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Failure analysis of irreversible changes in the construction of car tyres
Engineering Failure Analysis 104 (2019) 399–408
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Engineering Failure Analysis journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal
Failure analysis of irreversible changes in the construction of car tyres
T
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Gabriel Fedorkoa, Vieroslav Molnarb, , Miroslav Dovicac, Teodor Tothc, Lubomir Soosd, Jana Fabianovaa, Miriama Pinosovab a
Technical University of Kosice, Park Komenskeho 14, 042 00, Kosice, Slovak Republic Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies, Technical university in Kosice with a seat in Presov, Bayerova 1, 080 01, Presov, Slovak Republic c Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Kosice, Letna 9, 042 00, Kosice, Slovak Republic d Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak, University of Technology in Bratislava, Námestie slobody 17, 812 31 Bratislava 1, Slovak Republic b
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Car tyre Damage Metrotomography Sharp-edged material Analysis
Failure analysis construction of car tyres is a highly demanding process requiring very specific methods of analysis. Industrial metrotomography is one of suitable analytical tool in this area. However, the method used for failure analysis construction of car tyres may have its limits. The paper provides a detailed research for the analysis of 5 typical types of damage occurring in car tyres, analysing the possibilities of such a technology as well as occurrence of undesirable phenomena. Results provided further on refer to occurrence of undesirable phenomenon such as various artifacts due to their construction, but also confirm suitability of application of the method for car tyres research of failure analysis.
1. Introduction Operational characteristics and driveability of cars, their security and reliability depend to a large extent on car tyres. These parts of vehicles are the subject of innovation and improvement not only for developers, designers and manufacturers but the car tyres are the subject of much research in terms of the causes and mechanism of their faults and failures. It is possible to find many interesting research papers which deal with the problem of car tyres and their testing. A large part of research concerns the operational performance of car tyres. Wang and Wang [1] researched tyre-road friction coefficient and tyre cornering stiffness estimation based on longitudinal tyre force difference generation. Wang et al. [2] dealt with road surface condition identification approach based on road characteristic value. They presented knowledge about the application of Burckhardt model, by which the roads are classified into six types. Naranjo. et al. [3] presented experimental testing of an off-road instrumented tyre on soft soil. Matilainen and Tuononen [4] dealt with the research of tyre contact length on dry and wet road surfaces measured by three-axial accelerometer. They determined the tyre contact length of dry and wet roads by the help of measuring the acceleration of the inner liner with three-axial accelerometer. Another interesting research is presented by Dubois et al. [5]. They dealt with numerical evaluation of tyre and road contact pressure using a multi-asperity approach. Montella et al. [6] presented the article Mechanical characterization of a Tyre Derived Material: Experiments, hyperelastic modelling and numerical validation. By this paper they presented their results in the problem of tensile, compression, simple shear and volumetric test for car tyres. Besides experiments, computer simulations are also widely used in material and operational parameters investigation. Research on multi-body vehicle dynamic simulation and its role in
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Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Molnar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.05.035 Received 15 March 2019; Received in revised form 19 May 2019; Accepted 29 May 2019 Available online 03 June 2019 1350-6307/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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the design and development of off-road vehicles was performed by Stallmann et al. [7]. Their simulations required tyre models to describe the forces and moments, which were generated in the tyre-road contact patch. Modelling and testing of a logistic trucks supporting military operations tyre under strongly dynamic loading conditions were described by Baranowski et al. in [8]. They compared and, in simulations, analyzed a characteristic of tyre structure destruction and the pressure distribution. Monte Carlo simulations are broadly used in measurement and uncertainty evaluation. Their application was discussed by Cramer [9], and Palencar et al. [10]. Ostertag and Fabian [11] dealt with the conceptual model of wheel mechanism with integrated drive unit. The aim of their research was to reduce the actual operation costs and to increase security. Cheli et al. [12] dealt with design and testing of an innovative measurement device for tyre-road contact forces. They described the measurement of tyre-road contact forces and presented a new approach to tyre-road contact forces measurement systems. The effect of rotation on the tyre dynamic behaviour was investigated and the effects of rotation on the tyre dynamic behaviour were studied by Gonzalez et al. [13]. Mohsenimanesh et al. [14] developed a non-linear multi-laminated model of a tractor tyre. Modelling process was based on the 3D pressure fields obtained through the stress analysis of a finite element tyre model. Design and inner structure of car tyres significantly affect the driving properties and safety of vehicles. Tyre engineering and testing are investigated by the material engineer to ensure its optimum performance under service conditions, as well as the life cycle and waste tyre management [15]. A key issue in the design of car tyres is their capability to sustain intense impact loads. Neves et al. [16] developed a specially designed rig for tyre impact tests. Naskar et al. [17] made a comparison of physical characteristics of nylon 6, nylon 66 and polyester tyre cords. Kohjiya et al. [18] carried out the first visualization of nanofiller networking due to association of carbon black in natural rubber. The visualization was achieved by a transmission electron microscopy combined with computerized tomography. A three dimensional (3D) observation of nano-structure of particulate silicas in natural rubber by using a 3D transmission electron microscope was reported in [19]. Cord-rubber adhesion strength is an important aspect to determine the durability of composites. Jamshidi et al. [20] studied cord/rubber interface at elevated temperatures. Ratrout and Mahmoud [21] dealt with the elongation and tensile strength of the tyre rubber as quality control