Extraction from woody forest plants in flood plain communities in Amazonian Peru: use, choice, evaluation and conservation status of resources

Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Extraction from woody forest plants in ¯ood plain communities in Amazonian Peru: use, choice, evaluation and conservation status of resources Lars Peter Kvist*, Martin K. Andersen, Jesper Stagegaard, Martin Hesselsùe, Consuelo Llapapasca Department of Economics and Natural Resources, Unit of Forestry, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark

Abstract The extraction and use of materials from woody forest species in communities along the lower Ucayali river in Amazonian Peru is discussed distributed at the categories food, construction, technical uses, medicine and commerce, represented with 5, 8, 11, 12 and 7 uses for speci®c purposes, respectively. The amounts of materials extracted are compared with the evaluation of the same resources. Three methods served to quantify the extraction, namely (1) recording of the plant-resources extracted by 12 households during a 1-year-long study; (2) observations of peoples activities in the forests and elsewhere and (3) recording of originally extracted materials present in or near the houses of 42 households. Two methods served to evaluate local perceptions of these materials, namely (4) village studies mostly of medicinal plants selected and described by informants and (5) forest plot-studies. Informants were interviewed on the potential uses of 276 pre-selected tree and liana species. Main conclusions are (1) probably all local tree and liana species may be used, but among thousands of potential uses only 291 uses of 156 species were found to be extracted frequently and/or evaluated to be particularly useful in interviews; (2) the importance interviewed informants give to forest resources does often not correlate with how often they extract them; (3) forest types vary much in their potential to provide extracted products, mostly in accordance with ¯oristic compositions; (4) for nearly all purposes the population extracts from a few preferred species constituting a small percentage of the trunks in the forests, while more species representing a larger share of the trunks are recognised as potentially useful; (5) nearly all extracted plant-resources important for the livelihood of the population can be replaced with materials from other local species reducing the consequences of depletion and (6) an intensive exploitation mainly for commerce has depleted local populations of 10 plant species, and 15 species may currently get depleted. # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Flood plain forest; Restinga; Tahuampa; RiberenÄo; Cocama; Woody plants; Informant interviews; Utility-score; Use-value; Depletion; Commerce; Subsistence

1. Introduction Efforts to integrate economic development and natural resource conservation increasingly is focused * Corresponding author. Tel.: ‡45-3528-2232; fax: ‡45-3528-2671.

on the promotion of community based resource management (Wells and Brandon, 1993; Davis and Wall, 1994; Wells, 1995; Furze et al., 1996). In the case of populations of plants that provide products for subsistence or commerce a precondition for successful management is to identify the relevant species and determine the importance and value of their particular

0378-1127/01/$ ± see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 1 1 2 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 6 8 8 - 5

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uses. In addition, it must be determined from which habitats the particular species are extracted, and which of them are or soon may become depleted. In should also be taken into consideration that for many purposes materials from various or even many different plant species may serve. It is necessary to determine which of these species in reality are used (®rst-choice species), in contrast to the usually larger number of species (second- and third-choice species) which according to informants may serve a particular purpose, but rarely or never are used. It is also important to verify if some of these species provide products that may substitute the hitherto preferred species (secondchoice species), in contrast to much inferior products of little value (third-choice species). Second-choice species may be slightly inferior than the corresponding ®rst-choice species, e.g. being more dif®cult to manufacture or less durable, but their existence will anyway reduce the economic and social impacts if the ®rst-choice species get depleted. Some species provide products which cannot be substituted by other species (single-choice species), and their depletion may affect local people more seriously. Single-choice species may also be particularly vulnerable to local extinction, since people may continue to search them actively even after they have become rare. The present paper present a case study of the use and extraction of materials from ¯ood plain trees and lianas in the Peruvian Amazon. The extraction have been quanti®ed in local villages in order to identify the local ®rst-choice species. This information is compared with interviewed informants (qualitative) evaluation of the relative usefulness of the different extracted products and species, in order to identify single- and second-choice choice species. In addition, the extractive potential found in three different forest types are evaluated and compared, and the species that have been depleted or may be depleted are identi®ed. 2. Study area and background The 1230 km2 large district of Jenaro Herrera is located along the lower Ucayali river approximately 150 km upriver (south of) the Peruvian Amazons main town of Iquitos. In 1993, the district had 3800 inhabitants with half of them living in the town of Jenaro Herrera, and the other half distributed in 12 small

villages. Ten of these villages exclusively depend on ¯ood plain terrain, while the latter two also dispose of adjacent uplands. All inhabitants currently speak Spanish although they are predominantly descendants from Cocama Amerindians, and two villages still identify with the Cocama culture. Nearly all villagers combine small-scale economic activities of agriculture, ®shing, hunting and extraction both for subsistence and for commerce. Due to the presence of an Instituto de InvestigacioÂnes de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP) research station near Jenaro Herrera town, the district has been the focus of numerous studies (Kvist and Nebel, 2001). The present publication presents data from an research project investigating ¯ood plain forests and villages near Jenaro Herrera. Botanical, ethnobotanical and silvicultural studies in permanent sample plots were integrated with ethno-botanical and socio-economic studies in nearby communities. In 1993, nine 1-ha permanent sample plots were established, with three of them located in each of three types of ¯ood plain forests, referred to as high restinga, low restinga and tahuampa. Restinga forests occur on natural levees ¯ooded only irregularly and brie¯y (high) or 1±2 months annually (low), while tahuampa forests grow at lower terrain ¯ooded 2±4 months annually. Kvist and Nebel (2001) and Nebel et al. (2001) describe the three forest types and present the ¯oristic composition of the nine plots, respectively. From 1994 to 1998, ethno-botanical studies were undertaken both within the permanent plots and in nearby villages, and in 1994±1995 was undertaken a socio-economic study in two of the villages. Households were visited at a regular basis, and during each visit was evaluated the economic activities that their inhabitants had realised since the previous visit. Kvist (1997) and Kvist et al. (1995, 1998) discuss ethnobotanical results and methodologies, and Gram (1998) focuses at socio-economic aspects. 3. Methods Four studies were combined to describe, quantify and qualify the uses of extracted materials from natural populations of woody plants. Two of these were quantitative based on the recording of amounts of materials extracted, and two were qualitative based on

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

interviews in which informants report and evaluate the potential uses of particular plant species. The quantitative studies thus investigate peoples choice of extracted plant materials, and the qualitative studies the utility people assign to plants; and the methodologies of the four studies will be brie¯y described. One quantitative study was undertaken during repeated visits to households in two communities. Throughout a 1-year-period, 12 households were visited every second week, and during each visit, the inhabitants were interviewed concerning the plant materials they had extracted during the foregoing fortnight. The extracted resources were recorded and quanti®ed, and if possible, their identities were veri®ed with observations. Another quantitative study were realised during a single visit to each of 42 households distributed over ®ve communities. In each household were observed, recorded and quanti®ed the amounts of plant materials the inhabitants had used to construct their house as well as to manufacture canoes, oars, handles, handicraft, tools, etc. The amounts of ®re-wood stored in the houses were also recorded. One qualitative study was undertaken in and near seven local villages, and the main focus was at medicinal plants. Two days were spend with each of 13 informants whom selected and described plants appreciated by them for medicine (50±80 taxa per informant). In addition, another 30 families was interviewed concerning their knowledge of medicinal plants, and 19 families concerning the plants they use for ®re-wood. Another qualitative study was undertaken in nine permanent forest in which informants from local villages were interviewed concerning all potential uses of 332 pre-selected tree and liana individuals. In each case were realised a structured interview and completed the same pre-tested questionnaire. The informant speci®ed for which purposes the particular tree or liana were useful, and valued the uses as either optimal, suitable or sub-optimal scoring 1.5, 1.0, or 0.5, respectively. The 332 individuals represented 276 different species, corresponding to 86% of the species that are found in the plots and 95% of the plot individuals (4624 trees and lianas from 10 cm DBH). Each individual were presented independently to six informants, implying that there were realised nearly 2000 interviews.

149

3.1. Data processing The quantitative (choice) data were processed summing the amounts of products extracted for each purpose and calculating the relative contributions of the individual species. In the case of the qualitative (utility) data from the villages were calculated the percentage of the inquired informants which indicated a certain use of a species, namely the extent of informant-consensus. For utility information from the plots were calculated utility-scores and species use-values. The former rates the relative value of the individual uses of a species, and the latter the relative value of all its potential uses. Both thus compare the relative utility the population assign to different woody plant species. The utility-score of a species for a purpose is calculated as the average of the ratings made by the inquired informants. The utility-score is 1.5 if all informants value a species as optimal for a purpose, 0 if none of them recognise a potential, and in between if informants undertake different valuations. It is convenient to distinguish three utility-classes, namely high-utility (score >1), medium-utility (score >0.5 but <1), and low-utility (score >0 but <0.5). For instance, six informants reported 13 potential uses of the palm Euterpe precatoria, with four, three and six of them being of high-, medium- and low-utility, respectively. Cottam and Curtis (1956) de®ned the relative density of a species as the number of individuals it has in a sample divided with the total number of individuals in the sample. The relative density of same-utility individuals for a particular purpose is here de®ned as the percentage of individuals which belong to the same utility class, e.g. in two forests, 8 and 1% of the trees may belong to species providing high-utility ®rewood, implying that the two forests contain plenty and little excellent ®re-wood, respectively. Species use-values were ®rst de®ned and calculated by Prance et al. (1987), and later Phillips and Gentry (1993) proposed a different calculation of them. The interviews and questionnaires designed for the study in the Jenaro Herrera plots were originally elaborated to combine the best elements of these two methodologies, and in Kvist et al. (1995) as well as in the present work, use-values are determined applying the following ®ve steps: (1) all reported uses are distributed at the ®ve use-categories food, construction,

