Factors influencing the consumer adoption of Facebook: A two-country study of youth markets

Computers in Human Behavior 54 (2016) 491e500

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Factors influencing the consumer adoption of Facebook: A two-country study of youth markets Mark Ng Department of Business Administration, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, 10 Wai Tsui Crescent, Braemar Hill, North Point, Hong Kong

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 15 October 2014 Received in revised form 1 July 2015 Accepted 23 August 2015 Available online xxx

Facebook and other social network sites (SNSs) are quickly becoming one of the most popular tools for social communication and marketing. The present research examined factors that affect consumers' selfdisclosure and participation of commercial activities on Facebook across two markets. Drawing upon the social exchange model, the uses and gratification model, and the social identity model, a conceptual model was developed and estimated. The major independent variables included perceived convenience, self-presentation, enjoyment, perceived risk, and social influence. Focusing on youth consumers, the model was tested by using data collected in Hong Kong and Japan. Findings across these two markets reflect cross-market similarities and differences that are related to consumers' motivation of using Facebook. Both theoretical and practical implications were drawn from these findings. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Social networking site Self-disclosure Referral behavior Consumer motivation Social influence Perceived risk

1. Introduction Social network sites (SNSs) refers to a group of Internet-based applications that allow for the creation and exchange of usergenerated content (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Within a few years, SNSs have become one of the world's major communication systems. As of 2014, there are more than 1.3 billion Facebook users, 982 million Twitter users, and 300 million LinkedIn users worldwide (Smith, 2014). These web sites have become not only a major communication channel between friends and relatives, but also a new avenue for marketing communication. SNSs offers marketers not only direct communication with consumers, but also more potential interaction touchpoints and more flexible ways to communicate with consumers, which allows marketers to increase the brand engagement of prospects and consumers (Lilley, Grodzinsky, & Gumbus, 2012). In contrast, SNSs expand the effects of word-of-mouth marketing (WOM) as consumers experience WOM from both their friends and advertising (Coulter & Roggeveen, 2012). To enhance the effective use of SNSs, marketers should understand their customers' motivation for using SNSs and develop effective strategies to interact with them. In recent years, many research studies explored how people use SNSs and how marketers may connect with their consumers

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through such sites. Wilson, Gosling, and Graham (2012) reviewed SNS research and classified the articles into five major areas: analysis of user background, users’ motivations, identity presentation, roles of Facebook in social interactions, and privacy and information disclosure. The use and effects of SNS to consumer decision-making and behavior become a major area of consumer research. For example, some studies assessed the impact of usergenerated online product reviews on consumer information processing (Kozinets, de Valck, Wojnicki, & Wilner, 2010), marketing strategy (Okazaki, 2009), consumer decision making (Iyengar, Han, & Gupta, 2009) and consumer socialization (Okazaki, 2009). Recently, researchers have started to examine the use of SNSs from cultural perspectives. For example, Kim, Sohn, and Choi (2011) found that obtaining social support is a stronger motivation for Korean students use of Facebook, while U.S. students put more weight on seeking entertainment. The examination of SNS motivations and usage across cultures becomes an important area of research as SNSs become a worldwide phenomenon. This study explores the motivational differences of selfdisclosure and participation of commercial activities on Facebook in Hong Kong and Japan. This research has both scholarly and practical significance. First, cross-cultural differences of SNS user behaviors and the determinants of their behaviors have not yet received significant attention in research. Previous research has identified several major groups of factors that determine consumers' usage of social media and their participation in commercial

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activities online, but still have limited discussion on the crossnational differences of these relationships (Shin, 2010). The study aims to present an investigation of consumer social media behavior across different countries. Specifically, the key research questions in this study are (1) Are there cross-border differences between the consumers' usage of Facebook and e-commerce? (2)What factors influence the consumers' intention to disclose and share commercial information on Facebook? (3) Do these factors vary across different cultures? This research contributes to the social media literature by developing a conceptual framework that links the relationships between motivational factors with the consumers' usage of Facebook and cross-national marketing research. Second, this study would enhance our understanding of using SNSs in marketing across boundaries. Cross-cultural issues have, so far, been investigated more in the context of the traditional marketing practices. SNS-based research in a cross-cultural context has revealed that a user's cultural background strongly influences his/ her use of SNS (Kim et al., 2011). International marketers use different approaches to handle this issue. Some marketers have created locally-oriented social media sites, while other marketers adopted a standardized strategy in their communications. As limited research studies were conducted in a cross-national context, questions about how digital marketers handle consumers across borders arise. Third, this study contributes to this area by comparing Chinese and Japanese consumers regarding their self-disclosure, their participation in commercial activities on Facebook, and the key determinants of their behaviors. In China, there were 564 million Internet users as of June 2012. Chinese Internet users also spend more time on social media sites than users in other countries (Chiu, Lin, & Silverman, 2012). China's social media sites are important portals and entry points to brand sites. As China banned the use of Facebook, in this study, the samples were collected from Hong Kong for analyzing Chinese users' use of Facebook. As of September 2012, there were more than 4 million Facebook users in Hong Kong, which constitutes more than 56% of its population and 82% of its online population. The high penetration rate of Facebook has made it a major tool that international brands use to conduct interactive marketing in Hong Kong. Japan has a very mature digital market, with local players dominating different fields. After launching in 2004, Mixi was the leading social networking platform in Japan during the 2000s (Marcus & Krishnamurthi, 2009). The key features of Mixi include the integration of blogs inside personal profiles and the ability for users to review different products such as CDs, movies, and video games. Mixi is only accessible to Japanese citizens, as a Japanese phone number is required to open an account. Mixi reached 20 million users in 2011 and is mostly used by young people. In recent years, Facebook has also become one of the strongest SNSs in Japan. In 2013, there were about 15 million active Facebook users in Japan, which constitutes approximately 15% of total Internet users. China and Japan were selected because they were the two major economies in Asia. They show a medium degree of dissimilarity in cultural and historical terms. Furthermore, both areas are leading markets for digital marketing and enjoy an extremely high penetration rate for social media. Thus, this study could provide marketers with some practical insights on the development of SNS marketing strategies in Asian countries. 2. Conceptual model of Facebook usage 2.1. Theoretical perspectives The worldwide growth of social media has significantly changed the way in which individuals communicate, access, and share