criteria in evaluating vehicle car tyres. Using of accurate tyre material properties is a major requirement for conducting a successful tyre analysis using finite element method. Yang et al. [22] presented an effective procedure for generating tyre materials data used in finite element analysis. The rubber material property was modelled in ABAQUS/CAE. Another important research in area of rubber composites and car tyres is aimed at investigation of tyre faults, causes of failures as well as the possibility of applying of various investigation methods, particularly non-destructive testing methods. Abou and Khamis [23] presented an integrated tyre defects diagnostic expert system (TYREDDX) that could be applied during production and service. TYREDDX comprises two main modules: manufacturing history databases and diagnostic expert system. Liu et al. [24] and Angelis et al. [25] investigated the capabilities of shearography for detecting hole and crack defects in polymeric materials and composite structures. Zhang et al. [26] approached the analysis of tyre laser shearography image by combining curvelet transform and Canny edge detection. Wire failures occurring during tyre making operation were studied by Palit et al. [27]. Lahiri et al. [28] used active (lock-in and pulsed) thermography technique to quantify defect features in specimens of glass fibre reinforced rubber with artificially produced defects. Fulton et al. [29] investigated the structure and morphology of rubber–brass and rubber–tyre-cord interfaces by Xray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The work of Staniewicz et al. [30] illustrated the use of electron tomography and machine learning methods as tools to describe the percolation behaviour of the filler in composite. Gros [31] carried out non-destructive examination in order to assess the potential of eddy currents in detecting delamination in rubber car tyres. Roemer and Ida [32] used eddy current testing for the location of conducting wire in rubber belting. X-ray computed tomography is used in many research studies to investigate behaviour of materials and their inner structure. The research results demonstrate that X-ray computed tomography is a powerful tool leading to a better understanding of phenomena and mechanisms. Hazarika et al. [33] examined tyre chips through X-ray computed tomography during the shear testing procedures. The study of Kriston et al. [34] presented the use of micro-computerized tomography in the investigation of contact between rubber compounds and various counter-surfaces. Computed tomography was used also in [35,36] to study material structure, and in [37,38] to investigate changes and differences in the composites. The paper deals with the application of industrial metrotomography to analyse basic types of car tyres defects from the point of view of their detection and execution of basic types of metrology operations. 2. Material and methods Geometrically, the car tyre is a closed ring – toroid, which, from the point of view of mechanics, can be denoted as a pressure vessel. The wall of the vessel is a flexible membrane the structure of which is made up of a complex composite system that decisively influences its behaviour and operating parameters. Its surface and edges are covered by a system of grooves and profiles that come into direct contact with the ground. The car tyre is the outer part of the motor-vehicle pneumatics (Fig. 1). It fits on the rim of the disc and has a decisive influence on the characteristics of the entire system – car tyre. Car tyre consists of six basic structural components (Fig. 2). Tread is the rubber on the outer circumference of the car tyre fitted with a pattern. It is formed by a set of differently arranged rubber grooves that come in contact with the road. The resulting pattern forms the pattern of the tread and determines its lifetime. This part of the car tyre comes in direct interaction with the road surface. The tread construction can be composed of several layers with different material properties and characteristics. The main function of the tread is transmission of the vehicle's driving force on the road and ensuring the highest level of on the road adhesion thus ensuring the driving characteristics of the car and increasing the efficiency of its braking system. 400
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tread
pattern cord fabric
outer part
belt
Pneumatics
criss-cross fabric carcass
reinforcing materials
bead
reinforcing materials
car tyre
Ségel/bead chafer
tube protective insert
cord fabric
criss-cross fabric bead part
"Molino" bead rope
reinforcing materials criss-cross fabric
sidewall Fig. 1. Basic structural components of a car tyre.
Fig. 2. Basic structural components of a car tyre [39]. 1, 2 – tread, 3 – carcass, 4 – sidewall, 5, 6 – belt, 7 – bead rope, 8 – bead.
Belt is the part of car tyre located between the tread and the carcass. Its design is made up of several cord layers, most often the cords of the individual layers crossing each other. The belt is made of steel or textile and increases the carcass resistance. The carcass determines the most important features of the car tyre such as shape, load, or driving properties. It is made up of several cord inserts that are firmly anchored around the steel foil in the foot and embedded into a soft rubber. The bead is a reinforced part of the car tyre that ensures its correct fit on the metal rim of the wheel disc. It is created by bending of carcass cord inserts around the bead rope. The bead rope provides anchoring of the carcass cord inserts into the bead. At the same time, it provides a reinforcement of the bead in the circumferential direction. It is made of high-strength steel ropes, circular in cross-section. The sidewall is made of a rubber layer located on the side of each type of car tyre. Its main task is to protect the sides of the carcass from mechanical damage and adverse weather conditions. It can also be composed of several layers with different material properties and characteristics. 2.1. Reinforcing materials The important component of the carcass and bead of the car tyre is reinforcing materials (Fig. 3). Their main task is to form the carrier part of the car tyre (carcass), thus influencing different properties of the car tyre mainly with regard to comfort and driving safety. The reinforcing materials of each car tyre also significantly affect its performance and durability, ensure load capacity and resistance to repeated wear and tear. Other parameter affecting performance and durability is the shape of car tyre. Cord fabric is made like regular textile fabric of warp and weft. The warp is made of strong and solid materials, while the weft is made of much thinner materials. The main task of the weft is to keep the fabric together mainly in the process of its gumming. The 401
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cord fabric criss-cross fabric Ségel/bead chafer "Molino"
Fig. 3. Reinforcing materials in car tyres.
