Exposure to pollutants in enclosed “living spaces”

EN\‘IKONMENrAL

13, 1-35 (1977)

KESE4KCH

Exposure

to Pollutants

in Enclosed

THECIILIOR D. STERLING Faculty

oj’ Interdisciplinary

Studies.

“Living

Spaces”

AND DIANA M. KOBAYASHI

Simon

Frtrscv

Utzi\vrsity.

Burnnhy,

B.C.,

Cunuda

Received October 10, 1975

INTRODUCTION

Pollution of domestic premises, public buildings, and transport vehicles, is linked by problems peculiar to enclosures. Enclosures afford protection from toxic substances. On the other hand, they may entrap pollutants inside that have seeped in from the outside or have been generated inside, as enclosed spaces almost always contain sources of pollution of their own. Studies on enclosed environments are grouped for our purposes into four categories. Each category will be discussed separately: pollutants in artificiallysealed environments, pollutants in domestic premises, pollutants in public buildings, and pollutants in transportation related enclosures. Pollution levels reported by different studies are summarized in a series of appended tables. The information available about pollution in enclosed spaces is sparse but sufficient to indicate the magnitude of possible exposure to inhabitants. Evaluation of existing studies leads inevitably to one conclusion: A building does not protect its inhabitants from pollution. To the contray. The body burden of toxic twpors and dusts in the “inside” may very rvell exceed the burden of pollution in the “outside. ’ ’ POLLUTION IN ARTIFICIALLY-

SEALED (SUBMARINE)

ENVIRONMENTS

Studies of sealed environments, especially of submarines, are an important source of information about pollutants in enclosed spaces. Contaminants generated outside do not penetrate the isolating structure. The types and amounts of pollutants generated within the enclosed environment can be determined with good accuracy and their source can be established. At the same time, studies of these artificially sealed environments have to contend with unique variables: oxygen must be provided and carbon dioxide must be removed or reconverted into oxygen, a pollutant-removal system usually is installed, ample machinery is usually present in addition to the equipment required to maintain a breathable atmosphere, and the structures are usually pressurized. CARBON MONOXIDE

Because of the rapid buildup of carbon monoxide, burners (actually nonspecific incinerators) must be utilized at all times. Even so CO averages 50 ppm during periods of submergence. There are numerous sources of CO production, including heating, cooking, oxidation of oils and lubricants. smoking, and aging of paints (Schulte. 1961, 1964). These results are confirmed by Ebersole (1960) in his report on an early record-breaking 60-day dive of the USS Seaw*olf in 1958, and by Hine (1964). Although average CO concentrations of around 50 ppm are reported in studies conducted by Hine. Ebersole, and Schulte, a report by Alvis (1951) of Copyright All

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mass CO poisoning of a crew indicates that dangerously high peaks of CO are possible during submarine cruises. At one time, cigarette smoke was thought to be a major source of CO (Anderson, 1964). Schulte (1960, 1964), however, points out that when additional CO detection equipment was installed in newer submarines, inaccessible reactor compartments contained the highest concentrations of carbon monoxide. Further measures were made of areas housing equipment. It was determined that most CO production was caused by the oxidation ofoils, lubricants, and paints, especially on steam pipes. Living areas, the only areas where smoking was allowed, contained much less CO than other areas of the ship by a factor of 3 in comparison to the reactor room (Ebersole, 1960). HYDROCARBONS

Extremely high concentrations (500 ppm) of aromatic hydrocarbons (also referred to as “undifferentiated” hydrocarbons) have been reported by Schulte (1964) coincidental to cooking episodes. Hine (1964) also lists cooking as a major source of hydrocarbon production. Besides cooking, aromatic hydrocarbon sources are: paints, varnishes, lacquers, paint thinners, solvents, cleaning fluids, artificial leather, linoleum, asphalt tiles, rubber and plastic cement, and bonding compounds (Ebersole, 1960). Many substances give off hydrocarbons for many months at a slow logarithmic rate (Schulte, 1964); Anderson and Saunders, 1964; Ebersole, 1960). Although water-base paints are used whenever possible, Siegel (196 1) has found that a 72 hour limit of painting must still be imposed before submergence. MISCELLANEOUS

CONTAMINANTS

Cooking is responsible for most of the aerosol production (Ebersole, 1960; Schulte, 1964). Oxides of nitrogen are formed on submarines by electric arcing of armatures and by short circuits (Schulte, 1964). Sources of ozone are the same as oxides of nitrogen (Schulte, 1964; Ebersole, 1960). SO, and hydrogen sulfide are produced by the bacterial action of sanitary tanks (Schulte, 1964). Freon is easily broken down under heat (often in CO burners) to chlorine, fluorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and phosgene. There is not a good means of removing this gas once it has leaked from cooling and refrigeration systems (Ebersole, 1960; Hine, 1964; Schulte. 1964). Halogens are produced when freon is oxidized in CO burners (Schulte, 1964). Ammonia is produced by the action of CO, scrubbers and as a biological end product in sanitary tanks (Schulte, 1961; Hine 1964). Mercury vapor comes from meters and gauges (Schulte, 1961; Siegel, 1961). Methyl alcohol comes from mimeograph equipment (Ebersole, 1961). Tri-aryl phosphate comes from hydraulic fluids (Siegel, 1961). Formaldehyde is a product of oxidation of methyl alcohol (Schulte, 1964). Radiation was and occasionally still may be a source of hazard on submarines (Schulte, 1964; Ebersole, 1957). Among other sources of pollutants mentioned by Hine (1964) are shoe polish, insect sprays, lighter fluids, shaving soap, and hair tonics. Kitzes (1958) expands the list of pollutants present in cabin-type environments by adding a few more sources found in aircraft, including anti-icing fluids, fire extinguishants, cargo, fuels, oils, and selenium in rectifiers. The air also contains by-products of metabolic activity: CO,, water, feces, flatus, urine, breath, sweat, glandular secretions, organic dust

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particles from hair, skin, mucus, and dead cells. From breath come acetic acid, acetone, volatile oils, methane, and hydrogen sulfide. From urine come volatiles, ammonia, etherial sulfates, and from sweat and glandular secretions come urea, and lactic and other organic acids (Hine, 1964; Gorban, 1964). The levels cited in these studies are not necessarily accurate reflections of all submarine exposures. Peak levels may be much higher than those given. Further, Schulte (1961) mentions occasional failures of pollution control devices which cause great increases in pollutants. POLLUTANTS

IN DOMESTIC

PREMISES

The amount and type of pollutant present in homes depends on the number of persons occupying the premises, kinds and duration of operation of appliances, methods of cooking and heating, types of chemicals and paints present, flow of air, filtration devices used, penetrability of the structure, amount of outdoor air pollution and air movement, temperatures and humidity inside and outside the home, and activities within the structure. In addition, most sources of pollution isolated in completely enclosed environments also exist in the home. INDOOR-OUTDOOR

COMPARISONS

Biersteker et al. (1965) furnish gross estimates of the relation of indoor smoke and SO, levels to outside concentrations. Eight hundred paired samples were taken in 60 different bungalows, high-rise apartments, and flats, over a 7-day period. Suspended particulate levels were about 80% of those outdoors, while SO, levels were about 20% of outdoor levels. Much more exact measures were obtained by Yocom et al (1971a) for suspended particulates, soiling particulates, CO and SO, in both gas- and coal-heated medium-size, single-family dwellings. Total indoor levels of CO and SO, almost constantly exceeded outdoor concentration levels. In coal-heated homes, SO, and CO levels closely followed outdoor levels until the coal furnaces were activated. Then. extremely high levels of pollutants were found at each period of furnace activation, greatly exceeding outdoor levels of the same substance. Indoor particulate matter was less in overall amount but with a greater organic enrichment factor than outdoor particulate matter. Lead was also detected (0.47 to 1.75pg/m3). Yocom et al. noted significant seasonal variations. Particulates were less in amount during the winter when entrance of outside air was impeded by closed windows. On the other hand, indoor levels of CO increased during the winter. A number of other studies concur with the findings of Yocom et al. and provide additional information. Overall dust levels in single-family dwellings were studied by Lefcoe and Inculet (1971, 1975) under varying conditions, with and without air filtration. Particulate matter up to 5pm was continuously monitored. Increases in dust levels occurred when windows were opened, when filters were not used, and when there was a good deal of activity in the home. Although outdoor increases were generally higher, outdoor increases were reflected indoors. SO,, NO,, and O:, levels were also tested. The maximum amounts were <0.06 pphm for SOZ,
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can be surmised from urban-rural, indoor-outdoor pollution differences. Godin et al. (1972) studied CO levels. At a semirural farm, outdoor CO values were 1.0 & 0.8 ppm. Values were double at a suburban home (outdoors: 2.0 2 1.4 ppm; indoors: 1.9 -+ 1.3 ppm). Schaefer et al. (1972) correlated particulate fallout in homes with their geographic locations. Homes in cities showed the highest amounts of sedimentation. and those in rural areas showed the lowest amounts. Although there were differences from room to room, kitchens, in general, were shown to have the highest amounts of particulate matter. Jacobs et al. (1962) similarly found that indoor particulate concentrations were similar to outdoor concentrations, although more submicron particles were found indoors than outdoors. SOURCES

OF INDOOR

POLLUTION

Pollutants may be indoor-generated or they may originate from the outside. Furthermore, once present they may build up over time. As part of Yocom’s study CO levels were monitored in an unoccupied house. CO levels increased more slowly inside than out, but, once built up, indoor levels remained higher for a longer period than did outdoor levels. Thus, domestic premises have a tendency to entrap gaseous pollutants. Garages attached to homes may also entrap pollutants, allowing them to seep into the home. In one of the homes tested by Yocom et nf. (1971a) the attached garage proved to be a greater source of CO than even the gas stove. Cracks in structures, in addition to doors and windows, permit this entrance of pollutants and the possible subsequent entrapment of pollutants. Although applied to an unusual case, the possible prolonged penetration of pollutants was strikingly demonstrated by Megaw (1962). In October 1957, a cloud of nuclear fission products was accidentally released near Windscale, England, permitting a test of the amount of 1311found within contaminated houses. Although 1311levels indoors were found to be much lower than r3’I levels outdoors, deposits on roofs and in crevices suggested that seepage over time was likely to occur. Megaw concluded that over time, amounts of 1311trapped on roofs and in crevices could constitute a health hazard. Further information regarding the sources of indoor-generated CO comes from a number of surveys. Goldsmith (1970) estimates the number of persons suffering from household exposure to CO in the United States to be 100,000 per year. While the exact number of persons exposed is not known, Goldsmith’s conclusions, nonetheless, highlight the fact that exposure to elevated amounts of CO may be affecting a large portion of the U.S. population. The extent of indoor CO pollution may be assessed also from Kahn et al. (1974) who found that the COHb content of blood donors increased during winter months, despite reduction in the ambient CO level. Kahn points out that there is reduced traffic in the winter months and concludes that indoor emissions were the largest contributing factor to increased COHb levels during these winter periods. One recent study by the National Association for Sanitarians included investigations of the homes of 300 cases of suspected CO poisoning. Over 90% of the homes were positive for CO (Amiro, 1969). While there was no tabulation of overall average levels given, emissions of

