- Email: [email protected]
Extended families: Social support systems for children
/
Patricia T. Castiglia, PhD, APN, PNP, FAAN
S
ocial support systems for adults, for parents of children with special problems, such as high-risk or premature infants, and for adolescent mothers have been studied for a long time. However, little has been written in relation to the social support systems of children themselves, that is, what these systems are and how outcomes are measured. Yet childhood is known to be a period of reliance on others and a time when self-concept and self-esteem are being acquired. The studies of social support for children that have been done have focused on infant attachment, bonding, and the importance of peer relationships in social experiences. A number of research questions pertaming to social support systems of children can and should be investigated. Do relationships in extended families have a positive or negative effect on child development? Which people in extended families are important to children, and what are the contexts in which children experience social growth? Social support is usually classified into 4 types: material, informational, emotional, and comparison (Logsdon & Davis, 1998). Material support is assistance given by performing helpful tasks or giving money to help with finances in a given situation. Offering information, which assists in increasing knowledge or problem-solving ability or giving advice, is called informational support. Emotional support consists of giving affective encouragement or approval. Comparison support is encouragement or information given by someone who is or has
May/June
1999
for Children
i
been in the same or a similar situation, such as support given by peer support groups. Families themselves are small social systems. The size of the family system relates to the family structure and whether it is a nuclear or an extended family. A myth prevalent in the American culture is that many persons in America have moved from an extended, multigenerational family to a nuclear family during the last generation. In truth, Americans have always favored and promoted nuclear families. In years past, however, nuclear families were much larger; having 8 or 10 children in a family was not uncommon. With the decline in family size in the United States, a decline has occurred in the number of aunts, uncles, and cousins in most families. At the same time, we have experienced an increase in life expectancy, which means that many children today have 4 living grandparents. Many children in previous generations did not have any living grandparents or perhaps only one living grandparent. The key to the concept of the extended family does not depend so much on the number of relatives or close adopted family members as on how many of these persons are actually involved in the family and in developmental interactions with the child in a meaningful way. As a result of other current social changes, persons have tended to devef-
op more respect for and a greater desire to have extended families. Changes that have occurred include a higher divorce rate, an increase in the number of single-parent families, and an increase in the number of women who work outside the home. An estimated 45% of American children live with only one parent before age 18 years (Pietropinto, 1986). However, families headed by a mother and grandmother appear to be nearly as effective as 2parent families in terms of psychological stability and social adaptability of children (Pietropinto, 1986). Most working mothers continue to bear the major responsibility for child care, often without the support of family members who could help to relieve family pressure and stress. Contact with the parents of the mother or father may be further diminished because parents simply have too much to do and not enough time to do everything. Pietropinto (1986) further interprets survey results of 400 physicians as being almost unanimous in their belief that a variety of adult role models is either important or very important for children. Grandparents and other relatives can serve as significant role models for children because they are less emotionally charged than are the child’s parents. Grandparents can serve another useful function-that of dispelling fears of aging. Other relatives can be role -
J Pediatr Health Care. (1999). Copyright
13, 139-141.
Q 1999 by the National
0891.5245/99/$8.00
+ 0
Association
of Pediatric
Nurse Associates
% Practitioners
25/S/96226
139
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
models for qualities such as spirituality humor, and adventurousness. Most of the physicians in this study also indicated that children who receive love and care from many relatives have a much better capacity for mature love later in life. The world consists of many types of people, and children should expand the scope of their interactions. For preschool children, the extended family can be the bridge to the world outside the nuclear family. Even visiting the homes of relatives can help children develop a sense of oneself in a setting that is not home. Cousins can help in the developmental process because they are true peers of the child. Cousins do not compete for parental affection as siblings do and usually are not viewed as rivals for affection. The greatest benefits the child has from an extended family are additional sources of affection, the development of a sense of security, and opportunities for multiple role models (Pietropinto, 1986). Extended families are more prevalent in Black communities than in White communities (Wilson, 1989). In an earlier article, Wilson (1986) stated that nonnormal changes and events encourage the formation of extended family support networks. For example, the lack of adequate adult resources in single-parent families may result in the “adoption” of neighbors or friends as “aunts” or “uncles.” Historically, Black slaves endowed non-kin with symbolic kin status. Giving and accepting kinship was actually a coping mechanism in which the slaves established strong multigenerational linkages and strong ties of material support and assistance. Wilson (1989) postulated that the extended family structure may support children’s long-term achievement and social adjustment. It was found that adolescent children of one-parent families who lived with extended families participated in fewer deviant activities than did adolescents who lived in oneparent families alone. The formation of an extended family can also occur when one family unit absorbs another family unit. This process can be seen today in what is commonly referred to as the “blended” family, whereby each spouse brings his or her children together to form a family. This type of extended family endures for most of the family life span.