information. Different theoretical areasdsocial exchange theory, the use and gratification theory, and social identity theorydhave been applied in the marketing literature to explain consumers' adoption of SNSs. A conceptual model of consumer usage of Facebook was developed based on these perspectives. The social exchange theory viewed the social interaction as an exchange of benefits and costs (Homans, 1958). People engage in some behaviors if they find that the potential benefits from engaging in that behavior offset the potential threats or losses (Bateman & Organ, 1983). Some researchers use this theory to explain various online behaviors of consumers, such as citizenship behaviors online (Chen, Chen, & Farn, 2010). People may consider the benefits of using social media, such as receiving news, entertainment, and connections, as well as its threats (i.e., privacy invasion) to determine their participation in social media (Krasnova, Spiekermann, Koroleva, & Hildebrand, 2010). The uses and gratification theory suggests that people use media to fulfill a “core set of motivation,” such as purposive value, social connection, and entertainment (Dholakia, Bagozzi, & Pearo, 2004). Purposive value refers to the use of social media to obtain some useful information and complete some tasks. Social connection refers to receiving social support and affection online. Entertainment value refers to the feeling of relaxation and fun from participating in different activities. This theory is applied to explain factors related to consumer choice of new media (Stafford, Stafford, & Schkade, 2004), mobile data services (Nysveen, Pedersen, & Thorbjørnsen, 2005), the adoption of Facebook (Al-Debei, Al-Lozi, & Papazafeiropoulou, 2013), and the use of mobile marketing (Gao, Sultan, & Rohm, 2010). Social identity theory suggested that a person achieves a social identity through self-awareness of membership in a group and their perceived status in that group (Tajfel, 1974). People may identify with groups in social networks that can enhance their personal self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 2004) and collective selfesteem (Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, & Broadnax, 1994). In other words, this theory suggested that participants are willing to participate in these activities if they find that social media could enhance their self-image and receive support and respect from peers online (Muniz & Schau, 2005). These theoretical perspectives provide a base with which to understand the factors that are likely to affect consumer usage of Facebook. A parsimonious conceptual model is shown in Fig. 1 that incorporates the factors discussed below. Major motivations for using social media and disclosing personal information online include convenience in relationship building and maintenance, pleasure-seeking and entertainment, self-image enhancement, and needs for self-expression and self-actualization (Hui, Tan, & Goh, 2006; Shao, 2009). The major “cost” of disclosing personal information online is the perceived privacy risk (Malhotra, Kim, & Agarwal, 2004). 2.2. Dependent variable: self-disclosure and participation Consumers' intention to disclose their personal information on Facebook and to participate in commercial activities on Facebook are the two outcome variables in this study. Behavioral intention has been defined as “the strength of one's intention to perform a specified behavior” (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 288). Specific to this research, this construct relates to respondents' receptiveness and intentions to engage in activities such as uploading their photos, “liking” fan pages, sharing product and promotion information, and participation in brand events and sales promotional activities. Similar to some studies that examine consumers' intention to disclose personal information on SNS (Krasnova et al., 2010), I propose a model that incorporates behavioral intent related to

M. Ng / Computers in Human Behavior 54 (2016) 491e500

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Fig. 1. Proposed model.

consumers' disclosure of personal information on Facebook. This research contributes to existing literature by employing another dependent measuredconsumer participation in Facebook marketing activitiesdthat relates specifically to intentions to accept and engage in interactions between marketing entities (e.g., brands) and consumers through fan pages. 2.3. Independent variables: key determinants of Facebook activities As shown in some previous studies, the major motives for using social network sites, which includes seeking friends, social support, entertainment, information, and convenience, are similar between users within eastern and western countries (Kim et al., 2011). Another survey also supported that the maintenance of relationships, self-presentation (seeking social status), enjoyment, and seeking useful information were major motivators of Chinese social media users (Dong, Wu, & Gu, 2012). As a result, I would include five major factors in this study, including convenience in relationship maintenance, enjoyment, self-presentation, perceived risks of privacy invasion, and social influence. 2.3.1. Convenience in relationship building and maintenance Researchers have suggested several motives for the use of social networking sites. Two commonly discussed objectives of using Facebook are to build new relationships or maintain those that already exist (Pempek, Yermolayeva, & Calvert, 2009; Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Guadalupe, 2012). SNSs such as Facebook allow individuals to communicate effectively and conveniently with hundreds of relatives, friends, and even strangers. They can share their updated information with their friends in exchange for keeping in touch with the latest news from their friends. In addition, SNSs enable users to expand their relationship network and support their new relationships. Users are able to connect with a wider range of people and those whom share similar interests (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Krasnova et al., 2010). They may disclose more personal information if they want to communicate with people with similar interests. Thus, perceived convenience