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-s

200 to 300 ppm and above of CO were reported due to space heaters and stoves. Yates (1967) reported results from a survey including homes and appliances of CO poisoned patients referred to hospitals and randomly selected residents of houses and mobile homes. Thirty-three percent of these residential inspections found excesses of CO. All hospital referrals came from homes in which excessive CO was found. Yates also found that, in a random inspection of nursing homes, 23% of appliances used were found to be contributing to the excessive levels of CO. Emissions from these appliances ranged from 10 to over 2500 ppm. Similar results were found in a study conducted in Japan by Tanaka et ul. (1971), which measured oxygen, CO, and CO, present when gas cooking stoves were in use. The amount of CO was greatest when pans were over the flames, impeding oxygen flow. This exposure to CO constitutes higher exposures for the cook than for the rest of the family. This may also be true for small children, who tend to stay near their mothers. Wade et al. (1975) extended the work done on gas stove emissions. A study of four homes clearly demonstrated the contribution of gas stoves to elevated levels of NO, NO?, and CO. These levels exceeded those found outdoors during periods of stove use. A similar study by DeRouane et al. (1974), which also included a gas water heater, found overall NO, levels to be quite high (up to lOOO-2000&m3) coincidental to the running of gas appliances. A number of studies were done in regions with extremely low outdoor pollution. A study was conducted in Nigerian homes by Sofoluwe (1968). The structures tested were in lower-income sections of the city and pollution was generated mainly by cooking devices. Wood, oil, coal, and gas were used for cooking and heating. No one used electricity. While the duration of pollution within structures was short-lived, the exposure of individuals was found to be very high. For CO the range was 100 to 3000 ppm with a mean of 940.2 ppm; for NO, the range was 0.5 to 50 ppm with a mean of 8.6 ppm; for SO, the range was 5 to 100 ppm with a mean of 37.8 ppm and for benzene soluble hydrocarbons the range was 25 to 200 ppm with a mean of 56 ppm. (In one home, CO concentrations reached 3000 ppm and in another, benzene reached a level of 200 ppm. Some extreme values observed were due to peaks of very short duration occurring while fires were being lit or when particular woods were used [like eucalyptus].) Standard indicator tubes were utilized to determine pollutant concentrations. As the method is not strictly quantitative, the figures given by Sofoluwe may not be entirely accurate. That the pollutants detected were very high, however, remains as fact. Corroboration of Sofoluwe’s findings comes from Cleary and Blackburn (1968). Their findings for native huts in New Guinea, however, while determined by similar measurement methods, show much lower concentrations of pollutants. Mean concentrations of smoke density, aldehydes, and CO for the Eastern Highlands were 666pg/m3, 3.8 ppm, and 150 ppm, respectively. As in the Sofoluwe study, pollutants tested reached very high levels. While the ranges found by Sofoluwe and Cleary in developing countries represent very high exposure to indoor pollutants they may not differ greatly from those found elsewhere, In all communities, whether in developed or developing countries, many homes are heated with cheaper fuels. Cooking is often done with gas

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or oil, or even with coal, and inefficient appliances and fireplaces are frequently used. The risk of exposure to elevated levels of pollutants occurs in nearly all countries. Although cooking and heating indoors are the most prominent polluters, numerous other sources of pollution exist. Bridbord et ul. (1975) mention aerosols and solvents as sources of halogenated hydrocarbons. Minerals such as asbestos and beryllium can be brought into the domestic indoor environment on the clothing of factory workers (Lieben et al., 1969; Selikoff et a/., 1972). In Selikoff et al. study the levels of asbestos in the workmen’s homes were found to exceed background levels. Further studies show that home repair utilizing spackling, patching, and taping compounds may increase exposure to minerals, primarily asbestos, but also quartz and talc (Rohl et al., 1975). Talc from other sources, e.g., talcum powder, may pollute the indoor air as well (Castleman and Fritsch, 1973). Finally, home furnishings (curtains, carpets, etc.) have been found to contribute fibers to the indoor domestic atmosphere (Corn, 1974). TOBACCO-INDUCED

POLLUTION

IN DOMESTIC

PREMISES

Unfortunately, most studies have concentrated on public enclosures and only a few on household tobacco smoke pollution. Therefore, relatively little direct information is available of tobacco-induced pollution in the home. Biersteker et al. (1965) obtained information on the smoking habits (i.e., smoker, non smoker, light, heavy, etc.) of occupants in 60 Rotterdam homes. CO and SO, levels were related to the year of construction of the home, type of heating (gas, oil, or coal), and smoking habits. Of all these measures, smoking habits correlated highest with the levels of indoor pollution. However, it is difficult to separate the effects of smoking from the effects of heating, cooking, and other activities in this study. In another study of a middle-class, single-family dwelling, Lefcoe and Inculet (1971) report that during the period in which a cigarette was smoked, dust levels rose, then returned to normal within an hour. However, these increases did not equal those created by house cleaning, and they occurred concurrent with other activities. McNall(1975) studied cigarette smoke in domestic premises experimentally. In this test, a machine located in the basement of a three bedroom house consumed 35 cigarettes/hour in one case, and 12 cigarettes/hour in another instance. Particulates reached -2700 and - 1100 &m3 in the two cases, respectively, while outside levels were 60 pg/m3. Despite the extreme numbers of cigarettes smoked, particulates immediately dropped to outdoor levels when an electronic filter was activated. A similar experiment was conducted by DeRouane et al. (1974). In a closed 50 m3 room of a house, three cigarettes were smoked by a smoking machine over a total of 24 minutes. Peak concentrations were 1000 pg/m3 aerosol and 7.5 ppm CO. As information is as yet sparse, an assessment of the contribution of tobacco smoke to domestic pollution must be inferred from relevant studies in public buildings. POLLUTANTS

IN PUBLIC

BUILDINGS

Offices, libraries, schools, and public halls of assembly such as theaters, restaurants, and areas where individuals gather in large numbers expose people to a

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variety of pollutants and toxic substances which are generated from many sources inside the structure or which penetrate from the outside. All pollutants, generated inside the building or penetrating from the outside, become part of the internal environment. The escape of all pollutants from the building depends on the type of existing ventilation. There are some major differences between household dwellings and public buildings. Public buildings very often are situated in industrialized, more polluted areas. Larger buildings are also better sealed. This is true especially of the new, modern, air-conditioned and completely enclosed office buildings. However, even in older structures, the very size of the building will decrease the amount of ventilation per unit of space. As a consequence, not only must air be brought into the building but active filtration and ventilation are much more important in public buildings than in homes. Various pollution elimination devices or built-in filtration plants must be provided. Filters may be effective in reducing particulate concentrations but do little in regard to gases such as CO, COO, NO, N02, and others. SO, may be a lesser problem since it is usually absorbed by building materials regardless of filtration. Finally, many pollutants are generated by the activities of man and machinery inside public buildings just as in submarines. (For a discussion of current work on building pollution-reducing systems see Holcombe et a!. (1971).) The contribution of indoor- and outdoor-generated pollution is much more difficult to determine in large buildings than in households. However, both sources have been clearly identified. A great deal of attention has always been paid to adequate ventilation in public schools. Much of the concern in the past was with odor problems. Korenevskaya er crl. (1965) observe that upper floors in school buildings get pollution from kitchens, gyms, boiler rooms, and other structures that are located below them. They noticed a very definite increase in smell, dust, and CO levels. Grusha et al. (1964) measured changes in relative humidity and CO2 as an index of metabolic by-products of school children. They found that relative humidities in schools rose to one and a half times the accepted level by the end of the first class period (values given were 78 to 80%). Temperatures also increased rapidly. The investigators observed that while CO, levels were normal at the beginning of a class period, they were double by its end. Although the function of ventilation and air-conditioning units is to renew and purify internal building atmospheres, they may do just the reverse. Banaszak et a/. (1970, 1974); and Fink er trl. (1971) report air-conditioning and heating units contaminated with thermophilic fungi. The systems, in turn, pollute indoor spaces with the fungi. Another source of pollution arises from the current building practice of designing ceiling spaces as return air plenums. Air is allowed to circulate through these areas which have been sprayed with asbestos. The asbestos is gradually eroded and circulated throughout the building (Castleman and Fritsch, 1973). For most public and office buildings the relation of outdoor to indoor pollution is exceedingly important. Studies have compared outdoor to indoor dust, SO,, CO, and hydrocarbons (for buildings with and without filtration). DeRouane (1971) found that indoor (total particulate) concentrations varied to

