Exporting professional courses: cultural and educational implications

\ PERGAMON

—HIGHER— EDUCATION —POLICY— Higher Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

Exporting professional courses] cultural and educational implications Valerie J[ MacKinnon School of Nursin`\ Victoria University of Technolo`y\ Melbourne\ Australia

Abstract Since the introduction of the Overseas Student Program "OSP# in 0874\ courses have been {marketed|\ often quite aggressively\ by Australian universities[ In most cases\ overseas students have responded by coming to Australia[ The cultural implications of the OSP are evaluated using a hypothetical case*Hong Kong Registered Nurses undertaking a post!graduate Public Health Nursing program in a higher education institution to prepare them for work with Vietnamese people in Hong Kong|s refugee camps[ The evaluation is based on an application of Dunn|s jurisprudential metaphor and transactional model of argument to a consideration of the contextual and cultural issues which arise from an examination of the impact of the course[ It was concluded that the course would not be appropriate[ Moreover\ arguments developed from the hypothetical case were found to be generalisable to the export of other professional courses\ and the relevance of many o}erings were questioned[ Þ 0887 International Association of Universities[ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

0[ Introduction Since the introduction\ in 0874\ of the Overseas Student Program "OSP# in Australia\ higher education courses have been {marketed|\ often aggressively\ by Australian universities[ As a result\ many overseas full!fee paying students have come to Australia to study in existing programs[ There have been few analyses of the impact of the full! fee paying aspect of the Overseas Student Program and in this study the cultural implications of the Overseas Student Program were evaluated\ using a hypothetical case] Hong Kong Registered Nurses "RNs# undertaking a post graduate public health nursing course in an Australian university in preparation for work with Vietnamese people in Hong Kong|s refugee camps[ It also served as a {critical case|\ a lens through which the broader implications of the policy might be viewed[ William Dunn|s "0871# jurisprudence metaphor and transactional model of argu! 9841Ð7622:87:,08[99 Þ 0887 International Association of Universities[ Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved PII] S 9 8 4 1 Ð 7 6 2 2 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 1 0 Ð X

201

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

ment are used to examine the hypothetical case and through this\ the Overseas Student Program[ The analysis commenced with an interpretation of the relevant educational policy contexts of Australia and Hong Kong\ the putative {purchaser| of the edu! cational services[ It was supported by an examination of three pertinent contexts associated with this hypothetical case] that of the refugees\ comparative education issues\ and the experiences of overseas students studying in Australia[ If full!fee paying courses were to be viable in this educational climate\ Australian universities need to address the di.culties experienced by overseas students\ including the relevance of the course o}erings to the students and future employers[ Failure to do so could have serious implications for Australian universities and Australia|s relations in the Asia:Paci_c region[

1[ Dunn|s jurisprudence metaphor for social research Dunn "0871# argued that the aim of the applied social sciences was to investigate concepts and procedures used to argue and settle practical claims[ Social science\ he suggested\ might therefore be described as {generalised jurisprudence| or {jur! isprudence writ large| "Dunn\ 0871#[ Argumentation is a social process where all data or evidence was symbolically mediated^ knowledge was no longer regarded as being based on {deductive certainty or empirical correspondence but on the relative adequacy of knowledge claims which are embodied in an ongoing social process| "Dunn\ 0871^ 292Ð293#[ In developing the {transactional model|\ Dunn "0871# drew on the distinction between analytic and substantive argument made by Toulmin and Habermas to point out that\ for substantive argument to be properly characterised\ required a further series of steps to the classical syllogism which models the process of analytic argument[ The transactional model\ described by Toulmin "0847#\ contains six elements[ They are data "D#\ claim "C#\ warrant "W#\ backing "B#\ rebuttal "R# and quali_er "Q#[ The _rst three are those of the classical syllogism\ where the data element is the minor premise\ and the warrant is the major premise and the claim is the conclusion[ The second three elements take the model from the domain of formal logic to the domain of substantive social discourse[ The backing consists of additional supporting material which can be added when the status of the warrant is in doubt[ The rebuttal\ which can be used both prospectively and retrospectively\ speci_es the conditions under which the adequacy and:or relevance of the claim can be contested\ and the quali_er speci_es the degree of strength with which the claim can be made "{de_nitely|\ {very probably|\ etc[#[ Within the framework of the development of a set of general {threats to useable knowledge| Dunn "0871# illustrated the form of the transactional model of argument and the nature of the six elements\ using as an example the data from a widely known quasi!experimental analysis of road tra.c fatalities[ In this example the data were known\ and the rebuttals were a series of threats to the internal validity of the claim[ In the case of the Commonwealth Government|s Overseas Student Program\ which was\ in a sense\ being put to empirical test through a variety of implementations\ no

