ecological Systems, 9 (1978) 349-364.