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some extent, depending on whether the building was old or new, but were generally around 80% of outside values. However, SO, was much reduced due to surface absorption (approximately 25% of outdoor levels). The Japan Air Cleaning Association (in 1968) examined indoor and outdoor sources of various pollutants: SOz, CO, hydrocarbons, and dusts, in rooms with and without filtration. As in the DeRouane study, SO, was found to be one-fifth of the outdoor concentration. Carbon filters were found to be effective in reducing dust. However, there was no appreciable decrease in CO and hydrocarbon concentrations with the carbon filters in operation. Yocom et al. (1971a,b) also found little relation between indoor and outdoor concentrations of SO, (again because of the absorption in internal structures). Particulate concentrations were highest in buildings near roadways but generally were found to be lower indoors than outdoors. However, the organic fraction of particulate matter was consistently higher inside than outside in all public buildings. At times more than twice the organic contamination was found inside than outside. (In contrast, lead enrichment of particulate matter was about the same indoors as outdoors.) The soiling index in all buildings was about 80 to 90% of outdoor levels (except in a library where, during winter, it was only 50%). CO levels indoors showed a direct correlation with the structures’ proximity to roadways, but CO was spread fairly evenly throughout the buildings. Filtration was not effective in reducing CO levels indoors and mean indoor CO levels were higher than mean outdoor CO levels. At the same time, the semi sealed buildings prevented the escape of CO. CO levels rose sharply, beginning around 7:00 AM in response to the buildup of outdoor CO due to traffic. But, after traffic reached its peak, indoor CO levels remained extremely high for long periods, while outside levels decreased. Yocom’s findings are replicated in part in a study by Godin et al. (1972). In a building in which indoor CO values averaged 2.2 +- 1.3 ppm on the first floor and 2.8 + 1.5 ppm on the second floor, fluctuations were similar to those found by Yocom et al. With the windows and doors shut, indoor concentrations fell less rapidly than outdoor concentrations. A number of studies have been conducted on particulate matter. Jacobs et al. (1962) found that indoor dust contained more small particulate matter. Jacobs et al. (1962) found that indoor dust contained more small particles than outdoor dust (1 pm or less). Jacobs also supplied a number of measures for amounts of particulates found inside buildings, ranging between 4.0 and 53.4 mp/ft3 of particulate matter. Lead as a component of indoor dust, in addition to other components, was reported by Hunt and Cadoff (1971) and McNesby et al. (1972). Both studies found lead to be a consistent trace element, along with ammonium sulfate, in both indoor and outdoor dust. Few studies exist that measure air pollutants in public places of assembly as opposed to public-office-type buildings. One important study was conducted by Matsumoto and Kitamura (1971). who measured CO, and dust concentrations in the underground market streets of Osaka-in tea rooms, bowling alleys, movie theaters, and basements of department stores. CO, was found to be higher in all areas than in the outside air with the exception of the street itself. Dust underground was found to be double that above ground, with peaks of ten times the

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outside concentration. In department stores, dust was found to be “severe” in the underground floor. Unfortunately, there was no analysis on the organic content of this dust. One other study (Johnson et al., 1975a) measured CO in a public place of assembly. Ice resurfacing machines operating in indoor rinks were found to be a source of CO levels of up to 304 ppm on the average. TOBACCO-INDUCED

POLLUTION

IN PUBLIC

BUILDINGS

Measurements have been made of smoke constituents of room air under natural and experimental conditions. Also measured have been blood levels of COHb and nicotine contents of urines. Bridge and Corn (1972) measured CO during two experimental “parties.” In one 5120 ft3 room containing 50 people, 25 people consumed 50 cigarettes and seven cigars in 1 i/2 hours. With a room air exchange rate of seven times per hour, CO averaged 7 ppm during the course of the party. During the second experiment in a 3750 ft3 room containing 73 people, 36 smokers consumed 63 cigarettes and 10 cigars in 1 l/ hours and the average CO content was 9 ppm. These values actually coincided with values predicted using Turk’s (1963) equation (6.5 and 8 ppm, respectively). In order to determine mainstream to sidestream smoke ratios produced by cigarettes, Hoegg (1972) measured CO and total particulate matter from varying numbers of cigarettes. In a sealed 25 m3 chamber, CO levels increased with the number of cigarettes smoked. Concentrations ranged from - 10 ppm for 4 cigarettes to 69.8 ppm for 24 cigarettes. For total particulate matter, initial or peak values ranged from -2.5 mg/m” for 4 cigarettes to 16.65 mg/m” for 24 cigarettes. Utilizing these experimentally obtained values, Hoegg modified Turk’s equation with the addition of a decay function for cigarette-produced particulate matter. A study by Anderson and Dalhamn (1973) determined, in addition to CO, nicotine and smoke density produced by cigarettes in a medium-sized meeting room (80m3). Fifty cigarettes were smoked in 120 minutes. With six air changes/ hour, initial levels were 2 ppm and average peaks during smoking were around 6 ppm. Smoke density prior to testing was 0.02 mg/m3. Highest concentrations were found at the beginning of the experiment but they rapidly dissipated. Nicotine content of the air increased from zero to 0.377 mg/m3 during the course of the experiment, but it rapidly decreased also. The seven smokers and five non-smokers in the experiment were tested for their COHb levels. Changes in non-smoker COHb were not significant. Harke conducted several experiments with cigarettes in enclosed office rooms under conditions of “severe” and “realistic” smoking. Twenty-one persons smoking two cigarettes each within 16 to 18 minutes in a room 57 m3 produced 0.5 mg/m” nicotine and 49 ppm CO. Ventilating the room decreased these concentrations by 80%. In the case of one person smoking 11 cigarettes in 5 hours in a room 30 m), nicotine reached 0.04 mg/m3 and CO was still under 10 ppm. With the window closed, nicotine was 0.06 to 0.09 mg/m3 and CO was still under 10 ppm. (Background pollutants, however, were not mentioned (Harke, 1970).) In a number of experiments in 1972, Harke measured pollutants in large and small

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rooms under extreme conditions. In the first experiment, a smoking machine consumed 30, 15, 10, and 5 cigarettes in 13 minutes in a small room (38.2m3). After 30 cigarettes had been smoked, 0.52 mg/m3 nicotine was found in the room air. In 21 minutes, 0.46 mg acrolein/m3 was reached. Acetaldehyde/m3 attained a level of 6.5 mg in the same time period. The highest concentration of CO, 64 ppm, was reached immediately after smoking. With 5 cigarettes smoked in 13 minutes and without ventilation, CO was 11.5 ppm at the end of smoking; nicotine was 0.06 mg/m3; acrolein reached 0.07 mg/m3; and acetaldehyde was 1.3 mg/m’. In a considerably larger (170m3) second test room, after the machine had smoked 150 cigarettes in 60 minutes, CO was 53 ppm; nicotine reached 0.69 mgim”; acrolein 0.38 mg/m3; and acetaldehyde 4.2 mgim”. Ventilation reduced all levels by a factor of 2 to 5. In every test situation, with or without ventilation, all constituents fell rapidly with time after smoking, nicotine being the most rapid. Harke (1974d) measured particulate matter produced by 30 cigarettes in a 38 m3 office room. In eight determinations, average concentrations ranged from 20.8 mg/m” in 11 to 31 minutes to 16.2 mg/m3 in 41 to 61 minutes. Particulate concentrations rapidly diminished with time at the end of the smoking phase. Russell et al. (1973) studied room contamination and subject COHb levels of 21 volunteers who spent 1 hour in a 15 x 12 x 8 ft unventilated room. Before the test, 30 cigarettes were left to burn in ashtrays. An additional 32 cigarettes and two cigars were smoked, and 18 cigarettes were left smoldering. After 18 minutes, CO reached 37 and 32.5 ppm (two samples). After 53 minutes, CO reached 41.8 and 41.3 ppm. the mean level CO was 38.2 for the entire experiment. The nonsmokers’ mean COHb levels were 1.6% before and 2.6% after the experiments. Some very preliminary results of cigarette-produced CO pollution were reported by Lawther and Commins (1970). In a 15 m3 exposure chamber, CO rose to 20 ppm after seven cigarettes were smoked in 1 hour. Particulate matter reached 3 mg/m”. The ventilation rate was one room change per hour. Further details, however, were not specified. Harmsen and Effenberger (1957) reported results from an experiment conducted in an unventilated 98 m3 room where a number (unspecified) of persons smoked a large (62) number of “nicotine-rich” cigarettes in 30 minutes. CO reached 0.008% by volume or 80 ppm, and nicotine was 5.2 mg/m”. (These high values, however, have never been replicated by any other investigator.) Dublin (1972) burned two standard-brand unfiltered cigarettes. The room was medium-sized, 18 x 30 x 9 ft. Compared to background levels of 1 ppm of CO. a transient peak immediately after lighting a cigarette and in the immediate vicinity of the smoker was between 20.5 and 32.5 ppm (simultaneous samples). Further away, the levels were 13 and 17 ppm. Five minutes after smoking, the room reached equilibrium at 2 ppm of CO. The high initial concentration was the direct result of lighting up. A number of investigations report on cigarette-produced pollution under natural conditions. CO was monitored for 18 days by Harke (1974a) in two office buildings, one air-conditioned, the other not. No significant overall increase in CO was found after employees started to smoke. The CO curve instead correlated well

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POLLCTANTS

II

with outdoor CO pollution. In individual rooms, increases of 1 to 2 ppm were found. At a conference of the Academy of Allergy, cigarette-produced CO pollution was measured in the room and in the alveolar air of 11 persons attending (Slavin and Hertz, 1975). During the course of the meeting a ban on smoking was passed (unexpectedly). Two sets of conditions were thus examined, free smoking and non smoking. Initial concentrations in the meeting room during both days were 1 to 2 ppm. In the larger conference room, 8 ppm was registered by mid morning, and in the smaller room, 10 ppm was reached during the free smoking periods. After the smoking ban was enacted, CO concentrations remained about 1 to 2 ppm. Alveolar air CO content average 7 ppm in eight nonsmokers during free smoking and between 2 to 3 ppm in all individuals during nonsmoking. In a study by Godin rt cd. (1972) higher values of CO were reported in a theater foyer, where smoking was permitted, than in the auditorium, where smoking was not permitted. Differences were small (3.4 2 0.08 ppm vs 1.4 2 0.8 ppm. respectively). Further tests of tobacco smoke were conducted by Russell and Feyerabend (1975). They report on an experiment in which 80 cigarettes and two cigars were burned or smoked in an unventilated room. resulting in 38 ppm of CO. Individuals exposed in the experiment were then compared with two additional groups, 14 members of Russell’s research group and 31 staff members of a nearby hospital. Blood and urinary nicotine levels were measured. For exposed nonsmokers, plasma nicotine increased from 0.73 to 0.90 ngiml. Urinary nicotine after smoking was 80 rig/ml. Two other groups of non smokers (not exposed to the smoky room air) had 12.4 and 8.9 t&ml of urinary nicotine. However, it is unclear what the exposure to tobacco smoke was for the comparison individuals. Horning et al. (1973) studied lab room air for nicotine content. They also investigated, as did Russell, physiological conditions of smokers’ and nonsmokers’ urine. Nicotine was detected in the air, but not in the water of the lab. (No precise levels were reported.) Nicotine was found in nonsmokers to be 57~ of the level found in smokers. (But actual levels were not given.) A few additional values for nicotine in public places were reported on by Hinds and First (1975). Samples were obtained for a restaurant, a cocktail lounge, and a student lounge with a hand-carried pump and filter. (However, this method tends to underestimate nicotine values [Harke, 1974d].) The restaurant was found to contain 5.2pg/m3 nicotine, while the cocktail lounge had 10.3 p.g/m3. The student lounge held 2.8pg/m3 of nicotine. These results were based on only a few samples taken and conditions were not detailed in each case (e.g., number of persons, room dimensions, number of smokers, etc.) On the basis of average amounts of nicotine/cigarette, cigarette equivalencies/hour were calculated to be 0.004 for the restaurant, and 0.009 and 0.002 for the cocktail and the student lounges, respectively. These latter results are more speculative than quantitative, however. Smoking during 19 public gatherings in three arenas was the subject of an investigation by Elliott and Rowe (1975). The three arenas differed in size, ventilation, and smoking restrictions. Average CO was 14.3 ppm, particulates 367