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

202

data were available which could o}er a critical test of the policy[ As an alternative strategy\ the transactional model of argument was used to formalise an evaluation of the policy by examining the possibility of developing a graduate course in public health nursing for RNs from Hong Kong[ In this adaptation of Dunn|s "0871# model\ the data element "D# of the model was taken to be represented by the _t between the proposed initiative in post!graduate nurse education and the guide!lines for the Overseas Student Program[ This _t encour! aged the claim "C# that the hypothetical program would be a worthwhile innovation[ The Warrant "W# for the claim was the rationale for the policy itself\ based speci_cally on the recommendations of the reports which were the antecedents of the policy[ These three elements made up a syllogism of the form] {A course in public health nursing for RNs from Hong Kong is consistent with the Commonwealth Govern! ment|s policy on Full!Fee Paying Overseas Students "D#[| This policy is a good policy in that it will continue to provide an avenue for Australian universities to contribute to development aid priorities while enabling a measure of entrepreneurship\ cost recovery and\ possibly\ pro_t "W#[ Hence the course in public health nursing for Hong Kong RNs would be a worthwhile innovation "C#[ As the purpose of this analysis was to develop a critique of the policy through the investigation of a salient hypothetical case\ the rebuttal "R# of the transactional model of argument constituted a critical element[ It formed the avenue through which the worth of the claim\ and thereby the worth of the warrant\ could be challenged[ Rebuttals to the claim that the hypothetical course would be a worthwhile innovation took the form] {"But# the cultural context "in the refugee camps# where the Hong Kong public health RNs will be employed at the completion of the course cannot be adequately known by the Australian academic sta} teaching in the course|\ or "BUT# {the prior educational experiences of the Hong Kong RNs suggest that they will encounter di.culties in adjustment to the teaching styles of Australian academic sta}|[ A strong series of rebuttals such as these would lead to a quali_er "Q# of less force for the particular case and\ if analysis of the case could be generalised with con_dence to a critical evaluation of the warrant^ the policy and supporting rationale of the Overseas Student Program[

2[ Educational policy contexts 2[0[ The overseas student pro`ram Australia moved to a {hard headed cost:bene_t| "Wagner + Schnitzer\ 0880] 173# market oriented approach in dealing with overseas students in the mid 0879s following the release of Reports issued by three important Commonwealth Government Com! mittees] the Goldring Report "Committee of Review of the Private Overseas Student Policy\ 0873#\ set up to examine the di.culties of administering the existing overseas student program and distributional implications of the existing policy^ the Jackson Report "Report of the Committee to Review the Australian Overseas Aid Program\