motivates users to use social network sites (Hann, Hui, Lee, & Png, 2007; Hui et al., 2006; Park, Shin, & Ju, 2014). Recent studies in Taiwan supported that relationship maintenance and initiation were strong motives among college students for disclosing information on SNSs (Chang & Heo, 2014). Barker and Ota (2011) showed that the main reason why Japanese use SNSs was to communicate with in-group peers. The three major motives for using Facebook in Japan are to keep oneself updated on friends' activities (62%), post news about oneself (42%), and keep in touch with friends (38%) (“Usage behavior of Facebook in Japan (No. 1),” 2014). This survey supported that Japanese SNS users are more likely to disclose personal information when they use social networks to build and maintain personal relationships. Thus, I hypothesize that: H1. Users' perceived convenience of using Facebook to maintain relationships is positively related to their self-disclosure on Facebook.

2.3.2. Self-presentation Self-presentation refers to the intention of using of social networks to build and maintain a good social image (Krasnova et al., 2010). SNSs allow people to disclose various kinds of information about themselves to their entire network of virtual friends (Bazarova, 2012). This key feature makes self-disclosure on SNS a perfect instrument to build up a good social image and social capital (Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter, & Espinoza, 2008). Users received positive comments from their disclosure that could foster their social capital of bonds (Liu & Brown, 2014). Thus, SNS users who want to create a positive social image may actively manage their social networks by selectively displaying some information to create a favorable public image and to avoid participating in some activities that have negative effects on their personal image (Ng, 2014). Users with a high level of concern for their social image are more likely to share some information and join some social events or commercial activities that could boost their social image and obtain recognition from others. Thus, I hypothesize that:

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H2a. Users' self-presentation is positively related to their selfdisclosure on Facebook. H2b. Users' self-presentation is positively related to their participation in commercial activities on Facebook. 2.3.3. Enjoyment SNSs exposed the users to various forms of sensory stimulation, such as multimedia content, interesting pictures and discussions, €yry, Parvinen, & Malmivaara, 2013) and and innovative ideas (Po SNSs were largely considered as an entertainment and communication tool for young people. People are entertained through their communication with others and by reading information about different sources on SNSs. The pleasant emotion that they developed from using SNSs may stimulate them to provide more interesting content in return. Thus, enjoyment is a powerful predictor of users' self-disclosure and participation on Facebook (Rosen & Sherman, 2006). The importance of the enjoyment of predicting Facebook participation is also supported by various empirical studies (Krasnova et al., 2010; Young, 2009). A study of Chinese users on Facebook in Taiwan suggested that enjoyment is the most influential factor in people's use of SNSs, followed by social influences and perceived usefulness (Lin & Lu, 2011). Yang and Lin (2014) supported that hedonic value served as an important value concern for Chinese Facebook users. People will “stick” to Facebook if they have a pleasant experience on it. Thus, the proposed hypotheses are as follows: H3a. Users' enjoyment of using Facebook is positively related to their self-disclosure on Facebook. H3b. Users' enjoyment of using Facebook is positively related to their participation in commercial activities on Facebook. 2.3.4. Perceived risk, trust, and control Traditionally, perceived privacy risk in the e-commerce context reflects a personal pre-disposition to worry about an invasion of privacy and the expectation of losses related to the disclosure of personal information (Shin, 2010). The perceived risk of using SNSs is more serious as SNS users also exposed themselves to additional risk of public accessibility of personal information by third parties or the use of the information for phishing (Ahmadinejad & Fong, 2014). Findings from more recent research suggests that self-disclosure and participation in commercial activities on Facebook are strongly influenced by consumers' perceived risks of privacy invasion (Lee, Park, & Kim, 2013). Japanese SNS users are more likely to communicate with close friends and be concerned about their privacy when using SNSs (Aburai, Ishii, & Takeyasu, 2013). Thus, I propose that perceived risk will lead to a lower extent of selfdisclosure and participation in commercial activities on Facebook: H4a. Users' perceived privacy risk of using Facebook is negatively related to their self-disclosure on Facebook. H4b. Users' perceived privacy risk of using Facebook is negatively related to their participation in commercial activities on Facebook. Research related to use of the Internet has shown that establishing trust between consumers and marketers and providing consumers with some degree of control over the disclosure of their personal information in the online setting may reduce privacy concerns (Malhotra et al., 2004; Milne, Rohm, & Bahl, 2004). Trust refers to users' beliefs that the other party would not engage in opportunistic behavior (Dinev & Hart, 2006). Trust is a multidimensional concept with three major categories: competence,