12

STERLING

AND

KOBAYASHI

pg/m3, and BaP 12.5 ng/m3 compared to background levels of 3 ppm, 68pg/m3, and 0.69 ng/m3. Data insufficiencies prohibit reliable cross comparisons of the three arenas. However, differences in pollutant levels within one arena correlate well with crowd size. Smoking and poor ventilation are reported as contributing causes of these pollutant levels; however, no measures were taken. Galuskinova (1964) reports on indoor benzo(a)pyrene air pollution in a Prague restaurant. Values found in the restaurant were compared with those for the city as a whole in both winter and summer. These values differed little in the summer but differed significantly in the winter (0.28 to 4.6/100 m3 in the city and 2.83 to 14.4/100 m3 in the restaurant). Galuskinova attributes the increase indoors to smoking. From what is known about entrapment and generation of pollutants, especially from cooking in a restaurant, such an inference would not be reasonable. POLLUTANTS

IN TRANSPORTATION-RELATED

ENCLOSURES

Automobiles, buses, garages, tunnels, subways, underground streets, and platforms provide some form of enclosure (similar to that of households and office buildings) which may allow toxic substances to build up. The enclosure may be relatively well sealed, as in the cases of some automobiles, thus increasing the concentrating potential. Automobiles In a study by Brice and Roesler (1966), CO and hydrocarbons were measured in six major cities. Samples were taken so as to simulate the exposure to the driver. In warm weather, samples were taken with windows open, and in the winter with windows closed and heater/blowers on. In-car concentrations were shown to be consistently and considerably greater than (CAMP) values found in the cities Continuous Air Monitoring Programs. Average CO values in automobiles were 31.3 ppm, while outside values averaged 14.2 ppm. Average in-car hydrocarbons measured 6.4 ppm, while in-city values measured 3.5 ppm. CO, monitored in cars in Paris (Chovin, 1967), showed mean concentrations of 24.3 ppm and 24.6 ppm in 1965 and 1966 studies. COHb levels of 1670 drivers involved in accidents were higher than those obtained from 3818 workers exposed to CO and 1530 individual cases of CO poisoning. Haagen-Smit (1966) continuously recorded CO by means of a glass tube inserted in the windshield of a car driven through downtown Los Angeles. The mean CO level was 37 ppm in normal traffic and 54 ppm in heavy traffic. However, there were peaks as high as 220 ppm. A number of CO samples within moving cars were obtained by Godin et al. (1972). Samples were taken both with heater fan on and off. Windows were closed at all times. CO remained at parking levels until the blower was activated. Streetlevel CO was reached in 30 to 60 seconds. Fluctuations during driving occurred with street-level changes, congested and “walled-in” areas having the highest levels of CO. Peak mean concentrations for heavy traffic were 78.8 ? 58.0 ppm. CO may also leak into the car from emissions of its own engine. Amiro (1969) reported that of 19 automobiles tested in 1967,9 were found to have CO emissions of up to 400 ppm leaking into the car. In a test for CO on a random sample of 60 cars, 30 were found to leak emission products (measured by CO) in varying

EXPOSURE

TO

POLLUTAXTS

13

amounts. Internal emission is a considerable hazard since many automobiles are very nearly air tight with their windows and vents closed. Oxygen depletion is a problem often found in sealed environments and may be adding to the effects of other pollutants. At the same time, when a car is well sealed, emissions from the engine may remain entrapped within the automobile. Buses Fifty-two percent of 190 empty buses, tested for CO while the motor was running, were found to contain 25 to 800 ppm inside the bus. The highest concentration usually occurred at the rear of the bus, or at the front near the gear box (Amiro, 1969). Johnson et al. (1975b) also tested CO in the passenger compartments of school buses. Ninety-seven tests were made. The mean range with the motor running was 10 to 25 ppm, although 8 buses were found to contain levels from 35 to 100 ppm of co. Subways Contaminants inside subways have been tested. One study, conducted by Godin et al. (1972), has reported on CO values obtained during subway travel. Allowing for high (0.08 to 0.18%) CO, levels, CO concentrations were found to reach 3.4 + 2.6 ppm on open sections of track. In tunnels. however, CO averaged as high as 5.5 2 3.2 ppm. As smoking is not permitted on subways, these levels were thought to be due to street-level air intakes. Another study conducted in Osaka by Matsumoto and Kitamura (1971) found that on the average, levels of dust on platforms exceeded above-ground concentrations by one and a half times. Values for dust inside trains of subways ranged from 0.43 to 2.42 mg/m3 with a mean concentration of 1.20 mg/m3. Tunnels Tunnels are basically closed systems because of their structural design (and two-way traffic flow.) As closed systems, they trap pollutants inside. Conlee et al. (1967) compared values taken from the Sumner Tunnel in Boston when it was used as a one-way tube and when it was used as a two-way system. Pollutant levels decreased when the tunnel was used for one-way traffic only. Larsen and Konopinski (1962) conducted a thorough study of pollutants in the Sumner Tunnel. CO peaked at 250 ppm (at this concentration warning signals caused new vents to be opened,) Many weekday peaks ranged from 120 to 150 ppm. The soiling index inside the tunnel was found to be five times that outside. Particulate matter was 100 pg/m3 outside and 600 pg/rn3 inside. Organic particulate matter was found to be 11 times the outside amount, which indicates considerable enrichment inside the tunnel. Lead inside the tunnel was found to be 45 times the outside levels. Benzo(a)pyrene was as much as 200 times more concentrated inside the tunnel than outside. Findings similar to Konopinski’s were reported by Chovin (1967) in a Paris auto-exhaust study. Chovin also found that the concentration of pollutants within a tunnel depended on its length. Ayres et al. (1973). reporting for New York tunnels, found that CO averages were 63 ppm for the 30-day testing period with peaks of 217 ppm. Lead averaged 30.9 pg/mJ with peaks up to 98 Fg/m3, as determined by high-volume sampling. Hydrocarbons

14

STERLING

AND

KORAYASHI

average 7.9 ppm with peaks at 29.6 ppm. Similar findings were reported by Wilkins (1956) of CO levels in Blackwell Tunnel in London. Levels ranged from 150 to 590 ppm, in 19.54, and from 235 to 470 ppm in 1955. A later investigation of the same tunnel, and of Rotherhithe Tunnel, was conducted by Waller ef ~1. (1961). Again, values for all pollutants were extremely high. Particulates ranged from 93 to 235 pg/lOO m3. CO on the average was over 100 ppm. with a maximum peak at 500 ppm. Oxides of nitrogen ranged from 1 to 8 ppm. Garages

Parking garages may have pollutant-concentrating abilities similar to those of tunnels. Ramsey (1967) found garage air to contain from 7 ppm to 240 ppm of CO. The mean concentration was 58.9 ppm. In all employees, COHb levels were found to increase significantly from 2.4% in the morning to 8.4% in the evening. Trompeo et al. (1964) reported similar findings for garages in Turin. CO levels were found to reach 100 ppm, on the average, ranging from 10 to 300 ppm. Chovin (1967) measured 80 to 100 ppm of CO on the average, with frequent peaks of 200 ppm lasting for as long as 20 minutes, in ventilated Paris garages. Goldsmith (1970) reported that traffic jams in parking garages during mass exits could raise levels of pollutants to extreme concentrations. While no measurements have been taken of pollutants such as benzo(a)pyrene, soiling particulates, or lead, the findings on CO would indicate that these pollutant levels are also probably very high. Airplanes

Unlike submarines, fresh air enters the aircraft during flight, and little if any machinery within the passenger cabin contributes to the pollution load. A study by the U.S. Department of Transportation (1971) tested the air during a large number of flights for CO, hydrocarbons, ammonia, particulates, ozone, relative humidity, and temperature. Sampling was undertaken in four locations throughout each aircraft. Pollutant concentrations were, on the whole, low. CO for the majority of flights was less than 5 ppm and averaged 2 ppm. No hydrocarbon contamination was detected. Particulates were higher, measuring 120 pg/m3. Some benzo(a)pyrene contamination was found with particulates but only in five samples. Ammonia and ozone levels were negligible. TOBACCO-INDUCED

POLLUTION IN TRANSPORTATION-RELATED ENCLOSURES

As with domestic premises, tobacco smoke data for transportation-related enclosures such as cars, garages, buses, and trains, is spares. However, there are a few useful studies available. Automobiles