203

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

0873#^ and an Australian Government mission sent to South East Asia and Hong Kong in 0874 to survey the potential education export market "Department of Trade\ 0874#[ The Overseas Student Program represented one aspect of Australia|s inter! national education program along with schemes for fully sponsored and subsidised students "Lim\ 0878#[ The Overseas Student Program was based on the assumptions that as Australia possessed high quality educational facilities\ its development would establish close and e}ective relations with countries in the region\ and that income would augment Australia|s educational capabilities "Commonwealth Department of Education\ 0875#[ Subsequently\ the Commonwealth government introduced further measures to enable tertiary institutions to mount programs for fee!paying overseas students based on {full cost recovery| "Lim\ 0878#[ As an immediate result of the policy\ the number of overseas students coming to Australia increased dramatically and in 0884 there were some 41\999 students studying in the higher education sector "Department of Employment Education and Training\ 0884#[ Some of the most coherent and consistent early criticisms of the Overseas Student Program came from the unions and the press[ The academic unions were concerned in large part with protecting the rights and working conditions of academics and with entry levels which could lead to declining standards "Australian Council of Trade Unions\ 0877^ Submission\ 0877^ McCulloch and Nicholls\ 0875^ Nicholls\ 0876#[ Also of concern were the quality of courses o}ered to overseas students "Australian Council of Trade Unions\ 0877#[ In response to such concerns\ Kennedy "0884^ 33# advocated a {curriculum guarantee| to maintain standards across the higher education sector[ She decried the replacement of the traditional {liberal democratic| values of Australia by the economic imperative associated with its internationalisation "p[ 33#[ 3[ Hong Kong as a {purchaser| of Australian educational services Australian post graduate public health nursing courses could be viewed as having immediate {market potential| in Hong Kong[ The Colony provided hospital!based pre!registration programs but relied on Commonwealth countries for post!regis! tration:post graduate programs "Nursing in the World Editorial Committee\ 0877# "although such courses are now being o}ered in the colony#[ It is widely acknowledged that for their role in the public health nursing sphere\ RNs need to acquire skills for working with aggregates of people and in a preventive rather than curative mode "Kegan and Kent\ 0881# because as noted by Chrisman "0871] 012# the focus of pre! registration nursing courses is on {learning the knowledge and techniques of bedside care|[ 4[ The three policy contexts 4[0[ The public health nursin` context in Hon` Kon` The living conditions of Vietnamese refugees\ who arrived in large numbers in Hong Kong from 0864 to 0877\ have been described as overcrowded and unhygienic "Delo!

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

204

che\ 0889^ Grandjean\ 0874^ Kumin\ 0878#[ Despite an ongoing program to repatriate Vietnamese refugees\ they posed a considerable public health challenge for Hong Kong authorities over the years since their arrival in the Colony "Kumin\ 0877#\ since health needs of the refugees are markedly di}erent from those of the Hong Kong population as a whole[ At a minimum\ the refugees need public health services that are attuned to the physical\ psychological and social problems su}ered as a result of war\ escape and internment "Mollica\ 0876^ Westmeyer\ 0876^ Nutman\ Ottesen\ + Sackosen\ 0876^ Veer\ 0881#[ To be e}ective\ however\ service providers should be cognisant also of the social\ cultural and political diversity of the Vietnamese refugees "Bell + Whiteford\ 0876#[ The di.culties Hong Kong authorities faced in addressing these complex public health needs are considerable[ However\ if a Western university were to provide public health nursing educational services to Hong Kong\ the likelihood of course content failing to address the refugees| health needs would appear to be high[ 4[1[ Education in a cross!cultural perspective Although the West has had a signi_cant impact on education in colonised countries "Altbach\ 0878^ Faraj\ 0877^ Watson\ 0872# such as Hong Kong\ the in~uence is not universal in its application or relevance[ Selvaratnam "0876# claimed that {Western intellectual imperialism| has helped to deter the growth of indigenous scholarship\ supplanting local knowledge with Western scienti_c approaches[ 4[2[ Different academic and epistemolo`ical traditions While Western philosophy and technology have in~uenced the academic traditions in Asian universities "Masemann\ 0889# and education more generally\ they frequently combined elements of more than one culture "Altbach\ 0878b^ Faraj\ 0877# due to social\ historical\ cultural and political factors "Purakam\ 0868#[ Asian universities have been described as {hybrids| "Altbach\ 0878b#[ As nurse training in Hong Kong was in~uenced by British models\ it\ too\ could be described as a hybrid\ perhaps leading to the students having di}erent entry levels from their Australian counterparts[ Importantly\ there are di}erent learning and writing styles employed by students from di}erent epistemological traditions[ While Western universities prize analysis and critical thinking based on individualistic\ egalitarian and scienti_c viewpoints combined with sparse communication styles\ Asian students have been found to communicate holistically and indirectly "Fox\ 0881\ 0883# based on an interdependent view of the self "Markus\ 0880#[ An added dimension to the notion of cognition is that of {imperial| variables*the acquisition of a second language as a vehicle for learning[ 4[3[ Knowled`e transfer and relevance The Western educational knowledge base\ transplanted out of its context\ also needs to be examined[ Altbach "0878a# wrote that {knowledge transfer| raised important