benevolence, and integrity (McKnight, Choudhury, & Kacmar, 2002). The role of trust becomes more important if the participated activity is perceived as risky (Kim, Ferrin, & Rao, 2008). It is found that trust is a key factor in determining users' attitudes and behaviors in the Internet environment, as it is perceived as risky. Without trust of the SNS services, users would not disclose their personal information and pictures online (Sledgianowski & Kulviwat, 2008). Thus, trust is a key factor for users to establish long-term relationships on the website platforms and make purchases online. H4c. Users' trust in Facebook reduces their perceived privacy risk of disclosing on it. Perceived control is users' beliefs or actual abilities to manage the disclosure of their personal information online (Malhotra et al., 2004). The availability of self-controlling mechanisms to manage personal information disclosure can reduce the perception of privacy risk on SNSs (Xu, Dinev, Smith, & Hart, 2008). To reduce the perceived risk of users, SNS providers may supply them with privacy setting mechanisms that are designed in a user-friendly manner, which enable them to limit others' access to their profile securely and effectively (Strater & Richter, 2007). To conclude, trusting beliefs and control may mitigate risk perceptions, which then impact self-disclosure and participation in commercial activities online. Thus, I hypothesize that: H4d. Users' perceived control is negatively related to their perceived privacy risk on Facebook.

2.3.5. Social influences Social influence refers to the degree to which users perceive their presence and interaction with others online (Sachdev, 2011). As SNS users mainly use Facebook or other SNSs for building and maintaining personal relationships, social interactions online become a major factor that determines users' continuance and participation in using Facebook (Reich et al., 2012; Yang & Lin, 2014). An empirical study utilizing theory of planned behavior (TPB) confirmed that the attitude, subjective norm, and perceived values have a significant effect on the continuance participation intention of Facebook adopters (Al-Debei et al., 2013). Actions of friends and celebrities may shape the behaviors of users, such as commenting on products, liking a fan page, joining brand events, and even taking up challenges. Friends' recommendations are appealing, as they share similar interests and background and are perceived as genuine and relevant (Diffley, Kearns, Bennett, & Kawalek, 2011). According to Ku, Chen, and Zhang (2013), the number of peers and members on Facebook could enhance enjoyment and the perceived utility of using Facebook and the intention of using Facebook, which reflect the strong effect of social influences on the use of Facebook for Chinese users. Japanese users may not use SNSs to socialize with others; instead, the widespread availability of information technology, such as mobile phones and SNSs, created some small and insular social identities with stronger influences (Lee, Kim, Lee, & Kim, 2002). The Japanese users of SNS tend to use the tools to reinforce their existing relationships between close friends and families, rather than connecting with weaker and more dispersed social ties (Aburai et al., 2013). Thus, I posit the following two hypotheses: H5a. Users' perceived social presence on Facebook is positively related to their self-disclosure on Facebook. H5b. Users' perceived social presence on Facebook is positively related to their participation in commercial activities on Facebook.

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2.4. A two-country comparison The extent to which the relationships shown in Fig. 1 differ in the two markets was investigated. Jenkins (2006) argued that the convergence culture driven by the prevalence of digital communications, commercial media, and universal appeals such as music and sporting events, shaped the beliefs and behaviors of young consumers in similar ways. Despite the rapid development of the Internet and social networks within many different markets, few studies have focused on different markets and the self-disclosure and Facebook across such areas (Yang & Lin, 2014). As this study conducted in two Asian countries with a close cultural background, I propose that the key determinants of Facebook behavior will depend less on local cultural factors and more on relative Facebook penetration rates. Although both Hong Kong and Japan are well-established market economies with a high Internet penetration rate (74.9% and 86.2%), their adoption of Facebook was significantly different from each other. In December of 2012, the penetration rate of Facebook in Hong Kong and Japan were 56.72% (4.03 million users) and 13.53% (17.20 million users), respectively. Among the Internet users, the penetration rate of Hong Kong even reached 75.04%, while that of Japan was 15.69%.1 With respect to the significant differences in the penetration of Facebook, it is expected that Hong Kong respondents are more experienced Facebook users with lower perceived risks and a higher willingness to participate in activities on Facebook. Taken together, the close socio-economic background and prevalence of the Internet related to the acceptance of social network sites suggests that young consumers within the two markets may display more similarities than differences. In order to compare the key determinants of self-disclosure and participation in commercial activities on Facebook across these two markets, I empirically test the proposed model that is shown in Fig. 1 with student samples within each respective market.

3. Methodology 3.1. Participants This research was conducted by using a structured, selfadministered questionnaire. A pilot questionnaire was designed and administered to 25 young adults, which outlined a number of potential areas that required improvement. After revision, the questionnaires were sent out through two channels. This survey is based on data from identical written surveys that were administered in Japan and Hong Kong in Fall 2013. The Hong Kong survey was administered to 383 undergraduate students at two universities in Hong Kong. The Japanese survey was administered to 93 undergraduate students from seven universities that participated Marketing Competition Japan 2013 (Table 1). The choice of markets for this study was based on their importance in the Asian market, as well as the differences in cultural background and Facebook penetration within these markets. The choice of a student sample for this study was based on the higher penetration rate and usage of social media among the youth market. For young consumers, SNSs represent not only a communication channel, but a way to obtain updated information and entertainment, organize social events, present their self-image, and make friends.