In 1974, Harke et al. conducted two sets of experiments with cigaretteproduced CO. In the first of these tests (1974b), a car was placed in a wind tunnel with four passengers, three of whom smoked cigarettes. Time spent smoking was varied, as was wind speed and ventilation. At 0 km/hour, with full ventilation, CO averaged 8 to 10 ppm when six cigarettes were smoked intermittently. At 50 km/hour with no ventilation, and nine cigarettes smoked intermittently, CO reached 30 ppm. When cigarettes were smoked continuously, one after the other, final CO levels were registered at 80 ppm with no wind or ventilation factor. With

wind and ventilation, however, CO remained at 5 to 6 ppm. with no increases observed. In all cases CO levels returned to base levels even with no ventilation. within a few minutes after smoking stopped. In the second set of tests (Harke, 1974a), cars of different makes were driven in Hamburg streets while being tested for CO. Cigarettes were smoked continuously by two of the four passengers. Each car made two runs per day with and without ventilation. At no ventilation , 21.4 ppm CO was registered on the average. With the air jets open, CO averaged 15.7 ppm, and with the blower also on, CO averaged 12.0 ppm. Speed was also an important factor. At 80 km/hour and with ventilation off, CO averaged 12.1 ppm, while at 35 km/hour CO reached 24.3 ppm. Unfortunately, Harke does not report background CO levels. Srch (1967) measured CO concentrations produced by cigarettes in a closed automobile with no ventilation present in or outside. The test car was parked in an unventilated garage while two smokers consumed five cigarettes each in 1 hour. CO levels reach 90 ppm in that time. COHb in smokers rose from 5 to lo%, and in the two non smokers present, from 2 to 5%. Buses

The U. S. Department of Transportation in 1973 conducted a study of cigarette-caused pollution on intercity buses. Inside a stationary Greyhound bus with the engine off, vents open, and blower on, cigarettes were allowed to burn in the ashtrays. Test conditions ranged from the “worst” case, where it was assumed that all 43 passengers smoked half the time, to the “realistic” case, where only the last 20% of the seats were allotted to smokers. After 30 minutes in the worst case, CO stabilized at 33 ppm, and in the realistic case, CO stabilized at 18 ppm, after 43 minutes, with the outside level 13 ppm. Additional values obtained under normal operating conditions were provided by Hinds and First (1975). Nicotine concentration was found to be 6.3 pg/m3 on a commuter bus and 1.0pg/m3 in a bus station waiting room. These values, however, represent only a single case. Hinds and First also reported that passengers ignored smoking and nonsmoking zones indicated on the bus. As some suggestions have been made to segregate smokers and nonsmokers on buses, Hinds and First’s observations raise the problem of how such segregations would be enforced. Also, as Amiro (1967) had found CO values to be higher at the rear of the bus, a question is raised of how to distribute smokers and nonsmokers equitably. Trains

Harmsen and Effenberger (1957) studied “dust” in nonsmoker and smoker cars. Dust values in smoker cars ranged from 100 to 200 particles/cm3 of air, and from 21 to 63 particles/cm3 in nonsmoker cars. The numbers of cigarettes were not specified. Unfortunately it was not reported whether the numbers of passengers were different in the two types of car. CO and nicotine were then surveyed on the same trains. CO ranged from 0 in nonsmoker cars, up to 40 ppm in heavily smoked cars. Nicotine ranged from 0.7 mg/lOOO liters with light smoking to 3.1 mg/lOOO liters with heavy smoking. The method of CO measurement (Draeger tube) used in this study, however. is not a very accurate one, and has a wide margin of error (?25%). This applies to the nicotine assay method (wet method) as well. Hinds and First (1975) reported nicotine concentrations of a much lower level.

1968

u Derived

from

tables.

Buildings Buildings Buildings

Assoc.

DeRouane, 1971 Japan Air Cleaning Yocom. 1971a.b

1975 premises premises

Domestic premises (N = 60) Domestic premises

Domestic Domestic

and Inculet,

et crl., 1976

Location

Sofoluwe. 1968 Yocom, 197la.b

Lefcoe

Biersteker

Source

Ayres et al., 1973 Larsen and Konopski.

Tunnel 1962 Tunnel

Buildings Buildings Buildings

1971 1972

Hunt and Cadoff. McNesby et ol., Yocom, 197la.b

Yocom,

Domestic

SULFUR

given

DIOXIDE

9

30.9 45

1.75

95 and 59 pglm3 Not given Not given

37.8 ppm Not given

Up to 300 &m3 Not given Not given

x

indoors

indoors

= outdoor

5- 100 ppm Up to 0.8 ppm

o-co.1

Range

1 &m3

co.06

pphm”

greater

Detected Detected Slightly greater

Slightly

Comments

0- 246 Kg/m3

Up to 98 Not given

Not given Not given 0.18-2.04

0.47-

Range (&m3)

35.43 &m3”

value

Not given Not given Not given

Not

Mean value Mh3)

8

Mean

TABLE

premises

Location

1971a.b

Source

LEAD

TABLE

in

levels

25% of outdoor levels 20% of outdoor levels Little relation between indoor and outdoor

Coal-heated homes, more SO, indoors

Little difference outdoor-indoor

20% of outdoor

Comments

E

2

$

6

r x 2

EXPOSURE

TO

POLLL’TANTS

17

indoors. Ventilation through doors, windows, cracks, and crevices is the sole avenue for the elimination of toxic contaminants. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that the air in homes and other areas of human habitation sometimes exceeds exposure levels to toxic materials found in submarines and space craft. It has yet to be recognized that the dangers of contaminants in sealed environments also apply to partially sealed domestic premises and especially to the modem officebuilding type of structure. This is especially true because the many sources of pollution isolated in artificially sealed environments are present in the home and in public buildings. Significant, too, is the enrichment of particles in the house. Particles such as soot and fibers offer surfaces to which may adhere any number of chemicals. Many of these chemicals may be toxic. One frequent source of such toxic materials is the industrially employed adult who may carry home dusts containing harmful substances such as beryllium and asbestos on his clothing, hair, or skin. (For instances of familial disease see Lieben and Williams (1969) and Anderson (1976).) There are many other sources, generated both within and without a building. Many of the pollutants result from the combustion of coal and petroleum. Much of this benzene-soluble organic matter that adheres to and is found in heightened concentrations on particles breathed in the home is basically carcinogenic. The longer the particles remain in a home, the more they may become concentrators of toxic matter. When such particles become lodged in the lungs, the>7 muy be much more harrnfY than particles found in the outside air. In fact, the incidence of so-called familial occupational disease may be related to this process of particle enrichment. High levels of CO resulting from cooking should be of considerable concern. Apparently CO levels of 200 to 300 ppm are not unlikely to occur in poorly ventilated homes, and the extremely high levels of CO (as found in Nigerian and New Guinea homes) may very likely occur also in homes in North America. This is especially so in the homes of the poor, where good ventilation is not likely to be found. Great concern has been expressed recently that tobacco smoke is a major source of pollution in the home and in public buildings (Schmeltz et al. (1975) and Rylander (1974), for instance.) Our review of data has therefore taken special notice of studies that have measured levels of tobacco-related pollutants. Unfortunately, many of the studies measuring dust or CO in the smoker’s environment innocently assume zero levels of these contaminants in the absence of smoke so that the addition of smoking to the overall pollution can be assessed only approximately. Fortunately, it has now been shown that CO values in buildings and the associated COHb levels and the contributions of smoking to these levels can be estimated with great accuracy. Where conditions of ventilation and other parameters are known, contributions of cigarette emissions to CO and COHb levels were predicted with good accuracy by Jones and Fagan (1974, 1975). This was accomplished by applying to the by now well-tested equation developed by Turk and another equation for COHb levels by Pace (1946). data from Anderson and Dalhamn (1973), Lefcoe and Inculet (1971), and the Department of Transportation surveys of aircraft (1971) and buses (1973). With poor ventilation, it appears that

18

STERLING

AND

IiOBAYASHI

smoking adds to the body burden, but not extensively. For instance, CO values in average-sized public rooms and under average conditions of ventilation appear to be increased by 7 to 9 ppm when smoking is permitted in them (Bridge and Corn, 1972). Similarly, the amount of nicotine found in the air of public places ranges between 0.001 and 0.011 filter-cigarette equivalents per hour (Hinds and First, 1975). It is clear that while smoking adds to overall pollutant levels, it is only one other, and a relatively minor, source of pollution. SOME

UNPLEASANT

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT PUBLIC BUILDINGS

POLLUTANT

BURDENS

IN

As with domestic structures, many sources of indoor contamination found in submarines are also likely to be found in public buildings. Yet, the increasing use of steel and glass structures suggests a number of serious problems. As in all sealed structures, the escape rate of contaminants is seriously impeded and pollutants may easily build up inside. It may be possible that many of the undesirable features of completely enclosed structures, such as submarines, actually are amplified by the characteristics of public buildings. Also, the special antipollution devices which submarines carry are conspicuously absent in office and public buildings. In general, public buildings have no way of removing CO, COz, hydrocarbons, lead, ammonia, oxides of nitrogen, oxidants, and other pollutants present in the outer air and likely found indoors as well. The more airtight a structure is, the longer it can trap contaminants inside. As Schulte (1964) points out, pollutant concentrations in submarines rise very rapidly when the CO burners, CO, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, inert filters, activated beds, etc., are not operating. Usually there are no similar air-cleansing mechanisms in public structures. Present studies appear to show that indoor pollution in public office buildings is of greater potential harm than outdoor pollution. Air-conditioned and modern enclosed buildings are penetrable, sometimes highly penetrable, by nearly all forms of outdoor pollution. Even with filtration and pollutant-removal devices, there is a great possibility that pollutants will be trapped inside and will lead to continuous exposure at high levels. With a significant increase in outside pollution to be expected in cities as we turn increasingly toward cheaper fuels, these exposures may constitute a real threat to the health of a large part of the urban population. l

1 This threat may be infinitely aggravated during energy crises, when the action of ventilation equipment and antipollution devices will be curtailed. according to recent suggestions by the American Society of Heating. Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (1975).

z

and Kitamura,

U Derived from tables. b Department stores, cinema.

Matsumoto

1973 and Konopinski. et cd., 1961

bowling

Subways

tearoom,

1971

1962

1971*

TulUlel5 TWloels Tunnels

Buildings Buildings Buildings Buildings Buildings Buildings

DeRouane, 197 I Jacobs et al., 1962 Japan Air Cleaning Assoc.. Hunt and Cadoff, 1971 Matsumoto and Kitamura. Yocom. 197la.b

et al..

Domestic

l97la.b

Yocom.