205

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

questions\ noting that Western higher education institutions\ with few exceptions\ had not modi_ed formal curricula "the means of transmitting knowledge to students# leaving overseas students to make the appropriate translations themselves[ Gi}ord "0877# has shown that Australian public health programs are not exempt from such criticisms[ Moreover\ many young professionals from non!western countries faced additional di.culties associated with hierarchical and bureaucratic in~exibility\ preventing the graduates from using the training and skills they had acquired abroad "Chopra\ 0875^ Benavot\ 0878#[ In the case of Hong Kong RNs\ it might prove di.cult to implement interventions learned in Australia\ for example strategies aimed at empowering their clients\ a modus operandi advocated by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees for workers in the refugee camps "Zozlowski\ 0874#[ 4[4[ Teachin` and learnin` In Hong Kong courses\ teaching styles and learning are widely acknowledged as being di}erent in Western settings "Armstrong\ 0873^ Biggs\ 0883^ Ladany\ 0879^ Kalantzis\ 0882^ Mackey\ 0872#[ Ho "quoted in Biggs\ 0883# noted that countries based on {Confucian!heritage| cultures such as Hong Kong\ while being heterogenous\ have a number of similar classroom conditions which are frequently interpreted in the West as not being conducive to deep learning[ Examples include Ginsberg|s "0881# analogy of the {student as tape recorder| and Masemann|s "0889# assertion that many women from non!western societies are {content dependent thinkers|[ Biggs "0883# challenged a number of Western assumptions about classroom practices in Hong Kong schools\ especially the notion that students rely heavily on repetition learning strategies\ which are often mistakenly seen as rote learning by Westerners[ 4[5[ Overseas student experiences in Australia Some aspects of the {adjustment problems| of foreign students in Australia have been reasonably well documented "Altbach\ 0878a^ Ballard\ 0871\ 0876^ Bradley and Bradley\ 0873^ Nicholls\ 0878^ Samuelowicz\ 0876#[ The literature illustrates that adjustment from an oriental to an occidental world can be particularly di.cult "Ballard\ 0876# especially in issues related to time\ etiquette\ education and family "Mackey\ 0872] 86#[ An outcome of these di.culties has been captured in the term {culture shock|\ which can be a serious and often unrecognised barrier to adjustment and the successful completion of a course of study[ A neglected area of study relates to the particular problems experienced by female overseas students[ A study in the United Kingdom reported by Nicholls "0878# highlighted di.culties associated with loneliness\ isolation\ homesickness and societal attitudes that were {more outward and permissive| than those in the students| country of origin[ 4[6[ Student services and adjustment problems Australian researchers working in student services have argued that overseas students demonstrated a di}erent usage pattern from Australian students\ presumably because

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

206

they are unused to seeking help outside the family "Burns\ 0880#[ They frequently sought assistance with accommodation\ the local bureaucracy\ diet!related illness\ academic English\ and learning and study skills "Burke\ 0874^ Ballard\ 0876#[ When students sought assistance for conditions such as sleeplessness\ tiredness and tension headaches they wanted quick\ simple answers "Ballard\ 0876# rather than interventions based on Western theories of personality[ 4[7[ Lan`ua`e dif_culties Language is an obvious di.culty for many overseas students\ although there is a tendency for both sta} and students to see it as an explanation for a variety of other problems "Ballard\ 0877^ Samuelowicz\ 0876#[ Moreover\ language di.culties were often exaggerated because lecturers presupposed a background knowledge on the part of overseas students of Australian history\ current events and colloquialisms "McKnight\ 0883#[ Cummins "0868# has noted the di}erence between the everyday conversational skills required by students and the more sophisticated language required for their studies[ He noted that the former skills were relatively easy to achieve\ as everyday social language required a lower level of cognitive performance than academic discourse\ while the latter were considerably more di.cult[ In other words\ the academic context drew upon a di}erent language code\ which in turn determined the process of trans! mission[ 4[8[ Academic dif_culties Overseas students require more orientation to Australian universities than is routinely provided "Meggit\ 0884#[ They have di.culties adjusting to academic study require! ments[ As a result they have higher overall levels of stress than local students "Burns\ 0880#[ More {democratic| classroom environments where students were not expected to be particularly deferential to teachers presented problems for both students and their teachers "Ballard\ 0876#[ Academics are particularly concerned about overseas students plagiarising assign! ments "Bush\ Cadman\ DeLacey\ 0885# yet research by Samuelowicz "0876# has shown how di.cult it is for overseas students to develop complex ideas and arguments in a foreign language[ Research to date has shown that a number of strategies are useful in assisting overseas students] course materials should be presented visually and slowly with repeated explanation\ particularly initially^ more handouts should be provided than for local students "Ballard\ 0876#^ as well as graded self!instructional materials and on!going evaluation "Bradley and Bradley\ 0873#[ Students also have been shown to respond positively to participating in small group discussions because they broad! ened {their own viewpoints| prior to essay writing "Volet and Renshaw\ 0884] 329#[ 5[ Discussion of the hypothetical case Hong Kong\ long dependent on Western countries such as Australia for educational services\ responded positively to the Australian government|s Overseas Student