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L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

technical purposes, medicine and commerce; (2) the usefulness of the individual trees and lianas are rated within each of the ®ve use-categories applying the above-mentioned values (1.5, 1, 0.5 and 0) and de®nitions, and more than one use within a category do not increase its rating (except that two or more uses rated as suitable elevate the value from 1 to 1.5); (3) for each interview, the ratings from the ®ve use-categories are summed to scores rating from 0 to 7.5 per plantindividual; (4) for species of which interviews were focused on more than one plant-individual are calculated averages across these (before across the informants) and (5) the use-value are calculated as the average across the informants also ranging from 0 to 7.5. In the case of E. precatoria, the above-mentioned ®ve use-categories added 1.5, 1.4, 0.2, 0.8 and 1.5 to its species use-value of 5.4, re¯ecting that its palmhearts are appreciated for food and commerce (both 1.5) and its trunks for construction (1.4), and it serve to cure malaria (0.8) bur rarely for technical purposes (0.2). 3.2. Data presentation In Table 1 appears 156 woody forest species (within alphabetical ordered plant-families and with chronological species numbers) which according to quantitative (choice) and/or qualitative (utility and/or consensus) criteria provide important resources. Materials extracted from these species either provide at least 10% of the amounts extracted for a particular purpose, or have been rated with utility-scores exceeding 0.5, or reported with consensus-levels exceeding 20% (medicinal uses only). Most of the species are represented in the permanent plots, but the quantitative village based studies, proved that some species absent from the plots also are important, e.g. the palm Mauritia ¯exuosa, the woody grass Gynerium sagittatum, various lianas and shrubs, and even some species extracted by ¯ood villagers in relatively distant upland forests. Many species have more than one important use, and in Table 1 appear 291 plant-uses, corresponding to nearly two important uses per species. The purposes each species serve for are also given, with a speci®c number for each of 43 purposes, as well as the part of the plant that serve each purpose. The column choice in Table 1 evaluates the quantitative importance of the species for the particular

purposes. The numbers 3, 2, 1 and 0 indicate species which provide more than 50, 10±50, 1±10 and <1% of the materials extracted for the particular purposes, respectively. These evaluations are mostly based on the quantitative data gathered during the socioeconomic program and the house-hold visits, and Tables 2±6 present the speci®c ®gures for a number of applications. The most frequently mentioned vernacular name also appear in Table 1, as well as the relative density of the species in the permanent plots. The relative densities serve to appraise the importance of scienti®c species are extracted and used under a common vernacular name, e.g. Shimbillo for six Inga species and Espintana for six Annonaceae, assuming a positive correlation between the frequency of the particular species and the quantities of materials extracted from them. For some applications does not appear an evaluation of the quantitative importance, e.g. sawn-wood since too little were extracted to quantify the involved species, and medicinal uses because many preparations are too complex and variable to quantify. In Table 1 also appear the use-value of all species represented in the plots (on the scale from 0 to 7.5), and the utility-score of the individual uses. All medium- and high-utility uses (scores exceeding 0.5) are included except that for the most frequently reported uses (edible fruits, fruits eaten by ®sh, beams, sawnwood and ®re-wood) only appear the 20 species with the highest scores (and with equal score appear the species with higher relative densities). The column status in Table 1 estimates the conservation status of all species which provide important extracted products, mainly based on the information provided by the local population. The numbers 2, 1 and 0 mark species that have been depleted in the areas traditionally exploited by the villagers, species that may get depleted, and species whose populations apparently not yet are threatened. Fig. 1 present utility-class data based on the ¯oristic composition of the permanent plots. For 12 different purposes (illustrated with 12 bars referred to as ®gure 1±1 to 1±12) are illustrated the proportions of the 4624 plot-individuals which belong to species having high-, medium- and low-utility. The applications are ordered according to the proportion of the plot-individuals which may serve for them (the sum of the high-, medium- and low-utility classes). The most frequently

Table 1 Woody forest plant species providing extracted products recorded to be extracted frequently and/or reported to be useful in interviews with local villagers Speciesa Anacardiaceae 1 Spondias mombin

Choiced

U-scoree

U-valuef

Statusg

Densityh Vernacular namei

Plot-numbersj

1 26 34 36 37

Fruit eaten Wounds Diarrhoea Women's ailments Fruit sold

Fruit Cortex Cortex Cortex Fruit

1 ± ± ± 0

1.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.83

2.83

0

0.67

Ubos

2182

Beam Beam Beam Beam Beam Beam Firewood Beam Beam Beam Cold/unspecific Beam Beam Sawnwood Beam Sawnwood Firewood

Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Wood Trunk Trunk Trunk Cortex Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Wood

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 ± 0 1 ± 2 ± 1

0.80 1.25 1.21 0.84 0.84 0.84 1.05 0.84 1.00 1.25 0.83 1.00 1.00 1.16 0.84 1.00 1.00

1.33 2.25 1.65 1.42 1.38 1.68

0 0 0 0 0 0

0.02 0.04 0.99 0.63 0.04 0.30

Anonilla Tortuga caspi Tortuga caspi Carahuasca Carahuasca Espintana

7640 4205 8177, 2006, 8418, 7100,

1.16 1.33 1.75 1.68 1.92 1.67

0 0 0 0 0 0

0.45 1.51 0.50 1.56 0.28 0.61

Espintana Espintana Carahuasca Icoja Espintana Espintana

2453, 7450 2056 1400 2008 7248 1133

1.25

0

0.97

Espintana

2024

6 17 19 20 21 25 19 32

Beam Mortar/vessel Handle Oar Firewood Malaria Oar Tumour

Trunk Buttress Buttress Buttress Wood Cortex Buttress Latex

0 2 3 3 0 ± 2 ±

1.00 0.00 0.75 1.50 1.08 0.67 ± 0.50

3.42

0

0.13

Remo caspi (baja)

1029

± 1.17

0 0

± 0.39

Remo caspi (altura) Bellaco caspi

± 2048

10 14

Tying (const.) Tying (techn.)

Aerial root Aerial root

2 2

± ±

±

1

±

Tamshi

±

15 1

Braiding (fibres) Fruit eaten

Petiole Fruit

2 0

± 1.08

± 3.33

± 0

± 0.54

Chambira Huicungo (baja)

± 3008

Annonaceae 2 Annona sp. 3 3 Duguetia odorata 4 Duguetia spixiana 5 Guatteria sp. 1 6 Guatteria sp. 2 7 Guatteria sp. 3 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

6 6 6 6 6 6 21 Malmea sp. 6 Oxandra sphaerocarpa 6 Pseudooxandra polyphleba 6 Unonopsis floribunda 30 Unonopsis sp. 1 6 Xylopia micans 6 11 Xylopia sp. 1 6 11 21

Apocynaceae 15 Aspidosperma rigidum

16 17

Aspidosperma sp. 2 Himatanthus bracteatus

Araceae 18 Heteropsis spp. Arecaceae 19 Astrocaryum chambira 20 Astrocaryum chonta

8063 8018 9335 9328

151

Partc

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Purposeb

152

Table 1 (Continued ) Speciesa

Astrocaryum jauari

22 23 24

Astrocaryum javarense Desmoncus polyacanthos Euterpe precatoria

25 26 27

Iriartia deltoidea Lepidocaryum gracile Mauritia flexuosa

28

Oenocarpus bataua

29

Oenocarpus mapora

30 31 32

Pholidostachys synanthera Phytelephas macrocarpa Scheelea brachyclada

33

Socratea exorrhiza

34 35

Socratea salazarii Wettinia augusta

Bignoniaceae 36 Arrabidaea candicans 37 Arrabidaea sp. 1 38 Clatystoma binatum 39 Mansoa standleyi

Partc

Choiced

U-scoree

U-valuef

Statusg

Densityh Vernacular namei

Plot-numbersj

3 37 2 15 15 15 1 3 8 25 37 38 8 9 1 5 37 1 37 1 7 9 9 1 3 5 9 7 8 9 31 17 17

Palm-heart eaten Fruit sold Fruit attracts fish Braiding (fibres) Braiding (fibres) Braiding (fibres) Fruit eaten Palm-heart eaten Floor/wall Malaria Fruit sold Palm-heart sold Floor/wall Roof Fruit eaten Edible larva Fruit sold Fruit eaten Fruit sold Fruit eaten Post Roof Roof Fruit eaten Palm-heart eaten Edible larva Roof Post Floor/wall Roof Snake-bite Spear/bow Spear/bow

Young leaf Fruit Fruit Petiole Petiole Stem Fruit Young leaf Split trunk Root Fruit Young leaf Split trunk Leaf Fruit In trunk Fruit Fruit Fruit Frut Leaf Leaf Leaf Fruit Young leaf In seed Leaf Trunk Split trunk Split trunk Root Trunk Trunk

0 0 ± ± 3 2 0 3 2 ± 0 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 3 3 ± 2 2

0.50 0.83 1.00 0.67 ± ± 0.92 1.50 1.20 0.50 1.42 1.50 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

2.58

0

0.30

Huiririma

1388

± ± 5.42

± 0 2

± ± 0.50

Huicungo (altura) Cashavara Huasai

± ± 1083

± ± ±

± ± 2

± ± ±

(Huacra) pona Iripay Aguaje

± ± ±

±

±

±

Ungurahui

±

±

±

±

Sinamilla

±

± ± 1.00 0.50 0.67 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.30 0.50 ± ±

± ± 3.83

± 0 0

± ± 2.21

Palmiche Yarina Shapaja

± ± 2005

4.00

0

0.28

(Casha)pona

3023

± ±

± ±

± ±

Ponilla Ponilla

± ±

14 14 10 29 30

Tying (techn.) Tying (techn.) Tying (const.) Rheumatism Cold/unspecific

Stem Stem Stem Root Root

1 1 2 ± ±

0.83 1.00 ± 0.33 0.50

1.83 0.90 ± 1.50

0 0 1 1

0.00 0.00 ± 0.02

Huasca topa Huasca topa Lamas tamshi Ajo sacha

4084 4342 ± 2392

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

21

Purposeb

Bombacaceae 40 Ceiba pentandra 41

Ceiba samauba

42

Pseudobombax munguba

Burseraceae 43 Protium nodulosum

45

Copaifera paupera

46 47

Cynometra sp. Macrolobium acaciifolium

48 49

Senna bacillaris Senna quinquangulata

Caryocaraceae 50 Caryocar microcarpum Cecropiaceae 51 Cecropia spp. 52 Pourouma acuminata 53 Pourouma cecropiifolia Celestraceae 54 Maytenus macrocarpa

Chrysobalanaceae 55 Licania apetala 56 Parinari excelsa Clusiaceae 57 Calophyllum brasiliense

Sawnwood Sawnwood sold Post Mortar/vessel Tying (const.) Tying (techn.) Cold/unspecific

Trunk Trunk Trunk Buttress Cortex Cortex Cortex

0 1 2 2 2 2 ±

1.50 1.25 0.33 0.00 0.33 0.66 0.50

2

0.13

Lupuna

3291

1.58

0

0.17

Huimba

3298

1.83

0

0.17

Punga (negro)

9023

23

Sealing of holes

Resin

3

0.83

1.33

0

0.95

Copal

2068

21 29 30 42 26 39 7 11 21 35 35

Firewood Rheumatism Cold/unspecific Firewood sold Wounds Sawnwood sold Post Sawnwood Firewood Eczema/skin Eczema/skin