Ayres Larsen Wdler

Domestic

rf crl., I972

Schaefer

1968

Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic

Biersteker ~1 rrl., 1965 Cleary and Blackburn. 1968 Jacobs et al.. 1962 Lefcoe and Inculet. 1971. 1975

Source

alley

premises

premises

premises premises premises premises

Location

(N

= 2)

(N = 100)

(N = 60)

value

given

1.28 mg/m3

200 Kg/m3 600 &m” Not given

38 and 45 &m3 Not given Not given Not given Not given Not given

Not

157.72 pglm” 666 &m3 Not given (1022.79)~(103/ft3) (filter offp (406.66)~(103/ft3) (filter onp Not given

Mean

TABLE PIIR.I.I(:ITI Range

0.43-2.43

rag/m”

Not given Not given 93-235 &100m3

Up to 300 pg/m3 4-53.4 mgift3 Not given Not given 0.22-2.04 mg/m3 22-107 &rn?

4.5-9 mg (mass/foil) residential 9 to > I8 mg (mass/foil) cities 32-76 yglm3

52-309 fiCLgim3 Peak = 4862 &m3 1.7 - 34.9 mp/ft3 (139.3-1584.28).(103/ft3)

1 ATES

areas level

less than

than

outdoor

indoor

indoors

of outdoox

found

higher

fibers

= 80%

1% times

Six times

outside

outside

levels

levels

77.5-84.9s of outdoor level Smaller particles indoors Filters reduce particles “significantly” Lower levels indoors Double outdoor values “severe” dust Lower levels indoors

Indoor

Outdoor

More

Indoor

Comments

1972

Tall

Buildings Small

Godin ef al..

Yates. 1967 Yocom. 1971a,b

Wade ef al., 1975

Domestic (N = 98) Domestic (gas stove) Domestic (kitchen) (Gas stove)

Sofoluwe. 1968 Tanaka er al., 1971

Farm house Outdoor Indoor Suburban home Outdoor Indoor Domestic

Domestic premises (N = 300)

Location

Domestic

1970

1968

1962

Not given Not given Not given Not given

2.0 r 1.4 1.9 -t 1.3 Not given Not given

IO-2500+

Not given Not given 1st floor, 2.2 2 1.3 2nd floor. 2.8 ? 1.5 1st floor. 4.6 54th floor. 2.4

4190-90701

Not given

Not Not Not Not

given given given given

1-5 ppm

loo-3ooo up to 290

940.2

Not given

1.0 c

Not given Not given

t

200-300 (selected 150 (peak) cases)

ft

ft

Comments

= 2.7 ? 1.5 ppm = 6.4 ppm

Outdoor Outdoor

Peaks occurred coincidental to operation of gas appliances Referrals tested, 100% CO positive random sample tested, 33% CO positive

100,000 persons exposedyr in U.S. Winter indoor CO higher than outdoor

ft (outdoors)

Comments

0.53 Cohs/lOOO

90% of homes tested, CO positive

Cohs/lOOO

Cohs/lOOO

Range

given

Range (ppm)

Not

0.19-0.61

0.22-0.52

0.6 0.8

0.8

21.3

Not given

ft

TABLE 3 MONOXIDE

Mean value (ppm)

CAHBOh’

given

4.25 CohsllOOO

given

Not

Not

value

Tunnels

premises

Mean

2 1NDF.S

Buildings

Domestic

Location

Kahn et al., 1974

Goldsmith,

Cleary and Blackburn. Godin et a/. , 1972

1969

and Konopinski,

Larsen

Amiro.

1971a.b

Yocom,

SOUrCe

1971a.b

Yocom,

Source

TABLE SOILING

1969

I%2

Chovin. 1967 Ramsey, I967 Trompeo et al., I964 Amiro, 1969 Johnson et al., I975

Ayres et nl., 1973 Larsen and Konopinski, Wailer et al., 1%1 Wilkins. 1956

Garages Garages Garages Bus (N = 191) Bus

Tunnels Tunnels Tunnels Tunnels

Cars

Cars

Cars

Haagen-Smit,

1966

(N = 4)

Cars (N = 21)

Buildings Ice rink Buildings

Cars

1967

1966

I969

Godin er al., 1972

Chovin.

Brice and Roesler.

Amiro,

Japan Air Cleaning Society, Johnson Y* al., I975 Yocom, 1971a; 1971h

Mean range 80-100 58.9 100 Not given 15-25

Chicago. 37 Cincinnati. 21 Denver, 40 St. Louis, 36 Washington, 25 24.3 (1965) 24.6 (1%6) 78.8 c 58.0 (mean peak for heavy traffic) 37 (normal traffic) 54 (heavy traffic) 63 Mean range I20- 150 100 Not given

400 (mean peak)

Not given 304 (mean peak) 3.14

25-800 O-100

200(pew 7-240 IO-300

up to 500 150-590 (1954) 235-470 (1955)

Up to 217

250(pea

20-59 8-50 22-72 11-77 7-43 Not given Not given Not given Not given 220 (peak)

Range 0- 1000

Not given 157-304 range of means 0.76-6.02

52% tested. CO positive

In one car driver’s seat contained 200 ppm in 60 seconds

Indoor/outdoor ratio = IOOZ and over

CO same as outdoors

N

1975

61Derived

from

tables.

Ayres ef al., 1973 Larsen and Konopinski, Wailer er al., 1961

(NO)

Wade et nl.. (NO,)

1975

and Verduyn,

Lefcoe and Inculet. (NO,) Sofoluwe. 1968

DeRouane

Source

Source

1971 1972

Buildings Building

Location

5

Not Not

Mean

given given

value

AMMONIUM SULFATE

TABLE

1.38 ppm 25.5 pgim3 Not given

Tunnels Tunnels Tunnels

given

Not

&rn”

of means: pg/rn?

Not Not

given given

Range

Up to 6.13 ppm Not given 1-8 ppm

53-305

Range 53-213

given

Not

ppm

0.5-50

given

8.6 ppm

Not

Range

Up to 2000 &m3 0.55 1.5 pphm

value

600 &mS (water heater) 250 pglrn3 (gas range) Not given
Mean

Domestic (kitchen)

Bathroom Domestic premises Domestic premises Domestic (kitchen)

Kitchen

Hunt and Cadoff, McNesby et al.,

1962

1974

Location

Detected Detected

Comments

Peaks coincidental of gas appliances

to operation

No significant difference in indoor and outdoor

NO, = one-third of total NO, during operation of appliances

Ayres et al.. 1973 Larsen and Konopinski.

and Roesler,

1962

Tunnels Tunnels

D.C.

premises premises

premises

Cars Chicago. Cincinnati, Denver, St. Louis, Washington,

Buildings

Brice

197la,b

1966

Domestic

Yocom.

1975

Domestic Domestic

ef al.,

Location

, 1962

Megaw

Sofoluwe. 1968 Yocom. 197la.b

Bridbord

Source

1962

Megaw.

Source

Buildings

Domestic

6

given

7.9 690”

4.8 5.1 9.6 9.3 6.2

Not given

85.6 Not given

Not

Mean value (wm)

TABLE 7 HYDROCARBONS

premises

Location

TABLE 131,

x (103)

given

Up to 29.6 Not given

2.4-8.4 3.6~ 11.6 4.6- 19.0 4.4- 19.0 2.0-23.0

5-24.66

25-200 5.3-25.P

Not

Range (mm)

2.7

1.54 x (10”)

Mean values (PC/m”)

i

given

given

Comments

benzene

benzene

indoors

indoors

= 2.6 ngimR (outside)

More

More

Sources of halogenated aerosols and solvents

Not

Not

Range

hydrocarbons

w

B F 2 ; z

d

$ c 2

m x

1968

u Derived

from

tables.

Buildings Buildings Buildings

Assoc.

DeRouane, 1971 Japan Air Cleaning Yocom. 1971a.b

1975 premises premises

Domestic premises (N = 60) Domestic premises

Domestic Domestic

and Inculet,

et crl., 1976

Location

Sofoluwe. 1968 Yocom, 197la.b

Lefcoe

Biersteker

Source

Ayres et al., 1973 Larsen and Konopski.

Tunnel 1962 Tunnel

Buildings Buildings Buildings

1971 1972

Hunt and Cadoff. McNesby et ol., Yocom, 197la.b

Yocom,

Domestic

SULFUR

given

DIOXIDE

9

30.9 45

1.75

95 and 59 pglm3 Not given Not given

37.8 ppm Not given

Up to 300 &m3 Not given Not given

x

indoors

indoors

= outdoor

5- 100 ppm Up to 0.8 ppm

o-co.1

Range

1 &m3

co.06

pphm”

greater

Detected Detected Slightly greater

Slightly

Comments

0- 246 Kg/m3

Up to 98 Not given

Not given Not given 0.18-2.04

0.47-

Range (&m3)

35.43 &m3”

value

Not given Not given Not given

Not

Mean value Mh3)

8

Mean

TABLE

premises

Location

1971a.b

Source

LEAD

TABLE

in

levels

25% of outdoor levels 20% of outdoor levels Little relation between indoor and outdoor

Coal-heated homes, more SO, indoors

Little difference outdoor-indoor

20% of outdoor

Comments

E

2

$

6

r x 2

1967

Source

tables.

and Blackburn.

Source

from

and Fritsch.

Banaszak et al., 1970, Fink et nl.. 1971

Cleary

o Derived

Castleman

1974

1968

1971

1964

1973

1969

and Kitamura.

Lieben and Williams, Rohl et (il.. 1975 Selikoff ef trl.. 197’2

Srch.

Matsumoto

and Leshchinskii,

Grusha

1971

ef al..

Tanaka

Source

Heaters Heaters

Domestic

Buildings

Domestic Domestic Domestic

premises

and air conditioners and air conditioners

premises

Location

premises premises premises

Location

Cars

Buildings

School

Domestic

Location

11

value

41,s

given

12

value

Not given Not given

1.08 ppm

Mean

MISCEUANEOUS

TABLE

Not

value

3% in 60 minutes

Not given 9.38 fibers/ml” Not given

Mean

MINER

TABLE

given

given

Not given

Not

Not

Mean

TABLE 10 CARROS D~osrne

Not

Not given Not given

3.8 ppm

Range

given

Not given 0.5 to 59.0 Not given

Range

Not

Not

Not

Not

peak

given

given

given

given

Range 0 depleted

Thermophilic Thermophilic

fungi fungi

found in tireof buildings

Aldehydes

Asbestos, proofing

detected detected

Beryllium detected Asbestos, quartz. and talc detected Asbestos, higher in workman’s home than outdoors

indoors

by end of class levels

0 depleted

Higher

Double

Rise in CO?,

Comments

2 4 5 i CA

B

;’

E

2

B

s

1972

1970

et ul..