207

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

Program\ noting that Australian courses enjoyed a good reputation in the Colony[ The Overseas Student Program has been subjected to some analysis to date\ but to date there has been no cultural critique of the policy[ In this paper\ an analysis which was speci_cally focused on the cultural aspects of implementing the Overseas Student Program has been developed within the framework of Dunn|s "0871# transactional model of argument[ From the perspective of Dunn|s "0871# framework\ criticisms about declining stan! dards resulting from the introduction of the Overseas Student Program are directed towards the major premise "warrant# of the policy and its backing "B#[ In order to develop a full argument\ however\ the policy must be considered in the contexts of the actual courses that are o}ered and might be o}ered and the countries in which they will be marketed[ When a graduate course was considered "in the light of the policy# where Hong Kong RNs were planning to work with Vietnamese refugees\ it was found to be congruent with the policy objectives and thus\ in this sense\ its marketing in Hong Kong could be said to be warranted[ However\ when the further steps in the transactional model of argument were invoked and a series of rebuttals "R# to the conclusion "C# that the course would be a worthwhile innovation were considered\ broad questions about the cultural appropriateness of the courses were raised[ 5[0[ The rebuttals The rebuttals to the conclusion that the proposed public health nursing course would be a worthwhile innovation are derived from the analyses which dealt with contextual issues[ Rebuttals derived from the conclusions can be categorised under two headings] the educational context "of the graduate course# and the relevance of the proposed knowledge transfer[ 5[1[ The educational context Overseas students face many hardships studying in Australia because of the di.culties experienced living and studying in a strange context\ relationships with teachers\ entry levels that may not be comparable[ Familiarity with di}erent styles of learning\ academic and epistemological traditions increase their hardships[ Moreover\ overseas research suggests that these di.culties are compounded for female students and could pose di.culties for RNs who are predominantly female[ Counselling sta} are often poorly prepared to help students with these and other adjustment di.culties[ These rebuttals would have less force if the following issues were to be addressed by an institution accepting as students\ RNs from Hong Kong[ That is\ the above rebuttals are pertinent UNLESS] Entry levels were found to be similar^ institutions had adequately resourced settlement o.cers to assist with early and ongoing problems of living and studying in a di}erent culture^ adequate testing was undertaken for English language competency^ and\ possibly\ lectures and tutorials were in the stu! dents| own language\ particularly early in the course[ An understanding by academic sta} of Hong Kong culture and understandings of

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

208

student expectations regarding teacher:student relationships and teaching and learn! ing customs would be necessary[ Also required would be regular feedback to students by academics with properly trained counselling sta} available to provide important support for emotional di.culties[ 5[2[ The relevance of knowled`e transfer The rebuttals are pertinent without quali_cation if] Western concepts of health and disease were used^ the very serious psychological and social problems of the refugees were not addressed^ and\ the RNs were expected to act as change agents on their return to challenge local practices\ such as initiating programs aimed at empowering the refugees[ 5[3[ Towards a more `eneral critique of the Overseas Student Pro`ram Within the framework of Dunn|s "0871# elaboration of the transactional model of argument\ the rebuttals discussed above lead to a strong quali_er to the conclusion that the particular public health course used as the hypothetical case in this study would be a worthwhile innovation[ This strong quali_er is generalisable as the warrant for the argument to the extent that the elements in the particular case are common to other undergraduate and post!graduate courses that an Australian institution may propose to market overseas[ Again\ two broad contexts will be considered[ 5[4[ Relevance of the knowled`e transfer As the substantive areas of Australian tertiary courses are representative of the Western intellectual tradition\ drawing on theories\ paradigms and content from that tradition\ these courses would not necessarily be relevant to the cultural context\ national priorities and personal needs of overseas students[ Students in professional courses other than nursing could also experience di.culties as many of these courses presuppose codes and:or mores of practice which might not be appropriate on the students| return home[ Similarly\ in the arts and sciences\ courses might not be relevant to the cultural context\ national priorities\ or\ indeed the personal needs of the students[ 5[5[ The educational context The educational di.culties outlined in the previous section would apply to a greater or lesser extent to any student studying in a foreign context[ The problems experienced by overseas students in Australia could be expected to be greater if] their _rst language was not English^ they were not _nancially secure^ they were unaccustomed to western style classroom climates^ entry levels were problematic^ where the majority of students were female^ and\ the students came from an epistemological tradition not in~uenced by the West[