Wood Cortex Cortex Wood Resin Trunk Trunk Trunk Wood Fruit Fruit

2 ± ± ± ± 2 0 ± 1 ± ±

1.42 0.00 0.83 0.67 ± ± 0.50 1.00 1.00 0.67 ±

2.25

0

1.58

Huacapurana

7352

±

2

±

Copaiba

±

2.00 2.42

0 0

0.11 0.09

Pali sangre (bajo) (Aguano) pashaco

4152 9491

1.08 ±

0 0

0.00 ±

Mataro Retama

1367 ±

20

Canoe

Trunk

0

0.83

2.42

0

0.02

Almendro

5479

2 37 1 37

Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit

Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit

± 0 0 0

0.50 0.58 0.67 0.67

0.67 1.83 1.92

0 0 0

4.64 1.15 1.04

Cetico (negro) Sacha uvilla Sacha uvilla

5005 2061 2014

26 29 30 36

Wounds Rheumatism Cold/unspecific Women's ailments

Cortex Cortex Cortex Cortex

± ± ± ±

0.17 0.50 0.33 0.00

1.50

1

0.37

Chuchuhuasi

2363

6 2 21

Beam Fruit attracts fish Firewood

Trunk Fruit Wood

0 ± 0

1.00 0.50 1.00

2.50 1.42

0 0

0.04 0.28

Parinari Parinari

6222 8409

2 11 12

Fruit attracts fish Sawnwood Boat

Fruit Trunk Trunk

± ± ±

0.75 1.25 0.50

1.92

2

0.04

Lagarto caspi

7141

attracts fish sold eaten sold

153

3.25

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Caesalpinaceae 44 Campsiandra angustifolia

11 39 7 16 10 14 30

154

Table 1 (Continued ) Speciesa 58

Garcinia macrophylla

59

Garcinia madruno

60 61

Tovomita sp. Vismia angusta

Dilleniaceae 63 Davilla nitida Elaeocarpaceae 64 Muntingia calabura 65 Sloanea guianensis 66 Sloanea ternifolia 67 Sloanea sp. 1 68

Sloanea sp. 3

Euphorbiaceae 69 Alchornea castaneifolia 70 71 72 73

Croton cuneatus Croton lechlerii Drypetes amazonica Hura crepitans

74 75

Mabea nitida Margaritaria nobilis

Fabaceae 76 Erythrina fusca 77

Lecointea amazonica

Partc

Choiced

U-scoree

U-valuef

Statusg

Densityh Vernacular namei

Plot-numbersj

20 1 37 1 37 30 6 35

Canoe Fruit eaten Fruit sold Fruit eaten Fruit sold Cold/unspecific Beam Eczema/skin

Trunk Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Cortex Trunk Resin

1 0 0 0 0 ± 1 ±

0.50 1.00 1.00 0.84 0.67 0.50 1.00 1.00

2.50

0

0.52

Charichuelo

4270

1.67

0

0.00

Charichuelo

8113

1.75 2.00

0 0

0.00 0.09

Chullachaqui caspi Pichirina

6173 2494

10 14

Tying (const.) Tying (techn.)

Aerial root Aerial root

2 2

± ±

±

1

±

Tamshi

±

14

Tying (techn.)

Stem

1

0.50

0.92

0

0.02

Paujil chaqui

4108

10 2 2 2 16 2

Tying (const.) Fruit attracts fish Fruit attracts fish Fruit attracts fish Mortar/vessel Fruit attracts fish

Cortex Fruit Fruit Fruit Buttress Fruit

2 ± ± ± ± ±

± 1.00 0.54 0.60 0.50 0.50

± 1.25 0.95 1.33

0 0 0 0

± 0.71 0.13 0.02

Yumanaza Cepanchina Cepanchina Aparachama

± 2101 5488, 8565 7632

1.83

0

0.02

Cepanchina

6079

29 30 34 26 6 11 12 20 32 2 6 21

Rheumatism Cold/unspecific Diarrhoea Wounds Beam Sawnwood Boat Canoe Tumour Fruit attracts fish Beam Firewood

Cortex Cortex Cortex Resin Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Resin Fruit Trunk Wood

± ± ± ± 1 ± ± 2 ± ± 2 1

± ± 0.83 ± 0.75 0.92 0.50 0.17 0.50 0.67 1.00 1.00

±

0

±

Ipururo

±

1.33 ± 1.16 3.08

0 0 0 1

1.34 ± 4.39 0.26

Puma sacha Sangre de grado Yutobanco Catahua

8045 ± 2003, 7447 2137

1.13 1.18

0 0

0.39 0.04

Shiringilla Loro micuna

8016, 8172 1096

26 35 16 17 18

Wounds Eczema/skin Mortar/vessel Spear/bow Handle

Cortex Cortex Wood Wood Wood

± ± 3 ± 1

± ± 0.17 0.67 0.50

±

0

±

Amasisa

±

2.58

0

0.13

Cumaceba (baja)

6061

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Cyclanthaceae 62 Thoracocarpus bissectus

Purposeb

Oar Cold/unspecific Snake-bite Handicraft Sold for handicraft Eczema/skin Spear/bow

Wood Wood Cortex Seed Seed Resin Wood

0 ± ± ± ± ± 2

0.50 0.50 0.50 1.17 1.00 0.50 ±

6 21

Beam Firewood

Trunk Wood

1 1

30 30 30 30

Cold/unspecific Cold/unspecific Cold/unspecific Cold/unspecific

Cortex Cortex Cortex Cortex

96

20 11 20 39 Cinnamomum napoense 20 Endlicheria formosa 20 Endlicheria verticillata 11 Endlicheria sp. 1 20 Licaria armeniaca 11 39 Nectandra cuneato-dordata 20 Ocotea bofo 11 39 Ocotea javitensis 11

Canoe Sawnwood Canoe Sawnwood sold Canoe Canoe Sawnwood Canoe Sawnwood Sawnwood sold Canoe Sawnwood Sawnwood sold Sawnwood

97

Ocotea sp. 1

98 99

Pleurothyrium parviflorum Genera indet. sp. 4

20 11 39 20 20

78 79

Ormosia sp. 2 Ormosia sp. 3

80 81

Swartzia cardiosperma Swartzia polyphylla

Flacourtiaceae 82 Laetia corymbulosa Hippocrataceae 83 Cheiloclinium cognatum 84 Cheiloclinium sp. 1 85 Cheiloclinium sp. 2 86 Salacia impressifolia

1.50 3.00

0 0

0.02 0.02

Huayuro Huayuro

6016 3404

1.50 ±

0 0

0.32 ±

Palo de sangre Cumaceba (altura)

1441, 1466 ±

0.83 1.00

0.83

0

0.09

Timareo

8487

± ± ± ±

0.50 0.82 0.50 0.60

0.67 0.82 0.67 0.83

0 0 0 0

0.04 0.04 0.02 0.06

Chuchuhuasi Chuchuhuasi Chuchuhuasi Chuchuhuasi

Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk

0 1 0 ± 0 0 ± 0 1 ± 0 1 ± ±

0.50 1.25 0.50 0.92 0.60 0.60 0.92 0.50 1.00 0.50 0.54 1.20 1.00 0.84

1.83 2.92

0 1

0.58 0.04

Moena Canela moena

8232 8471

1.75 2.20 1.92 1.50 1.75

0 0 0 0 0

0.02 0.11 0.04 0.00 0.04

Moena Moena Moena Moena Moena

9412 2207 9354, 6285 9397 6124

1.83 2.50

0 0

0.41 0.09

Moena Moena

2249, 9085 6002

1.93

2

0.26

Canela moena

Canoe Sawnwood Sawnwood sold Canoe Canoe

Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk

1 ± 1 0 0

0.69 1.00 0.70 0.50 0.50

4243, 8055, 8171

2.08

0

0.04

Moena

7431

1.58 1.17

0

0.50 0.00

Moena Moena

2524 2510

14 10

Tying (techn.) Tying (const.)

Cortex Cortex

1 2

0.92 0.00

1.50 1.08

0 0

0.17 4.07

Machin mango Machin mango

14 21

Tying (techn.) Firewood

Cortex Wood

1 0

0.50 1.00

6265 2309, 7090, 7499

Lauraceae 87 Aniba sp. 1 88 Aniba sp. 2 89 90 91 92 93 94 95

Lecythidaceae 100 Couroutari oligantha 101 Eschweilera parvifolia

huasca huasca huasca huasca

7544 7320, 7453 7266 7081

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

19 30 31 22 43 35 17

155

156

Table 1 (Continued ) Speciesa 102

Eschweilera turbinata

103

Grias neuberthii

Melastomataceae 104 Mouriri grandiflora

106

Guarea macrophylla

107 108

Swietenia macrophylla Trichilia inaequilatera

109

Trichilia mazanensis

Mimosaceae 110 Albizzia sp. 2 111 Inga cinnamomea

Partc

Choiced

U-scoree

U-valuef

Statusg

Densityh Vernacular namei

Plot-numbersj

10 14 1

Tying (const.) Tying (techn.) Fruit eaten

Cortex Cortex Fruit

2 1 2

0.08 0.67 ±

1.53

0

5.95

Machin mango

2126, 7505

±

±

±

Sacha mangua

±

Beam

Trunk

0

0.83

1.67

0

1.10

Lanza caspi

8621

11 20 24 39 11 20 30 39 11 39 11

Sawnwood Canoe Furniture Sawnwood sold Sawnwood Canoe Cold/unspecific Sawnwood sold Sawnwood Sawnwood sold Sawnwood

Trunk Trunk Wood Trunk Trunk Trunk Cortex Trunk Trunk Trunk Trunk

± ± ± 2 ± 0 ± 2 ± 0 ±

1.50 1.08 0.67 1.25 0.96 0.50 0.25 ± 1.13 0.50 0.90

4.83

2

0.22

Cedro

2066

2.65

0

1.38

Requia (colorado)

4275, 7042

± 1.75

2 0

± 0.30

Caoba Requia (blanca)

± 6020

2.25

0

0.06

Requia (blanca)

6116

Firewood Fruit eaten Fruit sold Fruit eaten Firewood Fruit sold Firewood Fruit sold Fruit eaten Fruit sold Fruit eaten Firewood Fruit sold Firewood

Wood Fruit Fruit Fruit Wood Fruit Wood Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Wood Fruit Wood