cord fabrics are mainly used in car tyre carcass and they are made from different chemical fibres. The criss-cross fabrics primarily function as protective and packaging materials. They are most often made of cotton and used to wrap the ropes and beads of car tyres. The third type of reinforcement fabric is ségel/bead chafer. It is a kind of fabric made of solid woven yarns. Ségels/Bead chafers are characterized by high resistance in both directions and a high weight. In the construction of car tyres they are used to protect the beads, mostly in heavy car tyres for trucks and machinery. The last type of fabric used to reinforce the car tyres is “molino”. It is fine linen fabric used for wrapping of bead ropes in car tyres. Manufacturers of all types of car tyres, whether intended for passenger cars, trucks or machinery, need to be aware of a wide range of different information on wear and tear processes. The collection of information related to these can be carried out by various methods that can basically be divided into two categories: a) visual methods, b) indication methods. The main difference between the methods used is in the extent of capturing the individual types of existing defects. Visual methods are relatively simple to implement and can identify all visible car tyre damage, but cannot capture internal structure defects. On the contrary, the methods of indication are able to capture hidden defects of car tyres, however, their implementation is often more complicated. Indication methods can, for example, be implemented with the use of X-rays or different types of testing devices. 3. Theory/calculation Indication methods for detecting the existence and level/extent of car tyre damage were initially performed and are still being performed with the use of different types of X-rays. This is a relatively simple method that presents the basis to carry out identification analyses in form of 2D image outputs (Fig. 4). Such a type of visualization is sufficient to identify defects occurring in the car tyre structure, but for their detailed identification, analysis and description are no longer appropriate. Therefore, it is logical that the development of other technologies has begun to penetrate the field and triggered the use of modern tools whose application capabilities reflect current state of knowledge and technologies available. Such technologies include the use of industrial metrotomographs (Fig. 5). Firstly, industrial metrotomography offers a 3D view of the analyzed car tyre. This graphical output can be then worked on with the use of appropriate software and hardware equipment. At present, in the field of analysis, besides conventional industrial tomographs used, there are also specially designed ones for the field of car tyres analysis (Fig. 6). However, the technology of industrial metrotomographs also has its drawbacks and limits. When using flat panel detector arrays,
Fig. 4. 2D outputs of car tyres X-ray images [40]. 402
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Fig. 5. Principle of industrial metrotomography [41].
Fig. 6. Industrial metrotomograph for car tyre analysis [42].
due to the presence of metal, relatively much noise occurs, but the scanning itself is fast. When linear detector arrays are used, the amount of noise is eliminated, but scanning takes longer since the object is being scanned in planes. On the basis of above mentioned fact, it is necessary to examine in more detail how the individual components of the car tyres are displayed in the final image and, ultimately, do not prevent the analysis of the car tyre failures and defects.
4. Results and discussion Within the options for car tyre defects identification by means of industrial computed tomography, tyres were tested up to the level of their destruction and finally, samples representing typical damage were selected: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
surface damage to the car tyre, car tyre pierce through, crack in the direction of car tyre rotation, crack perpendicular to the direction of car tyre rotation, tear off of a car ttyre. The car tyre damage is summarised in more detail using a tabular form in Table 1.
Table 1 The summarised car tyre damage. Typical damage
Voltage [kV]
Current [μA]
Integration time [ms]
Voxel [μm]
Filter [Material/mm]
1 2 3 4 5
210 210 210 210 210
300 480 500 480 500
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
212 292 225 292 212
Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu
403
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
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Fig. 7. Artifacts in car tyres scanning.
Scanning parameters depended on the sample size, thickness and reinforcement used inside of it. The machine performance was 63–105 W, the integration time was 1 s and for all scannings a 0.25 mm copper filter was used to filter out soft X-ray radiation. The achieved resolution depended on sample size, 212–292 μm in our case. No special analyses was used to evaluate the facts, only the visualization in particular images. To analyse hollows and inclusions, the size of minimum obsereved deffect is recommended to be 8 voxels. Due to the fact of car tyre being reinforced with steel ropes, the presence of different artifacts is presumed in CT data. The amount and level of artifacts depend on the amount/ thickness/strength of the reinforcement, the placement of the sample at scanning, the device settings used, the data processing algorithm (filtering), etc. Steel has about 6 times the density of rubber which is shown by formation of artifacts when being scanned. The steel reinforcement in the area of tread pattern is made up of separate bars that cause the spread of X-rays and occurrence of artifacts. In addition, in the artifacts vicinity, black areas occur due to the loss of information in there. The other artifact is a shadow occurrence after the radiation passes through dense material. An example of the effect is shown in Fig. 7.
4.1. Possibilities for reduction of the artifact creation during sensing on the metrotomograph Two ways of reduction of artifacts and noise occurring during scanning can be used in practice. The first is hardware one and the second is software one. The amount of artifacts and noise can be determined by the selection of scanning appliance. To scan tyre defects, special computer tomographs are used which are optimized in the scale of scanning, fixation formula as well as performance and results processing. Line detector is used to optimize the results and a better image is ensured than with a flat detector, but the time of scanning is significantly prolonged. The noise can further be reduced by the use of physical filters (e.g. copper filters), which filter out soft radiation. Both methods reduce the size of beam hardening, cupping effect, metal artifact and scattering. With line detector the effect of scattering elimination is more significant. The other option is also setting of software filters during scanning eventually software data modification after scanning. 1. Surface damage to the car tyre – 3D view (Fig. 7, on the left) the arrow marks a visibly missing part of the car tyre in the area of the pattern as well as the crack passing into the depth. With this projection/view, the crack propagation cannot be identified. In Fig. 8, on the right, a car tyre cross-section in the defect area is shown. Despite the noise, it is obvious that the crack does not interfere with the reinforcement but spreads later to the sides (marked with arrows). The defect diameter is approximately 28 mm. Such damage can occur due to car tyre hitting the kerbstone. Afterwards, a drop in the air pressure occurs along with possible rusting of steel wires in the tyre coating which can even lead to separation of small pieces from the car tyre profile. It is an extremely dangerous damage, mainly when driving at high speed. 2. Car tyre cross-section – 3D view (Fig. 9, on the left), the arrow marks the place of circular shape where extraneous object penetrated/pierced the sidewall of the car tyre. In the centre of the picture, the cross-section of the pierce through in the tread and its spreading downwards is shown. Crosssection A-A in Fig. 9 on the right, shows the cross-sectional diameter of the pierce through/penetration equal to 5.24 mm. Such damage can occur as a result of mutual interaction of a sharp edge of the object and the car tyre. It can result in a sudden drop of air pressure with subsequent fatal results at high speed. 404
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Fig. 8. Defect in the car tyre pattern.