219

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

6[ Conclusion Guided by reports concerned more with foreign a}airs and trade than educational realities and issues\ the Australian Government|s Overseas Student Program may fail to meet the needs of countries which\ in the past\ have relied on Australian educational services to complement those provided at home[ Of vital importance\ is the relevance and quality of the knowledge transferred in the Australian curricula and the vul! nerability of many students studying abroad[ Unless higher education institutions in Australia are sensitive to the contexts which are relevant for full!fee paying courses\ such services might not remain viable in the medium or longer term[ A worse!still scenario would be a higher education sector that was discredited in Asia and which would\ therefore\ not be able to {supplement Australia|s educational capabilities| in the manner envisaged in the policy[ Were this to happen\ a loss in the esteem presently accorded higher education in Australia could have damaging repercussions for the country|s {relations in the region|\ outcomes in direct contradiction to the aims of the Overseas Student Program[

References Altbach\ P[ G[ "0878a# The New Internationalism] Foreign Students and Schools\ Studies in Hi`her Education\ 03\ 014Ð025[ Altbach\ P[ G[ "0878b# Twisted Roots] The Western Impact on Asian Higher Education\ Hi`her Education\ 07\ 8Ð29[ Armstrong\ G[ "0873# Implementing Educational Policy] Decentralisation of Non!formal Education in Thailand\ Comparative Education Review\ 17\ 343Ð345[ Australia[ Committee of Review of the Private Overseas Student Policy "0873# Mutual Advanta`e\ Canberra] Australian Government Publishing Service[ Australia[ Committee to Review the Australian Overseas Aid Program "0873# Report of the Committe to Review the Australian Overseas Aid Pro`ram\ Canberra] Australian Government Publishing Service[ Australia[ Department of Employment Education and Training "0884# Hi`her Education Student Statistics\ Canberra] Australian Government Printing Service[ Australia[ Department of Trade "0874# Report of the Australian Government Education Mission to South! East Asia and Hon` Kon`\ Canberra] Australian Government Printing Service[ Australian Council of Trade Unions "0877# Education] Issues in Post!secondary Education\ Submission to the Industries Assistance Commission Inquiry into Trade Services\ Melbourne] ACTU Secretariat[ Ballard\ B[ "0871# Lan`ua`e is Not Enou`h*Responses to Academic Dif_culties of Overseas Students\ Paper from the Conference\ Communication at University] Purpose\ Process and Product\ Melbourne] La Trobe University[ Ballard\ B[ "0876# Academic Adjustment] The Other Side of the Export Dollar\ Hi`her Education Research and Development\ 5\ 098Ð008[ Ballard\ B[\ + Clanchy\ J[ "0873# Study Abroad] A Manual for Asian Students\ Kuala Lumpur] Longman[ Ballard\ B[\ + Clanchy\ J[ "0877# Studyin` in Australia\ Melbourne] Longman Cheshire[ Bell\ S[ E[\ + Whiteford\ M[ B[ "0876# Tai Dam Health Care Practices] Asian Refugee Women in Iowa\ Social Science and Medicine\ 13\ 206Ð214[ Benavot\ A[ "0878# Education\ Gender and Economic Development] A Cross!national Study\ British Journal of the Sociolo`y of Education\ 51\ 03Ð21[ Biggs\ J[ "0883# What are E}ective Schools< Lessons from East and West\ The Australian Educational Researcher\ 11\ 01Ð28[