140
Volume
13 Number
3 Part 1
Low-income families have been found to be more involved in co-residential sharing than are other income groups, because residing together is a way to blend resources to make ends meet. Single-parent families are more likely to be living near the poverty line and thus are more likely to be involved in extended family support networks than are two-parent families. Extended family support can facilitate the mother’s ability to engage in self-improvement activities such as educational endeavors. These self-improvement activities may also mean that single mothers are less involved in child-care activities.
.$(d ~
i ::
as spiktuality,
.) ;
hti’mor,~and
adventurousness.
The potential for grandparents to have contact with their grandchildren is probably greater today than at any previous time, and most grandparents have frequent contact with at least some of their grandchildren. The quality of the grandparent-child relationship is influenced by the frequency of contact (Whlenberg & Hammill, 1998). The frequency of contact is affected by the proximity of living arrangements and financial resources. Frequent interaction is also affected by the number of grandchildren the grandparents have. How much do they need to spread themselves among their grandchildren? Other factors influencing the grandparent-child relationship include the health status of the grandparents and the work status of the grandparents. People are living longer, and many people are also keeping their jobs
longer. Age discrimination laws have had a serious impact on the age of retirement for many people. Older grandparents tend to have less physical stamina, and being actively involved with children takes significant stamina. Therefore a great diversity is found in the number and types of relationships grandfathers and grandmothers have with grandchildren. Age segregation tends to occur in American society, and the effect of grandparent involvement related to this trend should be studied. In the past, grandparents often had an authoritarian role in the family, especially in dealing with adolescents. That situation is not as true today. Grandparents can demonstrate a continuity and meaning of life to their adolescent grandchildren through discussions of history and family history in particular (Baranowski, 1982). Adolescents can also gain a more realistic view of their parents through their grandparents. Grandparents can serve as confidantes and as conflict arbitrators for their grandchildren. It has been proposed that as a result of having close relationships with grandparents, children may develop a more positive view of older people and that these feelings may then transfer to the larger society. Further research is needed regarding how grandparents and children influence each others’ sense of satisfaction and choices in life. An interesting study by Garwick, Patterson, Bennett, and Blum (1998) sought to identify parents‘ perceptions of helpful versus unhelpful types of social support. Whereas the study involved parents of preadolescent children with chronic diseases, the findings may prove to have broader applications. A line appears to exist that, when crossed, can move overtly helpful behaviors to a category of unhelpful behaviors. The same type of support can have different meanings for varied families and family members, depending on the context of the support. Financial assistance, for example, can be viewed as a real help, or it can be viewed as a reminder of the parent’s inability to manage or function on his or her own. Extended families in the study by Garwick et al. included grandparents, aunts, uncles, or cousins. Information was also sought regarding health care providers, in-school providers, and community members.
JOURNAL
OF PEDIATRIC
HEALTH
CARE
‘GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Parents in the study by Garwick et al. reported receiving helpful emotional support and practical help from family members. They identified service providers as giving helpful informational and emotional support. The 5 most common types of unsupportive behaviors from extended family members were identified as inadequate contact or involvement with the child or the child’s family, inadequate emotional support, l.ack of understanding about the child’s condition or treatment, making insensitive or invasive comments, and blaming the parents for the child’s condition. From this list, the predominance of communication problems is evident. Generally, parents in this study reported that they received the most emotional support and practical help from family sources rather than from caregivers or community Home in today’s American society is generally viewed as a retreat from the outside world. The family has turned inward, ;and privacy and separation from the workplace is an essential feature of homes today. The family has also become child-centered. Most family activities revolve around the perceived needs and desires of the children. This focus may have occurred at the cost of sociability and integration within the community (Hareven, 1986). The crucial base of the family today is the sentimental bond between the husband and wife and between parents and children,
Castiglia
resulting in an isolation from kin and community This isolation is very real for many families. The nuclear family structure has been the predominate pat-
tices as desirable. Whether this trend will be reversed as a result of the prevalent and emerging social situations mentioned previously remains to be seen. In any event, extended families can contribute to nuclear families and the development of children in many positive ways. Parents need to be aware of these positive values as they engage in establishing an environment for childrearing.