Fig. 9. Image showing a pierce through of a car tyre.
3. Crack in the direction of car tyre rotation – in Fig. 10 on the left, the crack on the sidewall of the tyre in tyre rotation direction is shown. Fig. 10, on the right, shows the occurrence of a visible crack in the entire thickness of the car tyre and the damage is also present on the inside of it (marked with an arrow). The crack spreads slightly to the sides of the car tyre, its length being 52.66 mm. Such damage occurs after the interaction of the car tyre sidewall with the elevated road edge, kerbstone or after driving onto a place where road is seriously damaged. This can result in worse car stability and its maneuverability, often accompanied by a complete air pressure loss and tyre disc damage. 4. Crack perpendicular to the direction of car tyre rotation – in Fig. 11, on the left, the crack perpendicular to the car tyre rotation direction is shown. In Fig. 11, on the right, the cross-section image shows a crack visible in the entire thickness of the car tyre sidewall, not spreading to the sides. The crack length is 27.43 mm. Such damage can occur due to not enough inflated tyres of an
Fig. 10. Crack in the direction of car tyre rotation. 405
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Fig. 11. Crack perpendicular to car tyre rotation direction.
overloaded car. The first phase can involve a bulge which gradually gets larger. The second option is the failure within the inner tyre structure. Ignoring of failure can lead to a car tyre disruption. 5. Tear off of car tyre part – in Figs. 12–14, a section of car tyre with a torn-off part and a crack near the wheel disk is shown. A, B, C locations depict the analyzed areas. Fig. 12 shows the reconstruction in two views to see the overall damage. Fig. 13, on the left, shows the cut in the point of cracking. The surface of the crack is smooth with signs of crack propagation in the material of the car tyre (marked with arrows). Fig. 13, on the right, shows the cut location. Fig. 14, on the left, shows the analyzed areas. This is the place where the torn-off part of the car tyre starts occurring (Fig. 14, on the right). Location A shows the area near the disk, the missing part of the rubber is visible (compared to Fig. 13). Place B (Fig. 12, Fig. 14) shows the separated parts of the car tyre and place C shows the missing part of the tyre on its side wall. Such damage can be triggered by improper geometry of the wheel, when the wheel has an excessive lean to one side and the strain shows on the car tyre bead.
5. Conclusions The process of failure analysis of car tyres is demanding not only to implement but also to process individual results. Good and clear understanding of individual changes, processes and identification of the different categories of defects requires methods and procedures based on 3D approach. Such an option is currently available when employing the method of industrial metrotomography. For its use, however, it is necessary to be aware of its limits, possibilities of car tyre damage processes analysis and identification of individual types of defects. Within the framework of presented research, the basic types of defects were analyzed in terms of their detection and realization of basic types of metrological operations. The results of experiments revealed the existence of various disorders and limitations, the existence of which is a consequence of the mutual interaction of the used analytical technology and the construction of the car tyre. However, their identification is necessary for the results of analytical processes to be valid and relevant. The results of such analyzes can then be the basis for expanding the knowledge base and for better understanding of car tyre damaging processes. On the basis of analyses results, we can conclude that the method of industrial metrotomography is suitable for application in the field of investigation of processes of car tyres damaging and that the identified undesirable accompanying phenomena does not ultimately affect the accuracy, validity and reliability of the performed analytical processes.
Fig. 12. 3D reconstruction of a car tyre. 406
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Fig. 13. Crack near the car tyre edge.
Fig. 14. Analysis of various sections of the crack.
Obtained results can be applied in two basic areas. The first area is a real car tyres operation/usage, where results can help to prolong their operational lifetime, thus reducing costs and increasing reliability of technological processes they are being employed within. The second area is the research and development of new resistant car tyres structures, where the knowledge can help to understand already existing degradation processes and develop new, more resistant and more reliable structures. Conflict of interests All authors declare this state: “Declarations of interest: none”. Acknowledgements This work is a part of these projects VEGA 1/0403/18, VEGA 1/0316/18, VEGA 1/0224/18, VEGA 1/0063/16, KEGA 006STU-4/ 2018, KEGA 012TUKE-4/2019, KEGA 013TUKE-4/2019, APVV-15-0149 and SK-SRB-18-0053. References [1] R. Wang, J. Wang, Tire–road friction coefficient and tire cornering stiffness estimation based on longitudinal tire force difference generation, Control. Eng. Pract. 21 (2013) 65–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conengprac.2012.09.009. [2] B. Wang, H. Guan, P. Lu, A. Zhang, Road surface condition identification approach based on road characteristic value, J. Terramechanics. 56 (2014) 103–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jterra.2014.09.001. [3] S.D. Naranjo, C. Sandu, S. Taheri, S. Taheri, Experimental testing of an off-road instrumented tire on soft soil, J. Terramechanics. 56 (2014) 119–137, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jterra.2014.09.003. [4] M. Matilainen, A. Tuononen, Tyre contact length on dry and wet road surfaces measured by three-axial accelerometer, Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 52–53 (2015) 548–558, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2014.08.002. [5] G. Dubois, J. Cesbron, H.P. Yin, F. Anfosso-Lé Dée, Numerical evaluation of tyre/road contact pressures using a multi-asperity approach, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 54 (2011) 84–94, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2011.09.010. [6] G. Montella, A. Calabrese, G. Serino, Mechanical characterization of a tire derived material: experiments, hyperelastic modeling and numerical validation, Constr. Build. Mater. 66 (2014) 336–347, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.078.