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1

1.00 0.92 0.58 1.00 1.08 1.00 1.08 0.67 0.83 0.83 0.92 1.00 0.92 1.02

1.12 1.67

0 0

0.00 0.65

Pashaco Shimbillo

5495 2036

2.33

0

0.06

Shimbillo

4264

1.67

0

0.11

Shimbillo

1511

2.17

0

0.39

Shimbillo

2162

2.10

0

1.38

Shimbillo

7301, 8225

1.83

0

0.71

Shimbillo

7148, 8060, 9067

6

112

Inga pavoniana

113

Inga psittacorum

114

Inga semialata

115

Inga stenoptera

116

Inga vismiifolia

21 1 37 1 21 37 21 37 1 37 1 21 37 21

117

Zygia divaricata

37 18

Fruit sold Handle

Fruit Wood

0 0

0.56 0.60

1.58

0

0.19

Bushilla

8399

12 32

Boat Tumour

Trunk Resin

± ±

0.50 0.50

2.00 1.50

0 0

0.17 0.11

Guariuba Huairi caspi

3096 9700

Moraceae 118 Batocarpus amazonicus 119 Brosimum guianense

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Meliaceae 105 Cedrela odorata

Purposeb

120

Brosimum lactescens

121 122 123 124 125 126

Brosimum rubescens Ficus insipida Ficus pertusa Ficus trigona Maclura tinctoria Maquira coriacea

Myrtaceae 129 Eugenia sp. 3 130 131

Eugenia sp. 6 Myrciaria dubia

132

Myrciaria floribunda

Nyctaginaceae 133 Neea floribunda 134

Neea sp. 1

Olacaceae 135 Minquartia guianensis

Poaceae 136 Gynerium sagittatum

Fruit eaten Cold/unspecific Women's ailments Post Anthelmintic Women's ailments Women's ailments Toothache Sawnwood Women's ailments Sprained joint Sawnwood sold

Fruit Cortex Resin Trunk Latex Resin Resin Resin Trunk Resin Resin Trunk

1 ± ± 2 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0

0.58 0.50 0.17 ± ± ± ± ± 1.08 0.33 0.50 0.58

2.35

0

0.30

Tamamuri

4097, 7245

± ± ± ± ± 3.42

± 2 0 0 0 0

± ± ± ± ± 1.69

Palisangre Oje Renaquilla Renaquilla Insira Capinuri

± ± ± ± ± 2018

11 11

Sawnwood Sawnwood

Trunk Trunk

± ±

0.90 0.80

1.63 1.67

2 2

0.43 0.65

Cumala (blanca) Caupuri cumala

2485, 9379 8588

1 37 37 1 37 1 21 37

Fruit eaten Fruit sold Fruit sold Fruit eaten Fruit sold Fruit eaten Firewood Fruit sold

Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Wood Fruit

0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0

1.00 0.80 0.60 ± ± 1.25 1.08 1.17

2.20

0

0.17

Guayabillo

4385

2.25 ±

0 1

0.04 ±

Quinilla Camu camu

9720 ±

3.25

0

0.09

Camu camu arbol

7045

Fruit attracts fish Bait for fish Fruit attracts fish Bait for fish

Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit

± ± ± ±

1.00 0.92 1.17 1.25

1.12

0

0.13

Palometo huayo

8316

1.58

0

0.02

Palometo huayo

3453

6 7 30 41

Beam Post Cold/unspecific Post sold

Trunk Trunk Cortex Trunk

0 3 ± ±

1.42 1.25 0.50 0.75

3.33

1

0.28

HuacapuÂ

2075

9 13 17

Roof Fence Spear/bow

Stem Stem Peduncle

3 3 3

± ± ±

±

0

±

CanÄa brava

±

2 4 2 4

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Myristicaceae 127 Virola elongata 128 Virola pavonis

1 30 36 7 28 36 36 33 11 36 27 39

157

158

Table 1 (Continued ) Speciesa Rubiaceae 137 Calycophyllum spruceanum

Duroia duckei Genipa americana

140

Simira sp.

141

Uncaria guianensis

142

Uncaria tomentosa

Sapindaceae 143 Cupania latifolia Sapotaceae 144 Chrysophyllum argenteum 145 146

Chrysophyllum sp. 1 Pouteria cuspidata

147

Pouteria procera

148

Sarcaulis brasiliensis

Solanaceae 149 Brunfelsia grandiflora Sterculariaceae 150 Guazuma crinata

Partc

Choiced

U-scoree

U-valuef

Statusg

Densityh Vernacular namei

Plot-numbersj

6 7 16 18 21 42 2 1 18 11 18 19 36 40 36 40

Beam Post Mortar/vessel Handle Firewood Firewood sold Fruit attracts fish Fruit eaten Handle Sawnwood Handle Oar Women's ailments Medicine sold Wome's ailments Medicine sold

Trunk Trunk Wood Wood Wood Wood Fruit Fruit Wood Trunk Wood Wood Stem Stem Stem Stem

2 1 3 2 3 ± ± 2 2 ± 0 0 ± 2 ± 2

1.42 1.17 0.00 0.17 1.42 1.17 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.83 0.50 0.50 ± ± 0.17 0.00

3.08

0

0.32

Capirona

8449

1.00 3.33

0 0

0.02 0.19

Gaimitillo Huito

6069 3481

1.50

0

0.19

Huacamayo caspi

1421, 7110

±

1

±

UnÄa de gato

±

1.00

1

0.04

UnÄa de gato

1012

21 42

Firewood Firewood sold

Wood Wood

1 ±

1.17 0.75

1.42

0

0.30

Huapina

1437

7 18 7 1 7 1 2 7 1 7 37

Post Handle Post Fruit eaten Post Fruit eaten Fruit attracts fish Post Fruit eaten Post Fruit sold

Trunk Wood Trunk Fruit Trunk Fruit Fruit Trunk Fruit Trunk Fruit

0 0 0 0 0 0 ± 0 0 0 0

0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.50 0.80 0.60 0.60 0.83 0.50 0.67

2.42

0

0.35

Huacapusilla

8475

2.50 2.20

0 0

0.13 0.26

Quinilla Quinilla

2151 4247, 6003

2.50

0

0.95

Quinilla

7047

2.92

0

1.32

Quinilla

2085

29 30

Rheumatism Cold/unspecific

Root Root

± ±

± ±

±

1

±

Chiric sanango

±

39

Sawnwood sold

Trunk

2

±

±

1

±

Bolaina (blanca)

±

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

138 139

Purposeb

151

Theobroma cacao

Fruit eaten Fruit sold

Fruit Fruit

1 0

0.92 1.33

2.50

0

0.99

Cacao

2016

Tiliaceae 152 Luehea cymulosa

21

Firewood

Wood

0

1.00

1.08

0

0.43

Bombo caspi

8223

Ulmaceae 153 Trema micrantha

10

Tying (const.)

Cortex

2

±

±

±

±

Atadijo

±

Fruit attracts fish

Fruit

±

0.50

0.92

0

1.73

Tamara

2081

Canoe

Trunk

1

0.50

1.67

0

0.11

Quillosisa

3346

Violaceae 154 Leonia glycycarpa

2

Vochysiaceae 155 Vochysia venulosa

20

a Species: scienti®c names of species arranged alphabetically within alphabetically listed plant families, together with the number the species is referred to in the text (notice that numbers of unidenti®ed species, e.g. Eugenia sp. 3 and sp. 6 in the Myrtaceae, are the same as in Nebel et al., 2001). b Purpose: use(s) of species together with the number each purpose have in the text. c Part: part of species used for the particular purpose. d Choice: quantitative importance of the species extracted. Species being dominant, major, minor and insigni®cant de®ned and estimated to provide more than 50%, between 10 and 50%, between 1 and 10% and <1% of the material for the purpose are indicated with the numbers 3, 2, 1, and 0, respectively. A dash indicates purposes for which the quantitative importance of the involved species not have been estimated. e U-score: utility-score of material extracted from species based on informant-interviews ranging from 0 to 1.5; and de®ned as having high-, medium-, or low-utility material if score is from 1 to 1.5, from 0.5 to 1, or from 0 to 0.5, respectively. f U-value: use-value giving the overall relative importance the population assign to all uses of the species. Based on informant interviews and ranging from 0 to maximally 7.5. g Status: conservation status of species mainly based on estimations of local informants. Species that are locally depleted, which currently may get depleted, and not are at risk, are indicated with 2, 1 and 0. h Density: the relative density of the species in the nine permanent plots, namely the percentage of the 4624 plot-individuals constituted by the species. A dash mark species with no plot-individuals being at least 10 cm in DBH. A few of these species are represented with smaller individuals in the plots (and thus have plot-numbers). i Vernacular name: the name most frequently reported by the local population. j Plot-number: the number(s) of the tree and lianas individuals at which informant-interviews were focused in the permanent plots. Voucher-numbers appear in Table 7.

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

1 37

159

160

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Table 2 Quantities of forest extracted fruits consumed by 12 households during a yeara Species

Family

Local name

Weight (kg)

%

Mauritia flexuosa Inga spp. Scheelea cephalotis Grias neuberthii Oenocarpus mapora Genipa americana Theobroma cacao Myrciaria dubia Spondias mombin 13 other taxa

Arec Mimo Arec Lecy Arec Rubia Sterc Myrt Anac ±

Aguaje Shimbillo Shapaja Sacha mangua Sinamilla Huito Cacao Camu-camu Ubos ±

330 150 100 100 90 30 25 15 15 80

35 16 11 11 10 3 3 2 2 8

a

Only M. ¯exuosa was also marketed, but this happened in a large scale (ca. 4000 kg per family).

Table 3 Round-wood poles applied as beams in family housesa Genus/species

Family

Local name

Year

%

Once

%

Several genera Calycophyllum spruceanum Laetia corymbulosa Drypetes amazonica Vismia angusta Guazuma crinata Indeterminate/others

Anno Rubi Flac Euph Clus Ster ±

Espintana, etc. Capirona Timareo Yutobanco Pichirina Bolaina ±

309 157 38 9 ± ± 48

55 28 7 2 ± ± 8

519 502 67 72 60 20 12

41 40 5 6 5 2 1

a The table gives both the numbers of beams extracted by 12 households during a 1-year-period (year), and the numbers of beams counted during a one-time investigation of 42 family houses (once). In both cases the percentile importance of the taxa, which serve for beams (%) is also given.