REFERENCES
who view White, middleclass values and practices as desirable.
tern in families classes White,
White, middle-class American and has been emulated by other and ethnic groups who view middle-class values and prac-
Availability
Baranowski, M. D. (1982). Grandparent-adolescent relations: Beyond the nuclear family. Adolescence, 17,575-584. Garwick, A. W., Patterson, J. M., Bennett, F. C., & Blum, R. W. (1998). Parents’ perceptions of helpful vs unhelpful types of support in managing the care of preadolescents with chronic conditions. Archives ofPediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 152,665-671. Hareven, T. (1986). Historical changes in the family and the life course: Implications for child development. Monographs of the Societyfor Research in Child Dtwelopmenf, SO,&23. Logsdon, M. C., & Davis, D. W. (1998). Guiding mothers of high-risk infants in obtaining social support. Journal ofMaternal-Child Nursing, 23, 195-799. Pieixoptito, A. (1986). The extended family: Survey analysis. Medical aspects of human sexunlify, 20, 105-u. Wilson, M. N. (1986). The black extended family: An analytical review. DeueZupvzentul Psychology, 22,246-258. Wilson, M. N. (1989). Child development in the context of the black extended family. American Psychologist, 44,380-385. Whlenberg, P., & Hammill, 8. G. (1998). Frequency of grandparent contact with grandchildren sets: Six factors that make a difference. The Gerontologist, 38,276285.
of JOURNAL Back Issues
As a service to our subscribers, copies of back issues of Journal of Pediatric Health Care for the preceding 5 years are maintained and are available for purchase from Mosby until inventory is depleted at a cost of $17.00 per issue. The following quantity discounts are available: 25% on quantities of 12 to 23, and 33% on quantities of 24 or more. Please write to Mosby, Inc, Subscription Services, 11830 Westline Industrial Dr, St Louis, MO 63146-3318, or call (800) 453-4351 or (314) 453-4351 for information on availability of particular issues. If unavailable from the publisher, photocopies of complete issues are available from UMI, 300 N Zeeb Rd, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, phone (313) 761-4700.
JOURNAL
OF PEDIATRIC
HEALTH
CARE
May/June
1999
14 I
Patricia T. Castiglia, PhD, APN, PNP, FAAN
S
ocial support systems for adults, for parents of children with special problems, such as high-risk or premature infants, and for adolescent mothers have been studied for a long time. However, little has been written in relation to the social support systems of children themselves, that is, what these systems are and how outcomes are measured. Yet childhood is known to be a period of reliance on others and a time when self-concept and self-esteem are being acquired. The studies of social support for children that have been done have focused on infant attachment, bonding, and the importance of peer relationships in social experiences. A number of research questions pertaming to social support systems of children can and should be investigated. Do relationships in extended families have a positive or negative effect on child development? Which people in extended families are important to children, and what are the contexts in which children experience social growth? Social support is usually classified into 4 types: material, informational, emotional, and comparison (Logsdon & Davis, 1998). Material support is assistance given by performing helpful tasks or giving money to help with finances in a given situation. Offering information, which assists in increasing knowledge or problem-solving ability or giving advice, is called informational support. Emotional support consists of giving affective encouragement or approval. Comparison support is encouragement or information given by someone who is or has
May/June
1999
for Children
i
been in the same or a similar situation, such as support given by peer support groups. Families themselves are small social systems. The size of the family system relates to the family structure and whether it is a nuclear or an extended family. A myth prevalent in the American culture is that many persons in America have moved from an extended, multigenerational family to a nuclear family during the last generation. In truth, Americans have always favored and promoted nuclear families. In years past, however, nuclear families were much larger; having 8 or 10 children in a family was not uncommon. With the decline in family size in the United States, a decline has occurred in the number of aunts, uncles, and cousins in most families. At the same time, we have experienced an increase in life expectancy, which means that many children today have 4 living grandparents. Many children in previous generations did not have any living grandparents or perhaps only one living grandparent. The key to the concept of the extended family does not depend so much on the number of relatives or close adopted family members as on how many of these persons are actually involved in the family and in developmental interactions with the child in a meaningful way. As a result of other current social changes, persons have tended to devef-
op more respect for and a greater desire to have extended families. Changes that have occurred include a higher divorce rate, an increase in the number of single-parent families, and an increase in the number of women who work outside the home. An estimated 45% of American children live with only one parent before age 18 years (Pietropinto, 1986). However, families headed by a mother and grandmother appear to be nearly as effective as 2parent families in terms of psychological stability and social adaptability of children (Pietropinto, 1986). Most working mothers continue to bear the major responsibility for child care, often without the support of family members who could help to relieve family pressure and stress. Contact with the parents of the mother or father may be further diminished because parents simply have too much to do and not enough time to do everything. Pietropinto (1986) further interprets survey results of 400 physicians as being almost unanimous in their belief that a variety of adult role models is either important or very important for children. Grandparents and other relatives can serve as significant role models for children because they are less emotionally charged than are the child’s parents. Grandparents can serve another useful function-that of dispelling fears of aging. Other relatives can be role -
J Pediatr Health Care. (1999). Copyright
13, 139-141.