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Almond, S.G. Pickering, S.L. Angioni, A new technique to detect defect size and depth in composite structures using digital shearography and unconstrained optimization, NDT E Int. 45 (2012) 91–96, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2011.07.007. [26] Y. Zhang, T. Li, Q. Li, Defect detection for tire laser shearography image using curvelet transform based edge detector, Opt. Laser Technol. 47 (2013) 64–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2012.08.023. [27] P. Palit, S. Das, J. Mathur, Metallurgical investigation of wire breakage of tyre bead grade, Case Stud. Eng. Fail. Anal. 4 (2015) 83–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. csefa.2015.09.003. [28] B.B. Lahiri, S. Bagavathiappan, P.R. Reshmi, J. Philip, T. Jayakumar, B. Raj, Quantification of defects in composites and rubber materials using active thermography, Infrared Phys. Technol. 55 (2012) 191–199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2012.01.001. [29] W.S. Fulton, G.C. Smith, K.J. 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Kotecký, A.J. Tuononen, A novel method for contact analysis of rubber and various surfaces using micro-computerizedtomography, Polym. Test. (2016), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2016.05.019. [35] H. Rogasik, I. Onasch, J. Brunotte, D. Jegou, O. Wendroth, Assessment of soil structure using X-ray computed tomography, Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 215 (2003) 151–165, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.215.01.14. [36] T. Tóth, D. Glittová, T. Kelemenová, M. Dovica, Determination of material density by means of computerized tomography, Acta Mech. Slovaca. 20 (2016) 68–71, https://doi.org/10.21496/ams.2016.035. [37] C.S. Chang, T. Matsushima, X. Lee, Heterogeneous strain and bonded granular structure change in triaxial specimen studied by computer tomography, J. Eng. ͑ SCE͒0733-9399͑2003͒129:11͑1295͒. Mech. 129 (2003) 1295–1307, https://doi.org/10.1061/A [38] M.N. Partl, A. Flisch, M. 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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Engineering Failure Analysis journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal
Failure analysis of irreversible changes in the construction of car tyres
T
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Gabriel Fedorkoa, Vieroslav Molnarb, , Miroslav Dovicac, Teodor Tothc, Lubomir Soosd, Jana Fabianovaa, Miriama Pinosovab a
Technical University of Kosice, Park Komenskeho 14, 042 00, Kosice, Slovak Republic Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies, Technical university in Kosice with a seat in Presov, Bayerova 1, 080 01, Presov, Slovak Republic c Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Kosice, Letna 9, 042 00, Kosice, Slovak Republic d Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak, University of Technology in Bratislava, Námestie slobody 17, 812 31 Bratislava 1, Slovak Republic b
A R T IC LE I N F O
ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Car tyre Damage Metrotomography Sharp-edged material Analysis
Failure analysis construction of car tyres is a highly demanding process requiring very specific methods of analysis. Industrial metrotomography is one of suitable analytical tool in this area. However, the method used for failure analysis construction of car tyres may have its limits. The paper provides a detailed research for the analysis of 5 typical types of damage occurring in car tyres, analysing the possibilities of such a technology as well as occurrence of undesirable phenomena. Results provided further on refer to occurrence of undesirable phenomenon such as various artifacts due to their construction, but also confirm suitability of application of the method for car tyres research of failure analysis.