1

http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm.

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Table 1 Profile of participants. Constructs

Gender Age

Hong Kong

Japan

Items

Percentage

Items

Percentage

Male Female 18 or below 19e25 26e30 31e35 36 or above

174 209 27 313 18 2 23

Male Female 18 or below 19e25 26e30 31e35 36 or above

28 65 13 74 3 0 3

(42.4%) (57.6%) (7.0%) (81.7%) (4.7%) (0.5%) (6.0%)

(30.1%) (69.9%) (14.0%) (79.6%) (3.2%) (0.0%) (3.2%)

3.2. Instrument and measures The survey contained several constructs related to this study of Facebook usage, including the perceived convenience of using Facebook, relationship building, enjoyment of using Facebook, perceived risk, social influence, self-presentation on Facebook, disclosure of personal information, and participation of commercial activities on Facebook. Measures for the variables in the proposed model were adapted from previous studies (Table 2). The measurement items used a seven-point Likert scale that were anchored by “strongly disagree” and “strongly agree” with a point of neutrality in the middle. The last part was about the participants' personal backgrounds.

3.3. Data analysis The objective of this study is to analyze different factors in predicting respondents' behavioral intention toward the disclosure of personal information and participation in commercial activities on Facebook. Partial least squares path modeling (PLS) with reflective indicators was applied in this study, utilizing the software package SmartPLS 3.0. While other methods of structural equation modeling are more widespread indeed, PLS was used due to its enhanced ability to process complicated models and the fact that it does not require distributional assumptions of the sample (Chin, 1998). To overcome the problem of a lack of no formal significance tests for the estimated parameters in a non-parametric method, the t-statistic and standard deviation of each parameter is calculated by the bootstrap technique (Chin, 1998). Bootstrapping was used to draw 5000 random bootstrap sets to obtain stable standard errors and low differences between entire sample estimates ger, Politis, & Romano, 1992). After and means of subsamples (Le establishing the validity and reliability of a measurement and structural model, parametric multi-group analysis was used to examine the differences between Chinese and Japanese respondents.

4. Finding The dependent variables in this model are self-disclosure and participation of commercial activities on Facebook. The independent variables are the six constructs related to the consumer use of Facebook that were identified in Fig. 1. Descriptive statistics of each construct was summarized in Table 3. I first test the dimensionality, reliability and convergent and discriminant validities of measures of each sample group. Table 2 shows the results of the overall measurement model containing factors for all constructs for separate China and Japan samples.

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Table 2 Quality criteria of the constructs. Constructs and items

Standardized loadings Hong Kong

Japan

Perceived convenience Facebook is convenient to inform all my friends about my activities Facebook allows me to save time when I want to share something I find Facebook efficient in sharing information with my friends

CA: 0.784, CR: 0.873 AVE: 0.696 0.874 0.782 0.844

CA: 0.842, CR: 0.903 AVE: 0.757 0.887 0.868 0.855

Self-presentation I try to make a good impression on others on Facebook I try to present myself in a favorable way on Facebook Facebook helps me to present my best sides to others

CA: 0.877, CR: 0.924 AVE: 0.803 0.901 0.930 0.856

CA: 0.831, CR: 0.870, AVE: 0.693 0.728 0.817 0.940

Enjoyment When I am bored I often login to Facebook I find Facebook entertaining I spend enjoyable and relaxing time on Facebook

CA: 0.822, CR: 0.893 AVE: 0.737 0.820 0.863 0.891

CA: 0.872, CR: 0.920 AVE: 0.794 0.857 0.906 0.910

Perceived risks I see no real threat to my privacy due to my presence on Facebook I feel safe publishing my personal information on Facebook Overall, I find it risky to publish my personal information on Facebook

CA: 0.699, CR: 0.826 AVE: 0.619 0.880 0.859 0.589

CA: 0.689, CR: 0.824 AVE: 0.621 0.883 0.901 0.523

Perceived control I feel in control over the information I provide on Facebook Privacy settings allow me to have full control over the information I provide I feel in control of who can view my information on Facebook

CA: 0.795, CR: 0.877 AVE: 0.704 0.874 0.782 0.844

CA: 0.769, CR: 0.859, AVE: 0.671 0.887 0.868 0.855

Trust Facebook Facebook Facebook Facebook Facebook

CA: 0.904, CR: 0.929 AVE: 0.723 0.795 0.881 0.894 0.877 0.800

CA: 0.866, CR: 0.902 AVE: 0.647 0.808 0.760 0.772 0.852 0.827

Social Influence My friends are active users of Facebook. My friends always updated their status on Facebook. My friends always share their interests through Facebook. My friends always make comments on Facebook.