Q 1999 by the National
0891.5245/99/$8.00
+ 0
Association
of Pediatric
Nurse Associates
% Practitioners
25/S/96226
139
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
models for qualities such as spirituality humor, and adventurousness. Most of the physicians in this study also indicated that children who receive love and care from many relatives have a much better capacity for mature love later in life. The world consists of many types of people, and children should expand the scope of their interactions. For preschool children, the extended family can be the bridge to the world outside the nuclear family. Even visiting the homes of relatives can help children develop a sense of oneself in a setting that is not home. Cousins can help in the developmental process because they are true peers of the child. Cousins do not compete for parental affection as siblings do and usually are not viewed as rivals for affection. The greatest benefits the child has from an extended family are additional sources of affection, the development of a sense of security, and opportunities for multiple role models (Pietropinto, 1986). Extended families are more prevalent in Black communities than in White communities (Wilson, 1989). In an earlier article, Wilson (1986) stated that nonnormal changes and events encourage the formation of extended family support networks. For example, the lack of adequate adult resources in single-parent families may result in the “adoption” of neighbors or friends as “aunts” or “uncles.” Historically, Black slaves endowed non-kin with symbolic kin status. Giving and accepting kinship was actually a coping mechanism in which the slaves established strong multigenerational linkages and strong ties of material support and assistance. Wilson (1989) postulated that the extended family structure may support children’s long-term achievement and social adjustment. It was found that adolescent children of one-parent families who lived with extended families participated in fewer deviant activities than did adolescents who lived in oneparent families alone. The formation of an extended family can also occur when one family unit absorbs another family unit. This process can be seen today in what is commonly referred to as the “blended” family, whereby each spouse brings his or her children together to form a family. This type of extended family endures for most of the family life span.
140
Volume
13 Number
3 Part 1
Low-income families have been found to be more involved in co-residential sharing than are other income groups, because residing together is a way to blend resources to make ends meet. Single-parent families are more likely to be living near the poverty line and thus are more likely to be involved in extended family support networks than are two-parent families. Extended family support can facilitate the mother’s ability to engage in self-improvement activities such as educational endeavors. These self-improvement activities may also mean that single mothers are less involved in child-care activities.
.$(d ~
i ::
as spiktuality,
.) ;
hti’mor,~and
adventurousness.
The potential for grandparents to have contact with their grandchildren is probably greater today than at any previous time, and most grandparents have frequent contact with at least some of their grandchildren. The quality of the grandparent-child relationship is influenced by the frequency of contact (Whlenberg & Hammill, 1998). The frequency of contact is affected by the proximity of living arrangements and financial resources. Frequent interaction is also affected by the number of grandchildren the grandparents have. How much do they need to spread themselves among their grandchildren? Other factors influencing the grandparent-child relationship include the health status of the grandparents and the work status of the grandparents. People are living longer, and many people are also keeping their jobs
longer. Age discrimination laws have had a serious impact on the age of retirement for many people. Older grandparents tend to have less physical stamina, and being actively involved with children takes significant stamina. Therefore a great diversity is found in the number and types of relationships grandfathers and grandmothers have with grandchildren. Age segregation tends to occur in American society, and the effect of grandparent involvement related to this trend should be studied. In the past, grandparents often had an authoritarian role in the family, especially in dealing with adolescents. That situation is not as true today. Grandparents can demonstrate a continuity and meaning of life to their adolescent grandchildren through discussions of history and family history in particular (Baranowski, 1982). Adolescents can also gain a more realistic view of their parents through their grandparents. Grandparents can serve as confidantes and as conflict arbitrators for their grandchildren. It has been proposed that as a result of having close relationships with grandparents, children may develop a more positive view of older people and that these feelings may then transfer to the larger society. Further research is needed regarding how grandparents and children influence each others’ sense of satisfaction and choices in life. An interesting study by Garwick, Patterson, Bennett, and Blum (1998) sought to identify parents‘ perceptions of helpful versus unhelpful types of social support. Whereas the study involved parents of preadolescent children with chronic diseases, the findings may prove to have broader applications. A line appears to exist that, when crossed, can move overtly helpful behaviors to a category of unhelpful behaviors. The same type of support can have different meanings for varied families and family members, depending on the context of the support. Financial assistance, for example, can be viewed as a real help, or it can be viewed as a reminder of the parent’s inability to manage or function on his or her own. Extended families in the study by Garwick et al. included grandparents, aunts, uncles, or cousins. Information was also sought regarding health care providers, in-school providers, and community members.