1. Introduction Operational characteristics and driveability of cars, their security and reliability depend to a large extent on car tyres. These parts of vehicles are the subject of innovation and improvement not only for developers, designers and manufacturers but the car tyres are the subject of much research in terms of the causes and mechanism of their faults and failures. It is possible to find many interesting research papers which deal with the problem of car tyres and their testing. A large part of research concerns the operational performance of car tyres. Wang and Wang [1] researched tyre-road friction coefficient and tyre cornering stiffness estimation based on longitudinal tyre force difference generation. Wang et al. [2] dealt with road surface condition identification approach based on road characteristic value. They presented knowledge about the application of Burckhardt model, by which the roads are classified into six types. Naranjo. et al. [3] presented experimental testing of an off-road instrumented tyre on soft soil. Matilainen and Tuononen [4] dealt with the research of tyre contact length on dry and wet road surfaces measured by three-axial accelerometer. They determined the tyre contact length of dry and wet roads by the help of measuring the acceleration of the inner liner with three-axial accelerometer. Another interesting research is presented by Dubois et al. [5]. They dealt with numerical evaluation of tyre and road contact pressure using a multi-asperity approach. Montella et al. [6] presented the article Mechanical characterization of a Tyre Derived Material: Experiments, hyperelastic modelling and numerical validation. By this paper they presented their results in the problem of tensile, compression, simple shear and volumetric test for car tyres. Besides experiments, computer simulations are also widely used in material and operational parameters investigation. Research on multi-body vehicle dynamic simulation and its role in
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Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Molnar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.05.035 Received 15 March 2019; Received in revised form 19 May 2019; Accepted 29 May 2019 Available online 03 June 2019 1350-6307/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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the design and development of off-road vehicles was performed by Stallmann et al. [7]. Their simulations required tyre models to describe the forces and moments, which were generated in the tyre-road contact patch. Modelling and testing of a logistic trucks supporting military operations tyre under strongly dynamic loading conditions were described by Baranowski et al. in [8]. They compared and, in simulations, analyzed a characteristic of tyre structure destruction and the pressure distribution. Monte Carlo simulations are broadly used in measurement and uncertainty evaluation. Their application was discussed by Cramer [9], and Palencar et al. [10]. Ostertag and Fabian [11] dealt with the conceptual model of wheel mechanism with integrated drive unit. The aim of their research was to reduce the actual operation costs and to increase security. Cheli et al. [12] dealt with design and testing of an innovative measurement device for tyre-road contact forces. They described the measurement of tyre-road contact forces and presented a new approach to tyre-road contact forces measurement systems. The effect of rotation on the tyre dynamic behaviour was investigated and the effects of rotation on the tyre dynamic behaviour were studied by Gonzalez et al. [13]. Mohsenimanesh et al. [14] developed a non-linear multi-laminated model of a tractor tyre. Modelling process was based on the 3D pressure fields obtained through the stress analysis of a finite element tyre model. Design and inner structure of car tyres significantly affect the driving properties and safety of vehicles. Tyre engineering and testing are investigated by the material engineer to ensure its optimum performance under service conditions, as well as the life cycle and waste tyre management [15]. A key issue in the design of car tyres is their capability to sustain intense impact loads. Neves et al. [16] developed a specially designed rig for tyre impact tests. Naskar et al. [17] made a comparison of physical characteristics of nylon 6, nylon 66 and polyester tyre cords. Kohjiya et al. [18] carried out the first visualization of nanofiller networking due to association of carbon black in natural rubber. The visualization was achieved by a transmission electron microscopy combined with computerized tomography. A three dimensional (3D) observation of nano-structure of particulate silicas in natural rubber by using a 3D transmission electron microscope was reported in [19]. Cord-rubber adhesion strength is an important aspect to determine the durability of composites. Jamshidi et al. [20] studied cord/rubber interface at elevated temperatures. Ratrout and Mahmoud [21] dealt with the elongation and tensile strength of the tyre rubber as quality control criteria in evaluating vehicle car tyres. Using of accurate tyre material properties is a major requirement for conducting a successful tyre analysis using finite element method. Yang et al. [22] presented an effective procedure for generating tyre materials data used in finite element analysis. The rubber material property was modelled in ABAQUS/CAE. Another important research in area of rubber composites and car tyres is aimed at investigation of tyre faults, causes of failures as well as the possibility of applying of various investigation methods, particularly non-destructive testing methods. Abou and Khamis [23] presented an integrated tyre defects diagnostic expert system (TYREDDX) that could be applied during production and service. TYREDDX comprises two main modules: manufacturing history databases and diagnostic expert system. Liu et al. [24] and Angelis et al. [25] investigated the capabilities of shearography for detecting hole and crack defects in polymeric materials and composite structures. Zhang et al. [26] approached the analysis of tyre laser shearography image by combining curvelet transform and Canny edge detection. Wire failures occurring during tyre making operation were studied by Palit et al. [27]. Lahiri et al. [28] used active (lock-in and pulsed) thermography technique to quantify defect features in specimens of glass fibre reinforced rubber with artificially produced defects. Fulton et al. [29] investigated the structure and morphology of rubber–brass and rubber–tyre-cord interfaces by Xray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The work of Staniewicz et al. [30] illustrated the use of electron tomography and machine learning methods as tools to describe the percolation behaviour of the filler in composite. Gros [31] carried out non-destructive examination in order to assess the potential of eddy currents in detecting delamination in rubber car tyres. Roemer and Ida [32] used eddy current testing for the location of conducting wire in rubber belting. X-ray computed tomography is used in many research studies to investigate behaviour of materials and their inner structure. The research results demonstrate that X-ray computed tomography is a powerful tool leading to a better understanding of phenomena and mechanisms. Hazarika et al. [33] examined tyre chips through X-ray computed tomography during the shear testing procedures. The study of Kriston et al. [34] presented the use of micro-computerized tomography in the investigation of contact between rubber compounds and various counter-surfaces. Computed tomography was used also in [35,36] to study material structure, and in [37,38] to investigate changes and differences in the composites. The paper deals with the application of industrial metrotomography to analyse basic types of car tyres defects from the point of view of their detection and execution of basic types of metrology operations. 2. Material and methods Geometrically, the car tyre is a closed ring – toroid, which, from the point of view of mechanics, can be denoted as a pressure vessel. The wall of the vessel is a flexible membrane the structure of which is made up of a complex composite system that decisively influences its behaviour and operating parameters. Its surface and edges are covered by a system of grooves and profiles that come into direct contact with the ground. The car tyre is the outer part of the motor-vehicle pneumatics (Fig. 1). It fits on the rim of the disc and has a decisive influence on the characteristics of the entire system – car tyre. Car tyre consists of six basic structural components (Fig. 2). Tread is the rubber on the outer circumference of the car tyre fitted with a pattern. It is formed by a set of differently arranged rubber grooves that come in contact with the road. The resulting pattern forms the pattern of the tread and determines its lifetime. This part of the car tyre comes in direct interaction with the road surface. The tread construction can be composed of several layers with different material properties and characteristics. The main function of the tread is transmission of the vehicle's driving force on the road and ensuring the highest level of on the road adhesion thus ensuring the driving characteristics of the car and increasing the efficiency of its braking system. 400
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tread
pattern cord fabric
outer part
belt
Pneumatics
criss-cross fabric carcass
reinforcing materials
bead
reinforcing materials
car tyre
Ségel/bead chafer
tube protective insert
cord fabric
criss-cross fabric bead part
"Molino" bead rope
reinforcing materials criss-cross fabric
sidewall Fig. 1. Basic structural components of a car tyre.