Harke.

Harke

1972

and Corn.

Dublin,

Bridge

1972

and Dalhamn.

Anderson

Verduyn.

and

DeRouane

Study

1973

1974

To~cro

1

2

Party

170 m3 38.2 38.2 m3

Office”

Oflice”

Oft-i@

m3

S7m3

OffiClF

ft3

4860 30 m3 30 m3

ft3

ft3

4860

3570

Conference room Conference room Office Offke

No.

80 ms

Conference room Party No. 512OfP

50 ma

Dimensions of premises

ON INDOOR

Domestic premises

Location

S~vnr~s

13

vent

vent

vent

vent

vent

30 cig.

5 cig.

150 cig.

42 cig.

0

0

0

21 persons

5 hr 5 hr

11 cig. 11 cig.

1 person 1 person

12lhr Open Closed, no Closed no Closed, no Closed. no Closed no

window

5 min

13 min

13 min

30 min

16- 18 min

64

11.5

53 mm

48 mm

Under Under

2

20.5-32.5 1 person

9 wm value

Initial

2 cig.

12lhr

10.6ihr

7 mm

1.5 hr

4.5 ppm

6 ppm

7.5 ppm

(wm) smoking (x)

1.5 hr

50 cig. 17 cigars 63 cig. 10 cigars 2 cig.

120 min

34 min

Time

CONDITIONS

7 changes/hr

0

Number of persons present

EXPEKIMENTAI

7 smokers & 5 nonsmokers 25 nonsmokers 2.5 smokers 37 smokers 36 nonsmokers I person

UNL~ER

50 cig.

3 cig.

Amount of tobacco smoked

MEASURED

TABLE CO

6/hr

Closed

Ventilation

SMOKY

10 10

(peak)

co

None

None

None

None

None None

1 pm

1 wm

No controls

No controls

2 wm

-4wm

Nonsmoking controls

levels

5 t:

;c”

and Effenberger.

” Abnormally

high smoking

rates.

Not given

Not given

Cap

CW

Not given

CW

Not given

Not given

Car

Bus”

Not given

Car

Dept. of Trans.,

Not given Not given

CW CalO

Not given

Not given

CW

25 m3 25 In3 15 m3 1440 ft3

98 m3

Office

Offke Office Office Office”

98 ms

OfIke”

&IQ

1973

1970

1957

Srch, 1967

Harke ef al.. 1974b

Lawther and Commins. Russell cr al., 1973

Hoegg. 1972

Harmsen

Not given

50 kmihr No vent. No vent 0 km/hr Vent. open 0 km’hr No vent. 59 kmihr No vent 50 km/hr Vent. open 0 kmihr No vent Parked in garage. no vent Not given

Closed, no vent Closed, no vent 1 changeihr No vent.

Closed. no vent

5 cig.

21 cig.

10 cig.

6 cig.

6 cig.

6 cig.

9 cig.

6 cig. 6 cig.

24 cig. 4 cig. 7 cig. 80 cig., 2 cigars 9 cig.

62 cig., “nicotinerich” 26 cig.

0

0

4 persons 2 smokers

42 min

30 min

1 hr

One by one

One by one

4 persons 4 persons

One by one

Simultaneous Simultaneous

Simultaneous

200 min 200 min 1 hr 18 min

I hr

2 hr

4 persons

4 persons

4 persons 4 persons

4 persons

I person 1 person Not given 21 persons

Not given

Not given

18

33

90

80

5-6

IO- 15

110

IO 8-10

30

69.8 -10 20 38.2

40

80

7 PPm ambient 13 mm ambient

None

None

None

None

None

None None

None

Not given Not given None None

level

level

5 2 4 -iCA

and Commins,

Lawther

1970

1957

Location

Isnoo~

S\~OKF

TABLE

No vent. I chgihr

25 IS

No vent.

6ihr

Closed m3/sec recirculation 0.06 m”/sec infiltration

0.35

Ventilation

ICVL.ATF,S

Chamber Offkeu

PARI

No vent. No vent.

98

38

80

425

50

Dimensions of premises

o

98 25

room

TORAU

Office” Office0 Chamber

Office0

Conference

Domestic”

Domestic Domestic”

ON

IIYI)LK

7 cig.

4 cig.

24 cig.

62 cig. 26 cig.

30 cig.

50 cig.

35 cig.

3 cig. 12 cig.

Amount of tobacco smoked

14 ML.\SUWI)

1 person 1 person

Not given Not given 1 person

0

7 smokers 5 nonsmokers

0

0 0

Number of persons present

EKPFRIMFYIIAL

200 min 1 hr

1 hr 200 min

2 hr

1 I-90

120 min

lhr

24 min 1 hr

Time

0.02 mg/m”

aim3

-2700

1000 pglm3 -1100 pgim”

Smoking 6)

Harke

(1974d)

mg/mB -2.5 mgim” 3 mg/m”

16.65

given

studied

Not

dust

given

None None Not given

None

None

60 F*gim

60 wdm

Not

Nonsmoking controls

Particulates

min 20.8- 10.2 mdm 93 part/cm3 53 part/cm3

CONDIIIONS*

n Abnormally high smoking rates. b Note: At present, methods for determining levels of particulate matter generated by cigarettes are not entirely accurate. sampling on filters. light scattering, FID and LR-adsorption methods. All proved unsatisfactory in at least one main aspect.

1972

and Effenberger,

1974d

Hoegg.

Harmsen

Harke.

1973

Anderson

and Dalhamn.

1974

cfo!ks

DeRouane and Verduyn, McNall, 1975

Study

SI

1972

1957b

1973

highly

Office Offie Officea Offkea Officea Office” Office0 Officea

Office

O Abnormally high smoking rates. * These results were determined with

and Effenberger,

et al..

Harke

Harmsen

, 1970

and Dalhamn,

Harke

Anderson

Location

unspecific

30 30 57 30.2 30.2 170 98 98

80

testing

methods

Not given Window open Not given Not given Not given Not given Not given Window open

6/hr cig. cig. cig. cig. cig. cig. cig. cig.

and have

11 11 42 5 30 150 62 26

50 cig.

Dimensions of premises Ventilation

Amount of tobacco smoked

5 cig. 30 cig. 150 cig.

TABLE 16 SMOKE NICO-TISE MEASURED

None None None

Ventilation

Amount of tobacco smoked

To~~.~c:co

38.2 38.2 170

(m3)

S I LIL)I~S ON INDOOR

rates.

Offke” ORice Office”

Location

high smoking

1972

Study

et ul.,

” Abnormally

Harke

Study

Dimensions of premises

never

EYPEKIXI~N

again

13 13 30

Time (min)

study.

0.04 0.06-0.09 0.5 0.06 0.52 0.69 -5.2 -3.8

0.377

mgim” smoking

0.07 0.38 0.46

Acrolein (mgim3)

in any other

120 min (peak) 5 hr 5 hr 16- 18 min 13 min 13 mm 18 mm 2hr 1 hr

Time

I AL Coror~ro~s

been obtained

7 smokers 5 nonsmokers 1 person 1 person 21 persons Not given Not given Not given Not given Not given

Number of persons present

I‘ND~R

0 0 0

Number of persons present

Nicotine

measured Not measured Not measured Not measured Not measured Not measured Not measured Not measured Not measured

Not

Nonsmoking

1.3 4.2 6.5

Acetaldehyde

F 5 5 i

z

5

1972

I974a

1975

1974~

Godin.

Harke.

Slavin.

Harke,

D.O.T., 1971 Godin et nl., 1972

1975

Elliott,

Study

Aircraft Ferryboat

Cars

(Individual rooms) Confce. rm

given

given

Not

Not

given given

given

Not

Not Not

given

Not

Not given Not given 30 km/hr No vent 30 kmhr Vent open 80 kmihr No vent 80 km/hr Vent open Not given Not given

8/hr 6lhr

Not given

Not given

12 stories

given

given

given

Office

Not

Not

Ventilation

Not

given

given

of

Tos-\cco

21 stories

Not

Not

Dimensions premises

ON INDOOR

Office

Theatre

Arenas

Location

SKIDIES

TABLE 17 CO MEASL~RLD

Not Not

Freely

Freely

Freely

Freely

Not Not

given given

given given

40 cig./day in large room 70 cig./day in large room Varied

Not given

Not given

Amount of tobacco smoked

SMOKE

NA I’LIKI.

given

given

given

Not Not

given given

4 persons (3 smokers)

Not given Not given

Not

Not

Not

11.000 to 14.000 Not given

Number of persons present

CND~K

given

LOSS

given

Not Not

given given

Not given

Not

Not given

Not given

1 day I day

18 days

18 days

18 days

Not given

Not

Time

CONDII

; increase

2 18.4 k 8.7

7-10

10-12

21.4 (increase) over outside) 10.7

8 10

l-2

2-11

3.4 k 0.08 (foyer) 2-11

14.3

Smoking (mm)

Not measured 3.0 + 2.4

11-15

II-15

1.4 2 0.8 (auditorium) 2-11

3

km Nonsmoking

CO Levels

v: ;;i E

1971

1975

” Note:

The accuracy

in this

IY57a

of results

Harmsen and Effenberger. Hinds and First, 1975

D.O.T..

1964

and Rowe.

Galuskmova.