JOURNAL
OF PEDIATRIC
HEALTH
CARE
‘GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Parents in the study by Garwick et al. reported receiving helpful emotional support and practical help from family members. They identified service providers as giving helpful informational and emotional support. The 5 most common types of unsupportive behaviors from extended family members were identified as inadequate contact or involvement with the child or the child’s family, inadequate emotional support, l.ack of understanding about the child’s condition or treatment, making insensitive or invasive comments, and blaming the parents for the child’s condition. From this list, the predominance of communication problems is evident. Generally, parents in this study reported that they received the most emotional support and practical help from family sources rather than from caregivers or community Home in today’s American society is generally viewed as a retreat from the outside world. The family has turned inward, ;and privacy and separation from the workplace is an essential feature of homes today. The family has also become child-centered. Most family activities revolve around the perceived needs and desires of the children. This focus may have occurred at the cost of sociability and integration within the community (Hareven, 1986). The crucial base of the family today is the sentimental bond between the husband and wife and between parents and children,
Castiglia
resulting in an isolation from kin and community This isolation is very real for many families. The nuclear family structure has been the predominate pat-
tices as desirable. Whether this trend will be reversed as a result of the prevalent and emerging social situations mentioned previously remains to be seen. In any event, extended families can contribute to nuclear families and the development of children in many positive ways. Parents need to be aware of these positive values as they engage in establishing an environment for childrearing.
REFERENCES
who view White, middleclass values and practices as desirable.
tern in families classes White,
White, middle-class American and has been emulated by other and ethnic groups who view middle-class values and prac-
Availability
Baranowski, M. D. (1982). Grandparent-adolescent relations: Beyond the nuclear family. Adolescence, 17,575-584. Garwick, A. W., Patterson, J. M., Bennett, F. C., & Blum, R. W. (1998). Parents’ perceptions of helpful vs unhelpful types of support in managing the care of preadolescents with chronic conditions. Archives ofPediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 152,665-671. Hareven, T. (1986). Historical changes in the family and the life course: Implications for child development. Monographs of the Societyfor Research in Child Dtwelopmenf, SO,&23. Logsdon, M. C., & Davis, D. W. (1998). Guiding mothers of high-risk infants in obtaining social support. Journal ofMaternal-Child Nursing, 23, 195-799. Pieixoptito, A. (1986). The extended family: Survey analysis. Medical aspects of human sexunlify, 20, 105-u. Wilson, M. N. (1986). The black extended family: An analytical review. DeueZupvzentul Psychology, 22,246-258. Wilson, M. N. (1989). Child development in the context of the black extended family. American Psychologist, 44,380-385. Whlenberg, P., & Hammill, 8. G. (1998). Frequency of grandparent contact with grandchildren sets: Six factors that make a difference. The Gerontologist, 38,276285.
of JOURNAL Back Issues
As a service to our subscribers, copies of back issues of Journal of Pediatric Health Care for the preceding 5 years are maintained and are available for purchase from Mosby until inventory is depleted at a cost of $17.00 per issue. The following quantity discounts are available: 25% on quantities of 12 to 23, and 33% on quantities of 24 or more. Please write to Mosby, Inc, Subscription Services, 11830 Westline Industrial Dr, St Louis, MO 63146-3318, or call (800) 453-4351 or (314) 453-4351 for information on availability of particular issues. If unavailable from the publisher, photocopies of complete issues are available from UMI, 300 N Zeeb Rd, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, phone (313) 761-4700.
JOURNAL
OF PEDIATRIC
HEALTH
CARE
May/June
1999
14 I