CA: 0.884, CR: 0.917 AVE: 0.735 0.792 0.870 0.911 0.851

CA: 0.872, CR: 0.912, AVE: 0.721 0.846 0.843 0.848 0.859

Self-disclosure I have a comprehensive profile on Facebook I find time to keep my profile up-to-date I keep my friends updated about my life through Facebook When I have something to say, I like to share it on Facebook

CA: 0.803, CR: 0.874 AVE: 0.643 0.517 0.884 0.898 0.846

CA: 0.775, CR: 0.855, AVE: 0.598 0.681 0.714 0.874 0.810

Participation of commercial activities on Facebook I always share some shopping privileges on Facebook. I have “liked” the Fan pages established by some brands. I always share my views of different products or brands on Facebook.

CA: 0.772, CR:0 .867 AVE: 0.686 0.838 0.818 0.828

CA: 0.669, CR: 0.818, AVE: 0.600 0.736 0.802 0.784

is open and receptive to the needs of its members makes good-faith efforts to address most member concerns is interested in the well-being of its members, not just its own is honest in its dealings with me keeps its commitments to its members

Recommended criteria of acceptance of CR and CA is 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978), and AVE is 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

4.1. Measurement model Aside from the factor loadings, I report the Cronbach's alphas, composite reliabilities, and average variances that were extracted Table 3 Mean and SD of each variable. Constructs

Perceived convenience Self-presentation Enjoyment Perceived risk Trust Control Social influence Participation of commercial activities Self-disclosure

Hong Kong

Japan

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

5.667 4.394 5.311 4.482 3.757 5.104 5.665 3.518 4.338

0.888 1.168 1.089 0.943 0.959 1.022 0.847 1.375 1.173

5.602 4.308 4.599 4.726 3.923 4.140 4.876 2.620 2.960

1.075 1.336 1.512 1.109 1.019 1.306 1.243 1.369 1.245

(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 1, most of the reliability measures, including Cronbach's alpha and composite reliabilities, exceed 0.70, which indicates that the measurement model possessed good internal consistency reliability (Nunnally, 1978). All constructs have achieved an AVE greater than 0.50 and most factor-loading measures are above 0.70, thus meeting the recommended criteria for convergent validity (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). An examination of cross loadings of indicators and Fornell-Larcker criterion were used to assess the discriminant validity of each construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1¼81). The FornellLarcker criterion assessment, which compares the square roots of the reflective construct's AVE with the correlations between the constructs, confirms the discriminant validity of the measurement model (Table 4). Table 5 summarizes the range of factor-loading and cross-loading of each construct. The factor loadings of each construct is higher than all of its cross loadings with other constructs. In sum, these indexes collectively show an adequate fit of

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the measurement model with the data (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2014). 4.2. Structural model After establishing the reliabilities and validities of the measurement model, the quality of the structural model is assessed by various indicators including a collinearity assessment, the significance and relevance of structural model relationships, the r-square (R2) for exogenous-endogenous relationships, and the effect size and predictive relevance of the model (Hair et al., 2014). First, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was used to assess the collinearity issue of each construct. The VIF ranged from 1.119 to 2.042 for Japanese samples and 1.126 to 1.544 for Chinese samples. All VIF values are clearly below the threshold of 5 (Hair et al., 2011). Therefore, collinearity among the predictor constructs is not an issue in this model. The predictive power of the model is assessed by the R2 values of the endogenous constructs (Hair et al., 2014). The variance explained in three endogenous variables, which included perceived risks, self-disclosure of information, and participation in commercial activities on Facebook, are summarized in Table 4, which demonstrates low to moderate predictive power in different constructs (Henseler, Ringle, & Sinkovics, 2009). The structural models of both studies demonstrated acceptable predictive power. The effect size, f2, ranged from .056 to 0.186 (Japan) and 0.019 to 0.144 (Hong Kong), which reflects that the effect sizes of different endogenous constructs on exogenous constructs range from small to medium. The predictive accuracy, Q2, of the model was assessed by using the blindfolding procedure (Wold, 1982). The crossvalidated redundancy values for all three endogenous constructs were above zero for both studies. Finally, the significance of the path coefficients of the samples from China and Japan samples was assessed by the bootstrapping procedure with 5000 samples. Eight out of 12 hypotheses received significant support in the China sample, while six out of 12 hypotheses received significant support in the Japan sample (Table 6). For Hong Kong respondents, perceived convenience (H1), selfpresentation (H2a), enjoyment (H3a), and perceived risks (H5a) were significantly related to the disclosure of personal information on Facebook and self-presentation (H2b), enjoyment (H3b), and perceived risks (H5b) were significantly related to participation in