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

210

Bradley\ D[\ + Bradley\ M[ "0873# Pro`rams of Asian Students in Australian Lan`ua`e\ Culture and Education\ Canberra] Australian Government Printing Service[ Burke\ B[ D[ "0874# Financial Worry is the Top of the List "Research and Development Paper No[ 6#] An Interim Report of a Survey of Overseas Undergraduate Students\ Sydney] Student Counselling and Research Unit\ University of New South Wales[ Burns\ R[ "0873# International Student Mobility] Neo!imperialism\ Brain!drain or Development Co! operation\ in A[ Hetland\ Ed[\ Universities and National Development\ Stockholm] Almqvist Swiksell International[ Burns\ R[ B[ "0880# Study and Stress Among First Year Overseas Students in an Australian University\ Hi`her Education Research and Development\ 09\ 50Ð66[ Bush\ D[\ Cadman\ K[\ + De Lacey\ P[\ et al[ "0885# Expectations of Academic Writin` at Australian Universities] Work in Pro`ress\ Paper presented at the _rst National Conference on Tertiary Literacy] Research and Practice\ March\ 04Ð05[ Chopra\ S[ K[ "0875# Brain Drain and How to Reverse It\ New Delhi] Rancer International[ Chrisman\ N[ J[ "0871# Anthropology in Nursing] An Exploration of Adaptation\ in N[ J[ Chrisman and T[ W[ Maretaki "Eds[#\ Clinically Applied Anthropolo`y\ D[ Reidal Publishing Company[ Commonwealth Department of Education "Overseas O.ce# "0875# OSP] A Guide for Tertiary Institutions\ Canberra] Department of Education Overseas O.ce "OSO#\ July[ Cummins\ J[ P[ "0868# Cognitive:Academic Language Pro_ciency\ Linguistic Interdependence the Optimum Age Question and Some Other Matters\ Workin` Papers in Lin`ualism\ 08\ 086Ð194[ Deloche\ P[ "0889# The People That Nobody Wants\ Refu`ees\ 79\ 26Ð27[ Dunn\ W[ N[ "0871# Reforms as Arguments\ Knowled`e] Creation\ Diffusion\ Utilization\ 2\ 182Ð215[ Faraj\ A[ H[ "0877# Higher Education and Economic Development in South Asian Nations\ Hi`her Education Review\ 11\ 8Ð15[ Fox\ H[ "0881# What|s in the Word {Analysis<| Lessons from Non!Western Graduate Students\ Paper presented at the 32rd Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication\ Cincinnati\ OH\ March 08Ð10[ Fox\ H[ "0883# Listenin` to the World] Cultural Issues in Academic Writin`\ Urbana\ IL] National Council of Teachers[ Gi}ord\ S[ "0877# Review of Post!`raduate Public Health Trainin` for Overseas Students] Re`ional Issues and Opportunities\ Canberra] Australian International Development Assistance Bureau[ Ginsberg\ E[ "0881# Not Just a Matter of English\ HERSDA News\ 03\ 5Ð7[ Grandjean\ P[ "0874# {The Boat People|s Alcatraz|\ Refu`ees\ 06\ 29Ð20[ Kalantzis\ M[ "0882# Cultural Diversity and Higher Education\ in A[ Bartel "Ed[#\ Cultural Diversity in Hi`her Education\ Sydney] University of Technology\ Sydney[ Kegan\ F[\ + Kent\ D[ "0881# Community Health Nursin`\ Sydney] Pluto Press + Australian Community Health Association[ Kennedy\ K[ J[ "0884# Developing a Curriculum Guarantee for Overseas Students\ Hi`her Education Research and Development\ 03\ 24Ð36[ Kumin\ J[ "0877# A Turning Point\ Refu`ees\ 48\ 10Ð11[ Kumin\ J[ "0878# Dossier*Hong Kong] Waiting for an Answer\ Refu`ees\ 50\ 08Ð15[ Ladany\ L[ "0879# Problems for Chinese Education\ Social Survey\ 18\ 026Ð031[ Lim\ D[ "0878# Jackson and the Overseas Students\ Australian Journal of Education\ 22\ 2Ð07[ McCulloch\ G[\ + Nicholls\ J[ "0875# The Privatisation of Hi`her Education\ Paper presented at an International Commodity Conference organised by the Australian and New Zealand Comparative and International Educational Society\ University of Queensland\ Brisbane[ Mackey\ M[ "0872# The Melting Pot Once More] Teaching Refugee Children\ Learnin`\ 00\ 85Ð88[ Markus\ H[ R[ "0880# Culture and the Self] Implications for Cognition\ Emotion and Motivation\ Psycho! lo`ical Review\ 87\ 113Ð142[ Masemann\ V[ "0889# Ways of Knowing] Implications for Comparative Education\ Presidential Address\ Comparative Education Review\ 23\ 354Ð362[ Meggitt\ P[ "0884# Stereotypes and Strategies] Confucian Culture Heritage Learners*Their Learning and Support Needs[ Implications for Universities\ TAFE and ACE Providers\ Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education\ 24\ 58Ð62[