Fig. 2. Basic structural components of a car tyre [39]. 1, 2 – tread, 3 – carcass, 4 – sidewall, 5, 6 – belt, 7 – bead rope, 8 – bead.
Belt is the part of car tyre located between the tread and the carcass. Its design is made up of several cord layers, most often the cords of the individual layers crossing each other. The belt is made of steel or textile and increases the carcass resistance. The carcass determines the most important features of the car tyre such as shape, load, or driving properties. It is made up of several cord inserts that are firmly anchored around the steel foil in the foot and embedded into a soft rubber. The bead is a reinforced part of the car tyre that ensures its correct fit on the metal rim of the wheel disc. It is created by bending of carcass cord inserts around the bead rope. The bead rope provides anchoring of the carcass cord inserts into the bead. At the same time, it provides a reinforcement of the bead in the circumferential direction. It is made of high-strength steel ropes, circular in cross-section. The sidewall is made of a rubber layer located on the side of each type of car tyre. Its main task is to protect the sides of the carcass from mechanical damage and adverse weather conditions. It can also be composed of several layers with different material properties and characteristics. 2.1. Reinforcing materials The important component of the carcass and bead of the car tyre is reinforcing materials (Fig. 3). Their main task is to form the carrier part of the car tyre (carcass), thus influencing different properties of the car tyre mainly with regard to comfort and driving safety. The reinforcing materials of each car tyre also significantly affect its performance and durability, ensure load capacity and resistance to repeated wear and tear. Other parameter affecting performance and durability is the shape of car tyre. Cord fabric is made like regular textile fabric of warp and weft. The warp is made of strong and solid materials, while the weft is made of much thinner materials. The main task of the weft is to keep the fabric together mainly in the process of its gumming. The 401
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cord fabric criss-cross fabric Ségel/bead chafer "Molino"
Fig. 3. Reinforcing materials in car tyres.
cord fabrics are mainly used in car tyre carcass and they are made from different chemical fibres. The criss-cross fabrics primarily function as protective and packaging materials. They are most often made of cotton and used to wrap the ropes and beads of car tyres. The third type of reinforcement fabric is ségel/bead chafer. It is a kind of fabric made of solid woven yarns. Ségels/Bead chafers are characterized by high resistance in both directions and a high weight. In the construction of car tyres they are used to protect the beads, mostly in heavy car tyres for trucks and machinery. The last type of fabric used to reinforce the car tyres is “molino”. It is fine linen fabric used for wrapping of bead ropes in car tyres. Manufacturers of all types of car tyres, whether intended for passenger cars, trucks or machinery, need to be aware of a wide range of different information on wear and tear processes. The collection of information related to these can be carried out by various methods that can basically be divided into two categories: a) visual methods, b) indication methods. The main difference between the methods used is in the extent of capturing the individual types of existing defects. Visual methods are relatively simple to implement and can identify all visible car tyre damage, but cannot capture internal structure defects. On the contrary, the methods of indication are able to capture hidden defects of car tyres, however, their implementation is often more complicated. Indication methods can, for example, be implemented with the use of X-rays or different types of testing devices. 3. Theory/calculation Indication methods for detecting the existence and level/extent of car tyre damage were initially performed and are still being performed with the use of different types of X-rays. This is a relatively simple method that presents the basis to carry out identification analyses in form of 2D image outputs (Fig. 4). Such a type of visualization is sufficient to identify defects occurring in the car tyre structure, but for their detailed identification, analysis and description are no longer appropriate. Therefore, it is logical that the development of other technologies has begun to penetrate the field and triggered the use of modern tools whose application capabilities reflect current state of knowledge and technologies available. Such technologies include the use of industrial metrotomographs (Fig. 5). Firstly, industrial metrotomography offers a 3D view of the analyzed car tyre. This graphical output can be then worked on with the use of appropriate software and hardware equipment. At present, in the field of analysis, besides conventional industrial tomographs used, there are also specially designed ones for the field of car tyres analysis (Fig. 6). However, the technology of industrial metrotomographs also has its drawbacks and limits. When using flat panel detector arrays,
Fig. 4. 2D outputs of car tyres X-ray images [40]. 402
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Fig. 5. Principle of industrial metrotomography [41].
Fig. 6. Industrial metrotomograph for car tyre analysis [42].
due to the presence of metal, relatively much noise occurs, but the scanning itself is fast. When linear detector arrays are used, the amount of noise is eliminated, but scanning takes longer since the object is being scanned in planes. On the basis of above mentioned fact, it is necessary to examine in more detail how the individual components of the car tyres are displayed in the final image and, ultimately, do not prevent the analysis of the car tyre failures and defects.