Table 4 Round-wood poles applied as posts in family housesa Genus/species

Family

Local name

Year

%

Once

%

Minquartia guianensis Ceiba samauba Socratea exorrhiza Cedrela odorata Maclura tinctoria Calycophyllum spruceanum Oenocarpus mapora Others

Olac Bomb Arec Meli Mora Rubi Arec ±

Huacapu Huimba Pona Cedro Insira Capirona Sinamilla ±

24 5 4 3 2 1 ± ±

62 13 10 8 5 2 ± ±

157 3 ± ± ± 9 19 3

83 2 ± ± ± 5 10 1

a

The table gives both the numbers of posts extracted by 12 households during a 1-year-period (year), and the numbers of posts counted during a one-time investigation of 42 family houses (once). In both cases the percentile importance of the taxa, which serve for posts (%) is also given.

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174 Table 5 Canoes owned by 42 households visited in July±August 1997a Species

Family

Vernacular name

Number

Cedrela odorata Hura crepitans Ocotea and Aniba Calophyllum brasiliense Vochysia sp.

Meli Euph Laur Clus Voch

Cedro Catahua Canela moena Lagarto caspi Quillosisa

20 8 2 2 1

a

Numbers of canoes manufactured from different ¯ood plain trees appear.

reported of the 12 applications is wood for ®re-wood for which 91% of the plot-individuals may serve (®gure 1±12), while only 12% may serve as wood for handles (®gure 1±1). It appears that for any purpose, few plot-individuals have high-utility, and much larger numbers have medium- or low-utility. Fig. 2 compares utility-class data from the forest types high restinga, low restinga, and tahuampa, represented by 1367, 1697 and 1560 tree and liana plot-individuals, respectively. For 12 applications (the same as in Fig. 1 and referred to as ®gure 2±1 to ®gure

161

Table 6 In 42 households were recorded which ®rewood was used or stored, while another 19 households were asked to mention their principal ®rewooda Genera and/or species

Family

Local name

Of 42

Of 19

Calycophyllum spruceanum Inga spp. Laetia corymbulosa Various genera Various genera Margaritaria nobilis Cedrela odorata Guazuma crinata Cupania latifolia Nine others

Rubi

Capirona

42

19

Mimo Flac Mimo Anno Euph Meli Ster Sapi ±

Shimbillo Timareo Pashaca Espintana Loro micuna Cedro Bolaina Huapina ±

15 6 5 4 2 2 2 ± 5

8 2 2 4 6 ± ± 2 4

a The table shows the numbers of households, which stored (of 42) and mentioned (of 19) the different types of ®rewood.

2±12) are illustrated the proportions of high-, mediumand low-utility individuals in the forests typest. The percentages of potentially useful individuals (the three utility classes) may differ considerably between the

Fig. 1. Utility-classes of woody plants for 12 purposes. Each bar (1±1 to 1±12) shows for a particular purpose, the percentage of individuals in the permanent plots, which belong to a species, which informants have estimated to have the following utilities-scores: high-utility (at least 1.0: black above), medium-utility (at least 0.5 but <1.0: dark grey) and low-utility (exceeding 0 but <0.5: white). Finally, at the bottom the proportion of the species with no potential for the purpose are light grey.

162 L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174 Fig. 2. Utility-classes of woody plants for 12 purposes in three forest types with permanent plots. Sub®gures (2±1 to 2±12 corresponding to 1±1 to 1±12) show for particular purposes the proportions of the woody plants within the three forest types estimated to have the various utilities (utility-classes de®ned and marked as in Fig. 1).

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

Fig. 2. (Continued ).

163

164

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

forest types, as well as the proportions of the utilityclasses. 4. Results According to the criteria applied in the present work, materials extracted from woody forest plants are important for 43 purposes. These will be described with consecutive numbers distributed at the ®ve usecategories food (nos. 1±5), construction (nos. 6±12), technical purposes (nos. 13±24), medicine (nos. 25± 36) and commerce (nos. 37±43). For each purpose are ®rst listed (with numbers referring to the base-data found in Table 1) all species found to be important according to the above-mentioned criteria. Afterwards are emphasised the speci®c uses and qualities of the relevant species, the identity of single-, ®rst- and second-choice species, the situation of depleted or endangered species, the correlation between the utility and the choice data, and differences between the potentials of the three ¯ood plain forests. For some purposes appear none supplementary remarks implying that only the numbers of the species applied are given. 1. Fruit eaten (1, 20, 23, 25, 28±30, 33, 54, 59±60, 104, 112±113, 115±116, 121, 130, 132±133, 140, 147± 149, 152). A total of 43% of the trees in the permanent plots were reported to provide potentially edible fruits (®gure 1±8). However, the quantitative data (Table 2) as well as ®eld observations suggest that the vast majority of the potentially edible species only are consumed occasionally or rarely. Larger fruiting trees tend to be cut rather than climbed, but since most species are little exploited few if any species are endangered by subsistence extraction. The restinga forests, particularly the upper, provide more appreciated fruits than the tahuampa forests (®gure 2±8). This may correspond with Foster (1990) which reported that old restinga forest in the Manu produce an abundance of large, ¯eshy fruits. 2. Fruit attracts ®sh (21, 52, 57±58, 66±69, 75, 134± 135, 139, 148, 155). During the ¯ooding, ®sher-men locate and stalk fruit-eating ®sh below trees from where fruits drop into the water. Villagers are thus aware that many ®sh eat fruits, and nearly two-thirds of the plot-trees were told to attract ®sh (®gure 1±10), but with a much higher percentage in the tahuampa

than in the upper restinga (®gure 2±10). This correlates with that tahuampa is inundated during the longest period annually, and the upper restinga during the shortest period. Fish or water dispersed species are thus particularly likely to disperse to tahuampa, as well as to have their own fruits or seeds dispersed by the same vectors. A supplementary explanation is that ®shermen spend more time in tahuampa, and thus particularly notice fruits eaten by ®sh in this forest type. 3. Palm-heart eaten (20, 25, 33). 4. Bait for ®sh (134±135). 5. Edible larva in trunk or fruits (28, 33). 6. Beams for houses (1±10, 12±15, 56, 62, 73, 76, 83, 105, 136, 138). According to the informants, 78% of the trunks in the permanent plots belong to species that potentially may serve for the round-wood framework of houses, but only 6% scored as high-utility resources in contrast to 36% of both medium- and lowutility beams (®gure 1±11). The quantitative extraction data (Table 3) con®rms that a few taxa provide most of the round-wood, primarily Calycophyllum spruceanum and various Annonaceae. The former tree dominates young riverine succession forests, and the Annonaceae also remain abundant. According to the plot-informants tahuampa forests may provide more appreciated beams than restinga (®gure 2±11), but the ¯oristic compositions of the forest types does not explain the difference. The reason may rather be that tahuampa forests is more open facilitating the view of straight trunks appearing useful for construction. 7. Posts for houses (30, 34, 42, 47, 106, 122, 126, 136, 138, 145±149). The posts which carry the roundwood framework of the houses must persist partly buried in the ground. Since most wood soon rot in these conditions few species serve, and by far the most important is Minquartia guianensis (Table 4) which may persist up to 50 years. This species is relatively scarce, and people may increasingly use alternative species possibly re¯ecting an advancing depletion of M. guianensis (Table 5). These alternatives are rated as low-utility resources (®gure 1±5) and only serve temporarily until people acquire M. guianensis posts, suggesting that its trunks is a single-choice resource. Species of Sapotaceae, mostly Pouteria, may last up to 30 years (Table 4), but are little used possibly because they are dif®cult to process. The prevalence of Sapotaceae in the tahuampa explains that this forest

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174

formation has the highest frequency of trees indicated as useful for posts (®gure 2±5). 8. Floor and wall (25±26, 34). For ¯ooring the local ¯ood plain communities nearly exclusively apply the split trunks of the palm Socratea exorrhiza. The only alternatives are the trunks of the upland forest palm Iriartia deltoidea, ``modern'' sawn-wood ¯oors and stamped clay ¯oors. S. exorrhiza thus is an onlychoice resource, at least for ``traditional'' ¯ood plain villagers. The species remains abundant, and its split trunks also serve for walls. An alternative for the latter purpose is E. precatoria, but this species has become scarce near most villages (due to harvest of its palmhearts mainly for commerce). 9. Roof (27, 31±34, 137). Leaves from four palms are important, namely Lepidocaryum gracile, Pholidostachys synanthera, Phytelephas macrocarpa and Scheelea brachyclada. The former two are under-story palms limited to upland forests, and the latter two are larger palms which mostly grow at high restingas. Roofs fabricated from these two categories of palms lasts from 5 to 10 years and 2 to 4 years, respectively. Flood plain villages near Jenaro Herrera prefer the durable leaves of Lepidocaryum and Pholidostachys collected during expeditions to upland forests, and Phytelaphas and Scheelea leaves only serve temporarily (but in ¯ood plain areas distant from upland forests populations depend on the latter two species). The basic unit for roo®ng is an approximately 3 m long stick of split S. exorrhiza trunk, braided with approximately 100 Lepidocaryum or Pholidostachys leaves, and fastened to stems of the giant grass Gynerium sagittarum, themselves mounted to the roundwood framework of the house (Kahn and Mejia, 1987; Mejia, 1988; Mejia and Kahn, 1996). 10. Tying in construction (18, 38±39, 43, 63, 65, 101±102, 153). During roo®ng cortex from the trees Pseudobombax munguba, Trema micrantha, Muntingia calabura and Eschweilera spp., serve to fasten the palm-leaf units to the Gynerium stems, as well as the latter to the round-wood poles. The round-wood frame-work itself is tied together by more durable and strong aerial roots of climbing species known as ``tamshi''. According to most references (e.g., Duke and Vasquez, 1994) ``tamshi'' come from species of Heteropsis, but Parodi (1988) and Gentry (1993) also mention various Cyclanthaceae. In the Jenaro Herrera region, the most used ``tamshi'' come from the

165

Cyclanthaceae Thoracocarpus bissectus but Heteropsis is also applied. To heavy construction, e.g. to lash posts and major beams, are preferably used the stronger and thicker ``lamas tamshi''. This is young ¯exible stems from Clatystoma binatum, which should last up to 50 years. Informants claim that both ``tamshi'' and ``lamas tamshi'' are scarcer than previously. 11. Sawn-wood (13±14, 41, 48, 58, 74, 89, 92, 94, 96±98, 106±107, 109±110, 127±129, 140). The subsistence consumption of sawn-wood remains limited, since the villagers mostly use round-wood and split palm-trunks for their houses. In spite of that surprisingly many plot-trees were recognised as potentially useful for sawn-wood (®gure 1±7). This may partly be due to that communal buildings such as village schools and health clinics tend to be constructed with planks, but also that sawn-wood are considered more ``modern''. The two restinga forests contain more appreciated sawn-wood than the tahuampa forest (®gure 2±7). 12. Planks for boats (58, 74, 119). 13. Fencing (137). 14. Tying (technical) (18, 37±39, 43, 63±64, 101± 103). Bundles of ®re-wood or palm-hearts, rafts, ®shing traps, etc., are tied together with plant materials; particularly strong and ¯exible cortex pulled from the trees Eschweilera spp. and P. munguba, slender stems from certain lianas, and ¯exible and slender aerial roots from the climbing Heteropsis and T. bissectus. The latter two taxa also serve to manufacture coarse bags or baskets in which extracted fruits or game are transported back to the villages, in contrast to the ®ner bags braided with ®bres extracted from plants. The high frequency of trees that may serve for (technical) tying in the plots (®gure 1±3) re¯ects the abundance of two Eschweilera species in the tahuampa plots. P. munguba is also abundant dominating and naming a particular forest formation (Kvist and Nebel, 2001). 15. Braiding with plant-®bres (19, 21±22, 24, 28, 30, 37). Finer bags and baskets as well as hats, fans, hammocks and manioc-squeezes, are braided with ®bres extracted nearly exclusively from palms. In ¯ood plain communities, the main resource for plant-®bres is Astrocaryum jauari, but in communities with access to upland forests the related A. chambira is also much used. Both species remain widespread and abundant.