497

commercial activities on Facebook. For Japanese respondents, enjoyment (H3a), perceived risks (H5a), and social influence (H6a) were significantly related to the disclosure of personal information, and social presence (H6b) were the major factors that determined participation in commercial activities on Facebook. The equivalence of individual hypotheses across two samples was further assessed by the t-test. Out of the multi-group contrast tests on individual hypotheses, only six showed significant differences, which include H1, H4a, H4c, H4d, H5a, and H5b (Table 6). Given these results, the Chinese and Japanese respondents differed with respect to the extent that their likelihood to disclose personal information on Facebook was influenced by different motivational factors. Specifically, Chinese respondents increased their selfdisclosure when they perceived that it is convenient for them to communicate with friends and relatives through Facebook, while this effect was non-significant in the Japanese sample; yet social influence plays a strong role in determining Japanese respondents' use of Facebook despite the fact that this effect was non-significant in the Chinese sample. Perceived risk is a stronger factor in predicting self-disclosure for the Japanese sample. Also, perceived control of information is an important factor to reduce perceived risks for the Japanese sample, while this effect was non-significant in the Chinese sample. 5. Discussion and implications In recent years, social networking sites have attracted a wide range of research interest. However, many studies are descriptive in nature, which specifies the major activities that people perform on social networking sites (Wilson et al., 2012). This study explores the motives behind using SNSs among users in Hong Kong and Japan and compares the differences of their motives and usage behaviors. Five key factorsdconvenience, self-presentation, enjoyment, perceived risk, and social influencedwere identified as primary motives for using SNSs among college students in both countries. Several implications for theory and practice among the young consumer segment in two major countries in Asia were revealed. First, this research corroborates with the findings of previous studies in providing empirical support to the application of social exchange theory, the use and gratification theory, and social identity theory in explaining users' self-disclosure of information on Facebook and participation in commercial activities online (Ng,

Table 4 Square root of AVE (diagonal elements) and inter-construct correlations.

Hong Kong, China Convenience Self presentation Enjoyment Perceived risk Trust Control Social influence Participation Disclose Japan Convenience Self presentation Enjoyment Perceived risk Trust Control Social influence Participation Disclose

Con

Sp

Enj

Risk

Trust

Control

Social

Partic

Disclose

0.870 0.316 0.513 0.115 0.353 0.092 0.364 0.168 0.411

0.833 0.349 0.306 0.285 0.273 0.243 0.277 0.359

0.891 0.249 0.411 0.217 0.361 0.315 0.459

0.788 0.355 0.402 0.079 0.161 0.167

0.805 0.221 0.277 0.110 0.286

0.819 0.027 0.241 0.242

0.849 0.143 0.231

0.775 0.411

0.774

0.834 0.287 0.532 0.515 0.481 0.224 0.617 0.187 0.385

0.896 0.401 0.219 0.069 0.060 0.216 0.144 0.282

0.858 0.365 0.423 0.312 0.626 0.346 0.597

0.787 0.626 0.418 0.545 0.215 0.341

0.850 0.499 0.521 0.259 0.383

0.839 0.247 0.320 0.484

0.857 0.391 0.533

0.828 0.530

0.802

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Table 5 Discriminant validity. Constructs

Convenience Self presentation Enjoyment Perceived risk Trust Control Social influence Participation Disclose

Hong Kong

Japan

Factor loadings

Cross-loadings

Factor loadings

Cross-loadings

0.855e0.887 0.728e0.940 0.857e0.909 0.524e0.882 0.760e0.852 0.753e0.874 0.843e0.859 0.736e0.802 0.685e0.872

0.254 0.273 0.324 0.535 0.395 0.474 0.277 0.303 0.497

0.782e0.863 0.856e0.930 0.820e0.891 0.589e0.880 0.795e0.894 0.798e0.864 0.791e0.911 0.818e0.838 0.527e0.895

0.116 0.276 0.248 0.401 0.409 0.261 0.021 0.227 0.227

to to to to to to to to to

0.661 0.452 0.576 0.124 0.594 0.593 0.630 0.490 0.601

to to to to to to to to to

0.489 0.431 0.482 0.052 0.376 0.408 0.349 0.365 0.430

Table 6 Results of multi-group analyses and model tests on individual country samples. Hypotheses

H1: Convenience / Self-disclosure H2a: Self-presentation / Self-disclosure H2b: Self-presentation / Participation of commercial activities H3a: Enjoyment / Self-disclosure H3b: Enjoyment / Participation of commercial activities H4a: Perceived risk / Self-disclosure H4b: Perceived risk / Participation of commercial activities H4c: Trust / Perceived risk H4d: Control / Perceived risk H5a: Social influence / Self-disclosure H5b: Social influence / Participation of commercial activities

China

Japan

Path

f2

Path

0.205b 0.164b 0.152a 0.261c 0.217c 0.122a 0.154b 0.370c 0.090 0.026 0.032

0.041 0.030 0.022 0.063 0.043 0.019 0.025 0.144

0.045 0.090 0.035 0.320b 0.094 0.324c 0.222a 0.174 0.390c 0.267a 0.270a

R2 for Self-disclosure R2 for Participation of commercial activities R2 for perceived risks

0.299 0.152 0.168

0.496 0.214 0.267

Q2 for Self-disclosure Q2 for Participation of commercial activities Q2 for perceived risks

0.185 0.094 0.091

0.272 0.089 0.141

a b c

p-value of t-tests f2

0.101 0.186 0.056 0.126 0.066 0.056

0.009b 0.269 0.238 0.255 0.692 0.026a 0.296 0.037a 0.009b 0.028a 0.045a

Significant at 0.05. Significant at 0.01. Significant at 0.001.