Elliott

Study

study

are highly

Trains Commuter trains Commuter bus Bus waiting room Airline waiting room Restaurant Cocktail lounge Student lounge

Aircraft

Restaurant

Arenas

Location

Not Not Not Not

given

Not Not given Not given Not given

given given given

given

given given

given given

given

as the method

Not Not

Not

Not given Not given

questionable.

given

Not given

Not

Ventilation

Not Not

given

of

Not given Not given

Not

Not given

Not given

Dimensions premises

of nicotine

Not Not Not

Not

Not Not

Not Not

Nor

Not

Not

assay

given given given

given

given given

grven given

given

given

given

Amount of tobacco smoked

given

given given

given given

given

given

is nonspecific

Not given Not given Not given

Not

Not Not

Not Not

Not

Not

I l.ooO-14.ooo

Number persons present

of

given

given

given

given Not given Not given Not given

Not

Not given Not given

Not given Not given

Not

Not

Not

Time

3.1 j&m3

6.3 &m3 I .O @g/m3

measured measured measured

measured

Not Not Not Not

measured measured

measured measured Not Not

Not Not

0.7-3.1 r&m” 4.9 fig/m3

Nicotine

Not

Particulates 120 /Lgw (peak)

measured

0.69 ngirn,’ 0.28-4.61 IO0 ma

12.5 npim3 2.83- 14.41 100 m3

BaP

68&n3

Nonsmoking

367 j&m3

Particulates

Smoking

w

32

STERLING

AND

KOBAYASHI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are beholden to Drs. M. Corn, P. Harke. H. Schievelbein, and R. Suskind for their astute criticisms of earlier drafts of this work and many useful suggestions.

REFERENCES Alvis, H. J. (1952) “CO Toxicity in Submarine Medicine,” Naval Research Laboratory. Report No. 208, NM 002, 015.03, June 25. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (1975). “Building Code.” October I. Amiro. A. G. (1969). CO presents public health problems. J. Btv~ron Health 32, 83-88. Anderson, G., and Dalhamn, T. (1973). Health risks from passive smoking. Lukasridningen 70 (33). 2833-2836. Anderson. H. A.. Lilis. R., Daum. S. M.. Fischbein. A. S.. and Selikoff, I. J. (1976). Househo]dcontact asbestos neoplastic risk. Ann. N. Y. Acud. Sci. 31 l-323. Anderson. W. L., and Saunders, R. A. (1964). Evolution of materials in the closed system. In “Symposium on Toxicity in the Closed Ecological System” (Honma and Crosby, eds.), Material Sciences Lab., Lockheed Missile and Space Co., Palo Alto, Calif., April. Ayres. S. M., Evans, R.. Licht, D., Briesbach, J., Reimold, F.. Ferrand, E. F.. and Criscitiello, A. (1973). Health Effects of exposure to high concentrations of automotive emissions. Arch. Environ. Health 27, 168-178. Banaszak, E. F., Barboriak, J.. Fink, J., Scanlon, G.. Schlueter. D. P.. Sosman, A., Thiede. W., and Unger. G. (1974). Epidemiologic studies relating thermophilic fungi and hypersensitivity lung syndromes. Amer. Rev. Resp. Dir. 110, 585-591. Banaszak. E. F.. Thiede. W. H., and Fink, J. N. (1970). Hypersensitivity pneumonitis due to contamination of an air conditioner. N. Engl. J. Med. 283, 271-276. Biersteker, K., DeGraaf, H., and Hass. Ch. A. G. (1965). Indoor air pollution in Rotterdam homes. Int. J. Air

Wuter

Pollut.

9, 343-350.

Brice, R. M., and Roesler. J. F. (1966). The exposure to CO of occupants of vehicles moving in heavy traffic. J. APCA. 16, 597-600. Bridbord, K., Brubaker, P. E., Gay. B., and French. J. G. (1975). Exposure to halogenated hydrocarbons in the indoor environment. Environ. Health Persp. 11, 215-220. Bridge, D. P.. and Corn, M. (1972). Contribution to the assessment of non-smokers to air pollution from cigarette and cigar smoke in occupied spaces. Environ. Res. 5, 192-209. Castleman, B. I.. and Fritsch, A. J. (1973). “Asbestos and You.” Center for Science in the Public Interest, Washington, D.C. Chovin, P. (1967). CO: analysis of exhaust gas investigations in Paris. Environ. Res. 1, 198-216. Cleary, G. J., and Blackbum. C. R. B. (1968). Air pollution in native huts in the highlands of New Guinea. Arch. Environ. Health 17, 785-794. Conlee, C. J., Kenline, P. A., Cummins, R. L., and Konopinski, V. J. (1967). Motor vehicle exhaust at three selected sites. Arch. Environ. Health 14, 429466. Corn, M. (1974). Characteristics of tobacco sidestream smoke and factors influencing its concentration and distribution in occupied spaces. In “Environmental Tobacco Smoke Effects on the NonSmoker” (R. Rylander, Ed.), p. 21-36. University of Geneva. Switzerland. Department of Transportation (U. S.) “Health Aspects of Smoking in Transport Aircraft,” U. S. National Technical information Service, December 1971. Department of Transportation (U. S.) “CO as an Indicator of Cigarette Caused Pollution in lntercity Buses.” Technical Report D.O.T., April 1973. DeRouane. Alain (1971). Indoor air pollution as related to outdoor pollution. Cent. Be/g Efude Dot. EUKT. 24 (377).

553-560.

DeRouane, A., and Verduyn, G. (1974). Study of some factors affecting air pollution inside buildings. Trib. Cebedenu 27, 482-488. Dublin, W. (1972). Unwilling smoker. Calij: Med. 117, 7677. Ebersole, J. H. (19571. Submarine medicine on the USS Nautilus and the USS Seawolf. Proc. Roy. SW. Med. 51, 63-74. Ebersole. J. H. (1960). The new dimensions of submarine medicine. N. Eng. J. Med. 262, 599-610.

EMPOSITRE Elliott,

TO POLLL’TANTS

33

L. P.. and Rowe. D. R. (1975). Air quality during public gatherings. J. Air Pollut. Corm. Ass. 25. 635-636. Fink, J. N.. Banaszak. E. F.. Thiede, W. H., and Barboriak. J. J. (1971). Interstitial pneumonitis due to hypersensitivity to an organism contaminating a heating system. Ann. Intern. Med. 74, 80-83. Galuskinova, V. (1964). 34 benzo(a)pyrene determination in the smokey atmosphere of social meeting rooms and restaurants. Neoplasm II 465-468. Godin. G.. Wright, G., and Shephard. R. J. (1972). Urban exposure to carbon monoxide. Arch. En\?ron. Health 2.5, 305-313. Goldsmith. J. R. (1970). Contribution of motor vehicle exhaust, industry, and cigarette smoking to community CO exposures. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 15, 122-134. Gorban. C. M.. and Kondratyeva. Poddubnaya (1964). Gaseous activity products excreted by man when in an air tight chamber. In “Problems of Space Biology” (Siskayan and Yazdovskiy. Eds.), Joint, Pub. Res. Service, Washington, D. C. Grusha, A. M.. and Leshchinskii, D. S. (1964). Hygienic evaluation of ventilation measurements in schools. H.vg. Sanit. 29, 91-93. Haagen-Smit. A. J. (1966). CO levels in city driving. Arch. Environ. Health 12, 548-551. Harke. H. P. (1974a). The problem of passive smoking. I. The Influence of smoking on the CO concentration of office rooms. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed. 33. 199-204. Harke. H. P.. Liedl, W.. and Denker, D. (1974b). The problem of passive smoking. II. Investigations of CO levels in the automobile after cigarette smoking. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed. 33, 707-220. Harke. H. P.. and Peters H. (1974~). The problem of passive smoking. III. the influence of smoking on the CO concentration in driving automobiles. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmrd. 33, 221-229. Harke. H. P. (1974d). “The Problem of Passive Smoking: Particulate Matter from tobacco Smoke in Closed Space.” 28th Tobacco Chemists’ Res. Conf., Proceedings, October. Harke. H. P.. Baars. A., Frahm, B., Peters, H., and Schultz. C. (1972). Passive smoking: concentration of smoke constituents in the air of large and small rooms as a function of no. of cigarettes smoked and time. Int. Arch. Arbeitsmed. 29, 323-339. Harke, H. P. (1970). The problem of passive smoking. Murrcl7. Med. Wockenckrr. 51, 232882334. Harmsen, H.. and Effenberger. E. (1957). Tobacco smoke in public transportation, dwellings, and work rooms. Arch. Hyg, 141, 383-400. Hinds. W. C.. and First, M. W. (1975). Concentrations of nicotine and tobacco smoke in public places. N. Eng’. J. Med. 292, 814-815. Hine, C. A. (1964) Physiological effects and human tolerances. In “Symposium on Toxicity in a Closed System” (Honma and Crosby, Eds.), Material Sciences Lab., Lockheed Missile and Space Co. Research Lab.. Palo Alto. Calif. April. Holcombe. J. K.. and Kalika. P. W. (1971). The effects of air conditioning components on pollution in intake air. Proc. ASHRAE 77, 33-49. Horning. E. C.. Horning. M. G., Carroll, D. I.. Stillwell, R. N., and Dzidic. I. (1973). Nicotine in smokers. non-smokers. and room air. Life Sci. 13. 1331-1346. Hoegg. U. R., Cigarette smoke in closed spaces. (1972). Enifron. He&h Persp. 117-128. October. Hunt. C. M.. and Cadoff, B. C. (1971) Indoor air pollution Nut. Bur. Stand. U.S.A. Tech. Note 7lL. “Measures for Air Quality,” FY 1971. pp. 24-25. Jacobs. M. B.. Monoharan. A.. and Goldwater, L. J. ( 1962). Comparison of dust counts of indoor and outdoor air. int. J. Air Wutrr Pollut. 6, 205-213. Japan Air Cleaning Association. (1968). “Studies on Equipment for Air Pollution in Polluted Areas.” Japan Air Cleaning Association, March. Johnson, C. J.. Moran, J. C., Paine, S. C.. Anderson. H. W., and Breysse. P. A. (1975a). Abatement of toxic levels of CO in Seattle ice-skating rinks. Amer. J. Pub. Health 65, 1087-1090. Johnson. C. J.. Moran. J.. and Pekich, R. (1975b) Carbon monoxide in school buses. Amer. J. Pfrb. Herrltk 65, l327- 1329. Jones. R.. and Fagan. R. (1975). Carboxyhemoglobin in non-smokers: A mathematical model. Arch. Environ. Health 30, 184189. Jones. R., and Fagan. R. (1974). Application of mathematical model for the buildup of carbon monoxide from cigarette smoking in rooms and houses. ASHRAE J. 49-53. August. Kahn. A., Altes. J., Rutledge. R. B.. Wallace. N. D.. Thornton, C. A,. Davis. G. L.. and Gantner. G.

34

STERLING

AND

KOBAYASHI

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