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16. Mortar and vessels (15, 42, 68, 78, 138). Mortars used to crush corn, rice and salt and vessels used to soak manioc and for laundry are processed from buttresses of large trees. According to the quantitative studies are mostly used Ceiba samauba and Aspidosperma rigidum, but the plot-informants mainly recognised species of Sloanea as useful. Rice is husked in a hollowed wooden trunks mostly made of C. spruceanum, where it is stamped with a wooden staff made of Lecointea amazonica. 17. Spear and bow (34±36, 78, 82, 138). Spears are commonly used for ®shing and to a less extent for hunting. There exists three sizes of spears commonly referred to as harpoons, lances and arrows, which serve to catch large aquatic animals, large and small ®sh, respectively. Spearheads are always of iron, and these are fastened into wood of L. amazonica, which is particularly hard, durable and ¯exible. Lances and arrows, in addition, have a shaft made from trunks from the slender upland palms Socratea salazarii or Wettinia augusta, and the stiff and straight in¯orescence peduncles from G. sagittatum. For spears L. amazonica is a single-choice resource, although an alternative may be the upland forest tree Swartzia polyphylla which Spichiger et al. (1990) and Duke and Vasquez (1994) report also have the vernacular name ``cumaceba''. According to informants, L. amazonica remain relatively frequent in the Jenaro Herrera area. 18. Handles (15, 78, 118, 138, 140±141, 145). Handles for axes, shovels, ®les, etc., are predominantly manufactured from the buttresses of A. rigidum and to a less extent from L. amazonica, C. spruceanum, Genipa americana, and Sapotaceae. In the plots, relatively many trunks may serve for handles (®gure 1±1) mainly due to the prevalence of Sapotaceae in tahuampa, and the genus Zygia in low restinga (®gure 2±1). The quantitative studies did not con®rm that Zygia may serve for handles. 19. Oars (15±16, 78, 141). These are nearly exclusively produced from buttresses of A. rigidum, which consequently is a single-choice resource. The species should remain locally fairly abundant. An upland species of Aspidosperma may also serve. 20. Canoes (51, 58, 74, 88±91, 93, 95, 99±100, 106± 107, 156). Cedrela odorata is the ®rst-choice wood for canoes, because it has durable, easy to process and relatively light wood. Alternative species, particularly

Hura crepitans (Table 5), are increasingly used, as commercial logging has depleted the populations of C. odorata. 21. Firewood (7, 14±15, 45, 48, 57, 76, 83, 102, 106, 111, 113±114, 116±117, 133, 138, 144, 151, 153). Any wood can burn, and not surprisingly most plot trees were told to serve as ®rewood (®gure 1±12). In reality, ®re-wood is nearly exclusively extracted from a few highly appreciated taxa which light easily, burn relatively slowly, develop a good heat, and produce little smoke. The quantitative studies demonstrated that C. spruceanum is by far the most important species (Table 7), providing more than half of all ®rewood, and second most important is the genus Inga. Highly appreciated is also Campsiandra angustifolia, but this species does not occur near the villages where the quantitative studies were undertaken. However, the abundance of ®rst-choice ®rewood in the tahuampa plots (®gure 2±12) re¯ects that C. angustifolia are common in this forest formation. C. spruceanum characterises young succession ¯ood-plain forests, and only large-scale commercial extraction of C. spruceanum for ®re-wood, charcoal or timber may put this resource at risk. 22. Handicraft (80). 23. Sealing (44). 24. Furniture (106). 25. Malaria (15, 25). A. rigidum and E. precatoria qualify as important anti-malarial plants, and Gonzales (1999) found that these are the two most commonly and widely applied anti-malarial plants in the Peruvian Amazon. 26. Wounds (1, 46, 55, 72, 77). Maytenus macrocarpa and Spondias mombin are both much used to clean, heal and ulcerate wounds. However, Croton lechlerii were reported even more frequently, although this species may be absent from the Jenaro Herrera district, and C. lechlerii is often applied together with another locally rare species, Copaifera paupera. The two species are well-known despite their rarity, because their resins can be bought at medicinal markets or from visiting traders. 27. Joints, sprained/broken (127). The high medicinal potential of high restinga forest (®gure 2±9) re¯ects the prevalence of Moraceae, which serve more for medicine than other dominant families (Kvist et al., 1995); and particularly the abundance of Maquira coriacea.

L.P. Kvist et al. / Forest Ecology and Management 150 (2001) 147±174 Table 7 Scienti®c names and authors of all 155 species, which appear in Table 1 and in the texta Albizia sp. 2 Alchornea castaneifolia (Willdenow) Adr. Jussieu Aniba sp. 1 sp. 2 Annona sp. 3 Arrabidaea candicans (Richard) A. DC. sp. 1 Aspidosperma rigidum Rusby sp. 2 Astrocaryum chambira Burrett chonta C. Martius jauari C. Martius javarense Trail ex Drude Batocarpus amazonicus (Ducke) Fosberg Brosimum guianense (Aublet) Huber lactescens S. Moore rubescens Taubert Brunfelsia grandiflora D. Don Calophyllum brasiliense CambessaÈdes Calycophyllum spruceanum (Bentham) Hooker f.ex Schumann Campsiandra angustifolia (Bentham) Sandwith Caryocar microcarpum Ducke Cecropia latiloba Miquel Cedrela odorata L. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertner samauma (C. Martius & Zuccarini) Schumann Cheiloclinium cognatum (Miers) A.C. Smith sp. 1 sp. 2 Chrysophyllum argenteum (Miquel) Pennington sp. 1 Cinnamomum napoense H. van der Werff Clatystoma binatum (Thunb.) Sandw. Copaifera pauperi (Herzog) Dwyer Couroutari oligantha A.C. Smith Croton cuneatus Klotzsch lechlerii Muell.-Arg. Cupania latifolia H.B.K. Cynometra sp. Davilla nitida (M. Vahl) Kubitzki Desmoncus polyacanthos C. Martius Drypetes amazonica J.F. Macbride Duguetia odorata (Diels) J.F. Macbride spixiana C. Martius Duroia duckei Huber Endlicheria formosa A.C. Smith verticillata Mez sp. 1 Erythrina fusca Loureiro Eschweilera parvifolia C. Martius ex A. DC. turbinata (Berg) Niedenzu Eugenia sp. 3 sp. 6

110 69 87 88 2 36 37 15 16 19 20 21 22 118 119 120 121 149 57 137

5495r 1651k 1138r 8471r 5369r 4084r 4342r 9034r 1733r ± ± ± ± 8630r 1233r 4097r ± 1348k 7639r 8449r

44 50 51 105 40 41 83 84 85 144 145 89 38 45 100 70 71 143 46 63 23 71 3 4 138 90 91 92 76 101 102 129 130

5084r 5479r 5005r 2066r ± 3298r 7544r 7320r 7266r 8475r 3282r 9412r 1760k ± 6337r 3553r ± 1507r 9060r 4108r 1196k 2228r 2461r 5508r 6069r 2207r 9737r 7477r ± 7114r 5019r 4517r 5503r

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Table 7 (Continued ) Euterpe oleracea Mart. precatoria C. Martius Ficus insipida Willdenow pertusa L. f. trigona L. f. Garcinia macrophylla C. Martius madruno (Kunth) Hammel Genipa americana L. Grias neuberthii J.F. Macbride Guarea macrophylla Vahl Guatteria sp. 1 sp. 2 sp. 3 Guazuma crinata C. Martius Gynerium sagittatum (Aublet) P. Beauvois Heteropsis spp. Himatanthus bracteatus (A. DC.) Woodson Hura crepitans L. Inga cinnamomea Spruce ex Bentham pavoniana G. Don psittacorum L. Uribe semialata (Vell. Conc.) C. Martius stenoptera Bentham vismiifolia Poeppig Iriartea deltoidea R. & P. Laetia corymbulosa Spruce ex Bentham Lecointea amazonica Ducke Leonia glycycarpa Ruiz Ruiz LoÂpez & PavoÂn Lepidocaryum gracile C. Martius Licania apetala (E. Meyer) Fritsch Licaria armeniaca (Nees) Kostermans Luehea cymulosa Spruce ex Bentham Mabea nitida Spruce ex Bentham Maclura tinctoria (L.) Steudel Macrolobium acaciifolium (Benth.) Benth. Malmea sp. Mansoa standleyi (Steyermark) A. Gentry Maquira coriacea (Karsten) C.C. Berg Margaritaria nobilis L. f. Mauritia flexuosa L. f. Maytenus macrocarpa (R. & P.) Briquet Minquartia guianensis Aublet Mouriri grandiflora A. DC. Muntingia calabura L. Myrciaria dubia (H.B.K.) McVaugh floribunda (West ex Willdenow) O. Berg Nectandra cuneato-cordata Mez Neea floribunda Diels sp. 1 Ocotea bofo H.B.K. javitensis (H.B.K.) Pittier sp. 1 Oenocarpus bataua C. Martius mapora Karsten Ormosia sp. 2 sp. 3

± 24 122 123 124 58 59 139 103 106 5 6 7 150 136 18 17 73 111 112 113 114 115 116 25 82 77 154 26 55 93 152 74 125 47 4 39 126 75 27 54 135 104 64 131 132 94 133 134 95 96 97 28 29 78 79