2014). This paper contributed by establishing a model that examined the antecedents to both self-disclosure and participation of commercial activities in a SNS environment. In this study, the results suggested that the primary motive of both Hong Kong and Japanese users of Facebook is to connect with their friends and seek entertainment. The key determinants of Hong Kong users' participation in commercial activities on Facebook include enjoyment, self-presentation, and perceived risk, while the key factors of Japanese users were perceived risk and social influence. Second, researchers have argued that, through globalized media and the Internet, due to the extent to which markets are alike with respect to cultural, social, and technology influences, the world is increasingly becoming a marketplace with a similar cultural background (Khanh & Hau, 2007). This study suggested that the social and cultural context is still shaping the behaviors of Internet users in different countries. Although both Hong Kong and Japan were established markets with a high degree of similarly in terms of economic development and technology infrastructure, the young respondents in these markets show limited similarities regarding their use of Facebook. Tests of the research model found that the perceived benefits, such as convenience, self-presentation, and enjoyment, had a significant impact on the self-disclosure of personal information on Facebook for Chinese users in Hong Kong, which is consistent with the findings of previous studies (Jackson & Wang, 2013; Liu &

Brown, 2014). In contrast, social influence and perceived risks have stronger effects on the Japanese users' participation in commercial activities. Japanese SNS users generally use SNSs to communicate with in-group peers that they know offline and are less likely to publicly express their information through Facebook (Aburai et al., 2013). They are less likely to share their information with brands and prefer to show their private information only to close friends (Barker & Ota, 2011). A recent example is the ALS ice bucket challenge. The challenge dares participants to pour a bucket of ice water on their head. The participants could complete the dare within 24 h or donate money to charity, the ALS Association. The ice bucket challenge went viral throughout social media and also become a hit in Hong Kong and Japan. Within a few days, many celebrities and SNS users posted their videos on Facebook and donated to ALS organizations in Hong Kong and Japan. This campaign has raised US $3 million and US $2.5 million for the ALS association in Hong Kong and Japan, respectively, which is a hundred times more than its regular donation in the past few years. The success of this campaign may contribute to the creative performance of celebrities and SNS users (entertaining), challenges by friends (convenience and social influence), positive image of courage and kindness (self-presentation), and a low perceived risk (donate directly to organizations). However, this challenge is not without complaint. In Japan, there was some criticism that people were being pressured to take part in the challenge

M. Ng / Computers in Human Behavior 54 (2016) 491e500

and make donations and others accused celebrities of taking part just for publicity (“Ice bucket challenge in Japan raises Y27 mil and a few complaints,” 2014). Consistent with previous studies, people that perceive a higher privacy risk tend to disclose less information and are less likely to provide personal information to commercial firms through Facebook (Malhotra et al., 2004). However, the factors mitigating the perceived risk of users in Hong Kong and Japan were significantly different from each other. For Hong Kong users, the trust of SNSs was found to have a significant impact on privacy risk, but not the perceived control of information. In other words, when they believe that Facebook and other SNS platforms were trustworthy and reliable, they perceived that the information they disclosed was safe. Thus, they become willing to disclose more information online and participate in commercial activities such as games and events on Facebook. In contrast, Japanese respondents show strong concern about the perceived control of their personal information. When they perceived that they can effectively control the disclosure of personal information, they have a lower perceived risk and become more willing to disclose information online. This difference may relate to the cultural background that Japanese users have a higher avoidance of uncertainty (Singh & Matsuo, 2004). With high uncertainty avoidance, the Japanese individual who wants to reduce risk may plan everything carefully in order to minimize any potential risks. Effective privacy control mechanisms and transparent privacy statements on SNSs could offer users a clear idea on how their information would be used by the SNS provider and other parties, which could help Japanese users to reduce their perceived risk of privacy invasion (Strater & Richter, 2007). 6. Conclusion Previous research studies supported that brands could use SNSs to enhance consumers' engagement on fan pages and their brand loyalty (Verma, Jahn, & Kunz, 2012). The effective use of SNSs has become a major issue for marketers. The analysis of motivation of using SNSs highlighted the importance of enjoyment and perceived risks in encouraging people's disclosure of personal information and participation of marketing activities online. At the country level, an interesting result was derived from the comparison of Chinese and Japanese users' motivation of using Facebook. Both Hong Kong and Japanese users are using Facebook as a platform for entertainment and communication. Their participation in commercial activities on Facebook is also related to their connection with friends. Marketers should stimulate Chinese users' participation on Facebook by providing creative and interesting content and organizing innovative and entertaining events. Marketers could also offer some activities that could enhance the selfimage and public image of Facebook users, such as support of various charitable organizations and social issues. For Japanese users, social influence is the major determinant for participation in commercial activities online. Thus, marketers may make use of celebrities and other opinion leaders to stimulate responses from Japanese users. These findings suggest that the effectiveness of marketing messages on SNSs may be dependent on their alignment with the predominant values, interests, and goals pursued in each cultural country group. The findings reported here will prove useful to practitioners and academics concerned with the use of social media in marketing. This work opens up some new areas of research that require further exploration in cross-national studies. While this study highlights some useful insights for SNS marketing, future research can extend this research in several ways. First, this study compares the motives and behavioral intentions of

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