211

V[J[ MacKinnon:Hi`her Education Policy 00 "0887# 200Ð211

McKnight\ A[ "0883# The Business of Listenin` at University\ Paper presented at the 17th Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages\ Baltimore\ MD\ March 7Ð01[ Mollica\ R[ F[\ Wysak\ G[\ + Lavelle\ J[ "0876# The Psychological Impact of War Trauma and Torture on Southeast Asian Refugees\ American Journal of Psychiatry\ 033\ 0456Ð0460[ Nakamura\ H[ "0853# Ways of Thinkin` of Eastern Peoples\ Honolulu] East!West Center Press[ Nicholls\ J[ "0876# {O}!shore Education Marketing] Professional Industrial Issues|\ Australian Universities Review\ 1\ 8Ð00[ Nicholls\ J[ "0878# The Remarkable Minority] Women as Overseas Students\ Journal of Advanced Education\ 01\ 09Ð04[ Nursing in the World Editorial Committee "0875# Nursin` in the World] The Needs of Individual Countries and their Pro`rammes\ 1nd Ed[\ Tokyo] The International Nursing Foundation of Japan[ Nutman\ T[\ Ottesen\ E[ A[\ Sackosen\ I[\ et al[ "0876# Eosinophillia in Indochinese Refugees\ Journal of Infectious Diseases\ 044\ 298Ð202[ Saint\ K[ "0868# Adult Education in Thailand\ Indian Journal of Adult Education\ 39\ 06Ð15[ Samuelowicz\ K[ "0876# Learning Problems of Overseas Students] Two sides of the Story\ Hi`her Education Research and Development\ 5\ 010Ð022[ Selvaratnam\ V[ "0877# Higher Education Co!Operation and Western dominance of Knowledge Creation and Flows in Third World Countries\ Hi`her Education\ 06\ 30Ð57[ Selvaratnam\ V[ "0876# Student Mobility Within the Commonwealth] Growin` Constraints\ New Initiatives\ Melbourne] Centre for the Study of Higher Education\ University of Melbourne[ Veer\ G[ "0881# Counsellin` and Therapy with Refu`ees] Psycholo`ical Problems of Victims of War\ Torture and Repression\ Chishester\ New York] Wiley[ Victoria[ Ministry of Education "0876# First Lan`ua`e and Second Lan`ua`e Development\ Melbourne] Victorian Government Publisher[ Volet\ S[ E[\ + Renshaw\ P[ D[ "0884# Cross!cultural Di}erences in University Students| Goals and Perceptions of Study Settings for Achieving Their Own Goals\ Hi`her Education\ 29\ 396Ð322[ Wagner\ A[\ + Schnitzer\ K[ "0880# {Programmes and Policies for Foreign Students and Study Abroad] The Search for E}ective Approaches in a Global Setting|\ Hi`her Education\ 19\ 164Ð0875[ Watson\ "0872#[ Westmeyer\ J[ "0876# Prevention of Mental Disorders Among Hmong Refugees in the US] Lessons from the Period 0865Ð0875\ Social Science and Medicine\ 7\ 830Ð836[ Wong\ D[ S[ W[ "0877# The Policies of Overseas Governments and the Implications for Australian Institutions\ Address at International Seminar\ Australian Education O}shore\ Hong Kong\ November[ Zozlowski\ A[ "0874# UNHCR and Voluntary Agencies] The Nature of a True Partnership\ Refu`ees\ 11\ 20Ð21[