± ± 516k 1668k 1644k 7349r 8113r 5077r ± 3230r 2006r 9335r 5202r 1859k ± 549k 2048r 2137r 1097r 4264r 1515r 1002r 1381r 5242r ± 9297r 6135r 2027r 1833k 7104r 5371r 7084r 8016r 1516k 9491r 6013r 2392r 2018r 941k ± 2408r 2223r 9290r ± 1237k 7045r 6537r 8667r 9089r 7333r 9056r 7431r ± ± 6054r ±

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Table 7 (Continued ) Oxandra sphaerocarpa R.E. Fries 9 Parinari excelsa Sabine 56 Pholidostachys synanthera (C. Martius) H. Moore 30 Phytelephas macrocarpa R. & P. 31 Pleurothyrium parviflorum Ducke 98 Pourouma acuminata C. Martius ex Miquel 52 cecropiifolia C. Martius 53 Pouteria cuspidata (A. DC.) Baehni 146 procera (C. Martius) Pennington 147 Protium nodulosum Swart 43 Pseudobombax munguba (C. Martius & Zuccarini) 42 Dugand Pseudooxandra polyphleba (Diels) R.E. Fries 10 Salacia impressifolia (Miers) A.C. Smith 86 Sarcaulis brasiliensis (A. DC.) Eyma 148 Scheelea brachyclada Burret 32 Senna bacillaris (L. f.) H. Irwin & Barneby 48 quinquangulata (Richard) H. Irwin 49 Simira sp. 140 Sloanea guianensis (Aublet) Benth 65 ternifolia (Mocino & SessaÈ ex DC.) Standley 66 sp. 1 67 sp. 3 68 Socratea exorrhiza (C. Martius) H.A. Wendland 33 salazarii H. Moore 34 Spondias mombin L. 1 Swartzia cardiosperma Spruce ex Bentham 80 polyphylla DC. 81 Swietenia macrophylla King 107 Theobroma cacao L. 151 Thoracocarpus bissectus (Vell. Conc.) Harling 62 Tovomita sp. 60 Trema micrantha (L.) Blume 153 Trichilia inaequilatera Pennington 108 mazanensis J.F. Macbride 109 Uncaria guianensis (Aublet) Gmelin 141 tomentosa (Willdenow ex Roemer & Schultes) DC. 142 Unonopsis floribunda Diels 11 sp. 1 12 Virola elongata (Bentham) Warburg 127 pavonis (A. DC.) A.C. Smith 128 Vismia angusta Miquel 61 Vochysia venulosa Warming 155 Wettinia augusta Poeppig & Endlicher 35 Xylopia micans R.E. Fries 13 sp. 1 14 Zygia divaricata (Bentham) Pittier 116 Genera indet. sp. 4 (Lauraceae) 99

1579r 6054r 1832k ± 1278r 2166r 2014r 5129r 7148r 1090r 9018r 4085r 5332r 2336r ± 1439r 541k 9731r 5443r 5047r 7632r 6113r ± ± 2278r 1152r 1847k ± 2016r 1752k 6224r 1487k 7021r 6116r 5120r 1012r 1266r 5246r 6500r 8454r 1298r 9546r ± 1165r 2024r 7627r 2510r

a In addition, appear the number of the species in Table 1, and a voucher collection located both in Iquitos, Peru (AMAZ) and in Aarhus, Denmark (AAU). Vouchers from individuals in the permanent plots are marked with ``r'' and were collected by Ruiz, Kvist & Freitas, and general collections are marked with ``k'' and were collected by Kvist and collaborators. There have not been collected voucher specimens of 23 mostly common and well-de®ned species.

28. Anthelmintic (123). Ficus insipida is not found within the Jenaro Herrera plots, but is common in the forest type referred to as young restinga by Kvist and Nebel (2001). Phillips et al. (1994) compared the uses of seven different forest types in southern Peru and found the greatest medicinal value in ``lower ¯ood plain forests'', corresponding to young restinga, mainly due a prevalence of F. insipida. 29. Rheumatism (40, 45, 55, 70, 149). Ayala (1984) also mention roots from Mansoa and Brunfelsia and cortex from Alchornea castaneifolia, C. angustifolia and M. macrocarpa, as the most important plant materials for this purpose. 30. Cold/unspeci®ed symptoms (11, 40, 43, 45, 51, 61, 70, 78, 84±87, 107, 121, 136, 150). Many species are used to treat or prevent relatively unspeci®ed symptoms referred to as ``frio'' (cold) or ``dolor del cuerpo'' (body pains). Since these plants often are taken in alcohol-based preparations at a daily basis, they are among the most frequently applied and extracted medicinal species. Most of these taxa remain abundant, but M. macrocarpa, Brunfelsia grandi¯ora and Mansoa spp. may be threatened by excessive extraction. The extraction of the cortex of the former may kill many trees, and the latter two are threatened because their roots are excavated, e.g. ca. ®ve shrubs for each preparation of Brunfelsia (pers. obs.). 31. Snakebite (34, 79). 32. Tumours (17, 74, 120). 33. Toothache (126). 34. Diarrhoea (1, 71). 35. Eczema and skin ailments (49±50, 62, 77, 81). 36. Women's ailments (1, 55, 124±125, 127, 142± 143). 37. Fruits sold (1, 20, 25, 28±29, 53±54, 59±60, 112±117, 130±133, 149, 152). According to the qualitative study 43 and 41% of the plot-individuals belong to species which have edible fruits and fruits that may be marketed, respectively (®gure 1±6, 1±8). In reality, most of these fruits only are collected and consumed occasionally and none of them are marketed at a regular basis. Some workers have discussed large-scale commercial fruit extraction from species rich Amazonian forests (Phillips, 1993; Grimes et al., 1994), but near Jenaro Herrera the population hardly exploits this possibility. Other workers (Peters et al., 1989; Peters, 1990; Peters and Hammond, 1990) emphasise the economic potential of species which

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grow in dense stands rather than scattered in diverse forests. The three species which in fact are marketed in quantities from the Jenaro Herrera district all represent this pattern. In addition, to the upland forest palm Oenocarpus bataua, this is the two ¯ood plain species M. ¯exuosa and Myrciaria dubia. The former is a large palm which dominates extensive swampy areas known as ``aguajales'' (Kahn, 1988; Padoch, 1988; Peters et al., 1989; Kvist and Nebel, 2001). Mauritia fruits contribute signi®cantly to the economy in many ¯ood plain villages, e.g. 8% of the value of all economic activities in one village near Jenaro Herrera (Kvist et al., 2001). Fertile palms are usually cut to acquire their fruits, and accessible populations thus tend to get destroyed, although extensive populations remain in distant areas. M. dubia is a shrub growing in monocultural populations bordering ¯ood plain lakes and channels. The high Vitamin C concentrations of its berries (Flores, 1997) have recently promoted a rapidly expanding market for them, and in recent years M. dubia populations in lakes near Jenaro Herrera have been heavily harvested both resulting in con¯icts between extractors from different villages and some degradation of the resource base. 38. Palm-heart sold (25). Palm-hearts from E. precatoria are bought by companies based in Iquitos. The harvest easily destroys populations since the species is one-stemmed, in contrast to the multi-stemmed Euterpe oleracea exploited along the lower Amazon river in Brazil (Anderson, 1988, 1990; Anderson et al., 1995). However, there remain extensive populations of E. precatoria in more inaccessible areas, where it is an important constituent of swampy areas together with M. ¯exuosa. 39. Sawn-wood sold (41, 46, 89, 94, 96, 98, 106, 109±110, 127, 151). According to the plot-study 42% of the individuals may serve for planks and 24% of them may be sold (®gure 2±4, 2±7). In reality, ¯ood plain villagers use little sawn-wood for construction, and market even less since the traditional commercial species are depleted or extinct near most villages. Tahuampa were estimated to contain more marketable sawn-wood than restinga (®gure 2±5), contrasting with that restinga forests were estimated to have more timber for local construction (®gure 2±7). An explanation may be that commercial extraction is relatively large-scale, implying that the inhabitants emphasises that the extended and high ¯ooding makes

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it easier to remove lumber from tahuampa than from restinga. 40. Sold for medicine (142±143). In recent years, cortex extracted from the two Uncaria lianas have become economically important in the Peruvian Amazon. It is sold under the name ``unÄa de gato'' (Cats's Claw). In the Jenaro Herrera area, this name previously mainly referred to lianas of the genus Machaerium. Due to the current commercial value of Uncaria, the name now mostly refer to this genus. 41. Posts sold (136). 42. Fire-wood sold (45, 138, 144). 43. Sold for handicraft (80). 5. Discussion Extraction and use of plant-products is a dynamic, cultural attribute, particularly in the ever-changing world of today. Some plant-products have lost or are loosing their importance, and in the Jenaro Herrera area, various technical uses of plants may exemplify this process. Plants are now hardly used for dying of cloth, tanning, soap-substitutes, pottery and ®shing nets, and informants mentioned few and mostly unrelated plants for these purposes, suggesting an uncertainty concerning which plants that provided these resources one or two generations ago. Other uses of plants started loosing importance more recently and remain practised by a few families in most villages, e.g. braiding with plant ®bres. Concerning construction Mejia (1988) and Parodi (1988) reported that urban styles of construction gradually replace traditional construction in the Jenaro Herrera area. However, most family houses remain traditionally constructed with a round-wood frameworks tied with aerial roots, roofs of thatched palm leaves and walls and ¯oors of split palm trunks. Medicinal plants may be less used than previously, but many villagers preserve a keen interest in them, and most people use plant-medicine at least occasionally either for economic reasons, as a supplement to prescribed medicine or when the latter not are available. Overall, the subsistence extraction thus may have lost some importance, but this may be compensated by an increasing extraction for sale. The value of extracted products, including ®sh and game, corresponds with the value accrued by agriculture, and extraction provide a larger

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value per day (Kvist et al., 2001). Extraction thus remain important in the Jenaro Herrera area, and the same probably apply to most other ¯ood plains in the Peruvian Amazon. Most uses of extracted materials near Jenaro Herrera have been reported from elsewhere. This apply to all categories of plant-uses (e.g. Pinedo-Vasquez et al., 1990; Duke and Vasquez, 1994; Phillips et al., 1994; Vasquez and Baluarte, 1998; Brack Egg, 1999) but may be best documented for medicinal plants (Rutter, 1990; Vasquez, 1992; Delgado et al., 1995; Mejia and Rengifo, 1995; Pinedo et al., 1997; Silva and GarcõÂa, 1997; Silva et al., 1999), e.g. both in Jenaro Herrera and elsewhere M. macrocarpa and S. mombin are the most used forest extracted medicinal plants, the two most important anti-malarial plants are the same, and for rheumatism Ayala (1984) mention the same ®ve taxa. The similarities may re¯ect that ¯ood plain populations in the Peruvian Amazon are mobile and often exchange information concerning plants, resulting in an increasing homogenisation of plant-uses and plant names (Kvist et al., 1995; Kvist and Nebel, 2001); and the expanding use of species as Uncaria tomentosum, Croton lechlelii and Copaiba pauperi may also exemplify this process. Many of the results and conclusions in the present work may thus apply to other Peruvian ¯ood plain forests, although there still exists local variation because many species have patchy distributions and for other reasons. Nearly all woody plants have according to inquired informants potential uses, e.g. informants reported nearly 2000 uses for 276 species in the permanent plots near Jenaro Herrera; de®ned as the potential application of a particular plant species for a speci®c purpose (Kvist et al., 1995). This correspond to more than seven uses per species, and local villagers may thus use forest trees, shrubs and lianas in thousands of ways. This abundance of uses mainly re¯ects that numerous species may provide materials for the same purposes. The plot-informants reported 106 purposes for which plot-species might serve, corresponding to an average of 19 useful species per purpose. However, the 10 purposes for which most plot-species were mentioned constituted more than the half of the 2000 reported uses, headed by ®rewood with 230 species. This overwhelming number of potential uses makes it necessary to identify those species and products which in fact are important to the local

population. In the present work, importance have been de®ned both based on quantitative and qualitative criteria, as being frequently applied and appreciated, respectively. Quantitative methods imply the recording of de facto extraction or use of plant resources, and are analysed by calculating the contributions of the individual plant species (or taxa), and are also necessary to appraise the economic value of extraction. In the case of ®re-wood, it was found that more than half of the consumption was provided by C. spruceanum (Table 6) contrasting with the above-mentioned 230 potential ®re-wood species, and for virtually all other purposes people also both prefer (Figs. 1 and 2) and extract (Tables 2±5) materials from much fewer species than they may recognise as potentially useful. Quantitative methods mainly serve to identify the ®rstchoice species, and in order to identify and distinguish single-, second- and third-choice species it is necessary to combine quantitative and qualitative methods. Another limitation of quantitative methods is that the extracted products usually at best are observed after that people have extracted them, e.g. round-wood trunks found in houses. Identi®cation is thus typically based on the ``vernacular name'' provided by the extractor, and such names often refer to various similar and/or related species, e.g. the different Annonaceae known as ``Espintana'', making it dif®cult to determine the quantitative contribution of the individual species. The extractor may obviously also ``misidentify'' the extracted material reporting a ``wrong'' vernacular name, and in the case of plants used for food or medicine the uncertainty is even larger, considering that the materials typically have been consumed before the researcher inquire the informants. A precondition for a quantitative study thus is to determine the relation between the scienti®c species and the corresponding vernacular species and names, and for this, a qualitative study is needed. Qualitative studies imply to inquire informants concerning the potential uses of speci®c plant individuals. The advantage is that the identity of the relevant species are known (or can be veri®ed/determined based on voucher specimens), while the disadvantage is that informants tend to report many potential uses which rarely or never are effectuated, making it dif®cult to conclude which species and materials in fact are important. To surpass this limitation, informants may

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be asked to specify the utility of the particular species or materials, and their scores may serve to calculate average values across informants, enabling a comparison of peoples evaluation of species and/or materials. In the present work, we distinguish the utilitycategories as high, medium and low. High-utility materials include those that people depend on, corresponding to ®rst-choice species, as well as secondchoice species capable to supplement the former. Medium-utility materials are little extracted, and come from second- and third-choice species, while low-utility materials are rarely or never extracted and come from third-choice species. Finally, single-choice materials have high-utility and only have low-utility alternatives. Overall there is a positive correlation between choice and utility, implying that quantitatively more important products are rated with higher utility-scores, but recording of de facto extraction and informant interviews may also result in con¯icting evaluations, namely high utility-scores combined with low levels of extraction or vice versa. However, both these combinations may provide information concerning the past and/or the future use of the particular plant resource. The ®rst combination is exempli®ed by sawn-wood for local construction for which 12 species rated high-utility although little sawn-wood are used, and fruits for sale for which ®ve species rated highutility although none of them are much sold (Table 1). The speci®c explanations of these apparently con¯icting results may be that informants exaggerate the importance sawn-wood because this is considered more modern than split palm-trunks, and that they may accentuate any income generating opportunities. A general explanation may be that high utility-scores combined with little extraction suggests that the particular product will be more extracted in the future or already have been depleted, exempli®ed by the sawnwood species C. spruceanum and Swietenia macrophyllum which have an expanding market and now are scarce, respectively. The opposite combination is represented with subsistence uses of plants that are realised but rarely mentioned by informants, e.g. the replacement of items as vessels, mortars and handles. The speci®c explanation may be that people prefer to buy and use plastic-vessels rather than to fabricate vessels of wood, and the general explanation that extraction combined with low utility-scores suggests that the particular materials may loose importance or at least prestige.

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Three forest types represented with permanent plots (Nebel et al., 2001) have been compared throughout the text, and each of them may provide a large variation of extractive products but with much variation between them (Fig. 2). To cover their needs, local villagers thus need access to a variation of forest types. For most resources different extraction potentials in the three forest types can be explained by the relative abundance or scarcity of particular plant species, but some apparent differences are better explained by factors such as the physiognomy of the forest and the height and extension of the annual ¯ooding. The abundance of little appreciated and rarely effectuated potential uses, imply that virtually all trunks in the forest have uses. Therefore, Phillips et al. (1994) could report that mestizos in the southern Peruvian Amazon had uses for 94% of the trunks, and considering all uses reported in the Jenaro Herrera plots all investigated species (and trunks) may be used. However, only considering important uses (which appear in Table 1) 63% of the plot trunks are useful, thus being within the range between 49 and 79% reported by Prance et al. (1987) for four Amazon Amerindian groups. Percentages of useful species or trunks thus depend on whether researchers accept all plant-uses or only appreciated and effectuated uses. In the former case, the use-rate will rise with the number of informantsinterviews and eventually reach 100%. Single-choice species provide materials which not are easily replaced with materials from other species. The best examples from ¯ood plains may be trunks from M. guianensis for posts, trunks from S. exorrhiza for walls, stems from C. binatum for tying of posts with beams, wood from L. amazonica for spears and buttresses from A. rigidum for oars. Relatively few woody ¯ood plain species thus provide single-choice subsistence resources, and all the mentioned species serve for ether construction or technical purposes, probably to some extent re¯ecting that it is much more dif®cult to de®ne and identify single-choice species for food or medicine. Marketed products may constitute the opposite extreme, since many commercially important products may be considered as single-choice resources. Urbane consumers, nationally and even more pronounced internationally, tend to demand the correct or true product, e.g. hard-wood from Swietenia macrophylla and Cedrela oderata rather than species with somewhat similar wood aspects and qualities.

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Ten woody ¯ood plain species have according to local informants become seriously depleted, namely ®ve sawn-wood species, Ceiba pentandra and Copaifera pauperi for plywood (Gentry and Vasquez, 1988), M. ¯exuosa for fruits, E. precatoria for palm-hearts and F. insipida for its medicinal latex which have industrial uses (Phillips, 1990). They have consequently all primarily become depleted due to an intensive commercial extraction (Table 1), con®rming that species extracted for commerce may be considered as single-choice species, and implying that extractors both will search them in distant areas and exploit sub-optimal individuals. In addition, extraction for a market is potentially much more devastating, as the objective is to push incomes with no upper limit, while subsistence extractors only are capable to consume limited quantities of any product. Besides, the subsistence consumption are ¯exible. Most plant materials can be substituted with other species, and as ®rst-choice species get scarcer villagers may increasingly extract from the corresponding second-choice species. However, subsistence extraction also depletes plant-resources, and the majority of the approximately 12 species which currently may become depleted are predominantly extracted for subsistence purposes (Table 1). In addition, data from the Puinahua area located upriver from Jenaro Herrera (and discussed in Kvist et al., 2001), demonstrate that subsistence extraction can deplete or even exterminate species. In this area, three of the single-choice species identi®ed in this work, A. rigidum, L. amazonica and M. guianensis, have been exterminated, and S. exorrhiza is threatened by depletion. The population in the Jenaro Herrera district steadily increases (Kvist and Nebel, 2001), implying that in the future subsistence extraction may become a threat toward a larger variation of plant-resources (as in the Puinahua area). However, conversion of forest to other land-uses and commercial exploitation will remain the main threads. People are concerned about income-generating opportunities, and will extract and market any product that attain a market value, and this results in most cases in over-exploitation, e.g. recently of M. dubia and Uncaria tomentosa. The most urgent priority thus is a better management of species which provide valuable products for sale. Besides, three of the largest and most abundant ¯ood plain trees, C.

spruceanum, H. crepitans and M. coriacea, are now harvested for lumber and ply-wood in other parts of the Peruvian Amazon (Kvist and Nebel, 2001). An uncontrolled lumbering of them may get destructive, making it urgent to develop an viable management of ¯ood plain forests. This should combine production of wood and non-wood products, give the local population increasing incomes and ensure the continued availability of the subsistence products that they extract and apply. A particular attention should also be given to species which provide important singlechoice subsistence materials. Acknowledgements We are indebted to many colleagues, co-workers and friends that have contributed to the study. Isabel Ore B. participated in the interviews at the village level, Sùren Gram helped to develop and implement the socio-economic program, Armando CaÂceres C. recorded the socio-economic data in the villages, Kember Mejia C. provided information concerning the identities and uses of palms, and Henning Christensen determined plant-specimens in the AAUÊ rhus, Denmark. Gustav Nebel was helpherbaria in A ful during the data-processing, and Gustav Nebel, Carsten Smith Olesen, Daniel Heiner and Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez commented the manuscript. The staff and administration at the Jenaro Herrera Research Station provided a pleasant stay enabling full-time dedication to the study. In Iquitos, staff both at Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonia Peruana (IIAP) and at the AMAZ-herbaria of Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (UNAP) helped to solve many problems. Finally, and the most important, were the contributions from local informants and families in the villages near Jenaro Herrera who willingly shared their profound knowledge and experience of the forest. The study were ®nanced by the Danish International Development Agency (Danida). References Anderson, A.B., 1988. Use and management of native forests by AcËaõ palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) in the Amazon estuary. Adv. Econ. Bot. 6, 144±154.

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