4. Results and discussion Within the options for car tyre defects identification by means of industrial computed tomography, tyres were tested up to the level of their destruction and finally, samples representing typical damage were selected: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
surface damage to the car tyre, car tyre pierce through, crack in the direction of car tyre rotation, crack perpendicular to the direction of car tyre rotation, tear off of a car ttyre. The car tyre damage is summarised in more detail using a tabular form in Table 1.
Table 1 The summarised car tyre damage. Typical damage
Voltage [kV]
Current [μA]
Integration time [ms]
Voxel [μm]
Filter [Material/mm]
1 2 3 4 5
210 210 210 210 210
300 480 500 480 500
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
212 292 225 292 212
Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu
403
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
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Fig. 7. Artifacts in car tyres scanning.
Scanning parameters depended on the sample size, thickness and reinforcement used inside of it. The machine performance was 63–105 W, the integration time was 1 s and for all scannings a 0.25 mm copper filter was used to filter out soft X-ray radiation. The achieved resolution depended on sample size, 212–292 μm in our case. No special analyses was used to evaluate the facts, only the visualization in particular images. To analyse hollows and inclusions, the size of minimum obsereved deffect is recommended to be 8 voxels. Due to the fact of car tyre being reinforced with steel ropes, the presence of different artifacts is presumed in CT data. The amount and level of artifacts depend on the amount/ thickness/strength of the reinforcement, the placement of the sample at scanning, the device settings used, the data processing algorithm (filtering), etc. Steel has about 6 times the density of rubber which is shown by formation of artifacts when being scanned. The steel reinforcement in the area of tread pattern is made up of separate bars that cause the spread of X-rays and occurrence of artifacts. In addition, in the artifacts vicinity, black areas occur due to the loss of information in there. The other artifact is a shadow occurrence after the radiation passes through dense material. An example of the effect is shown in Fig. 7.
4.1. Possibilities for reduction of the artifact creation during sensing on the metrotomograph Two ways of reduction of artifacts and noise occurring during scanning can be used in practice. The first is hardware one and the second is software one. The amount of artifacts and noise can be determined by the selection of scanning appliance. To scan tyre defects, special computer tomographs are used which are optimized in the scale of scanning, fixation formula as well as performance and results processing. Line detector is used to optimize the results and a better image is ensured than with a flat detector, but the time of scanning is significantly prolonged. The noise can further be reduced by the use of physical filters (e.g. copper filters), which filter out soft radiation. Both methods reduce the size of beam hardening, cupping effect, metal artifact and scattering. With line detector the effect of scattering elimination is more significant. The other option is also setting of software filters during scanning eventually software data modification after scanning. 1. Surface damage to the car tyre – 3D view (Fig. 7, on the left) the arrow marks a visibly missing part of the car tyre in the area of the pattern as well as the crack passing into the depth. With this projection/view, the crack propagation cannot be identified. In Fig. 8, on the right, a car tyre cross-section in the defect area is shown. Despite the noise, it is obvious that the crack does not interfere with the reinforcement but spreads later to the sides (marked with arrows). The defect diameter is approximately 28 mm. Such damage can occur due to car tyre hitting the kerbstone. Afterwards, a drop in the air pressure occurs along with possible rusting of steel wires in the tyre coating which can even lead to separation of small pieces from the car tyre profile. It is an extremely dangerous damage, mainly when driving at high speed. 2. Car tyre cross-section – 3D view (Fig. 9, on the left), the arrow marks the place of circular shape where extraneous object penetrated/pierced the sidewall of the car tyre. In the centre of the picture, the cross-section of the pierce through in the tread and its spreading downwards is shown. Crosssection A-A in Fig. 9 on the right, shows the cross-sectional diameter of the pierce through/penetration equal to 5.24 mm. Such damage can occur as a result of mutual interaction of a sharp edge of the object and the car tyre. It can result in a sudden drop of air pressure with subsequent fatal results at high speed. 404
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Fig. 8. Defect in the car tyre pattern.
Fig. 9. Image showing a pierce through of a car tyre.
3. Crack in the direction of car tyre rotation – in Fig. 10 on the left, the crack on the sidewall of the tyre in tyre rotation direction is shown. Fig. 10, on the right, shows the occurrence of a visible crack in the entire thickness of the car tyre and the damage is also present on the inside of it (marked with an arrow). The crack spreads slightly to the sides of the car tyre, its length being 52.66 mm. Such damage occurs after the interaction of the car tyre sidewall with the elevated road edge, kerbstone or after driving onto a place where road is seriously damaged. This can result in worse car stability and its maneuverability, often accompanied by a complete air pressure loss and tyre disc damage. 4. Crack perpendicular to the direction of car tyre rotation – in Fig. 11, on the left, the crack perpendicular to the car tyre rotation direction is shown. In Fig. 11, on the right, the cross-section image shows a crack visible in the entire thickness of the car tyre sidewall, not spreading to the sides. The crack length is 27.43 mm. Such damage can occur due to not enough inflated tyres of an
Fig. 10. Crack in the direction of car tyre rotation. 405
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Fig. 11. Crack perpendicular to car tyre rotation direction.
overloaded car. The first phase can involve a bulge which gradually gets larger. The second option is the failure within the inner tyre structure. Ignoring of failure can lead to a car tyre disruption. 5. Tear off of car tyre part – in Figs. 12–14, a section of car tyre with a torn-off part and a crack near the wheel disk is shown. A, B, C locations depict the analyzed areas. Fig. 12 shows the reconstruction in two views to see the overall damage. Fig. 13, on the left, shows the cut in the point of cracking. The surface of the crack is smooth with signs of crack propagation in the material of the car tyre (marked with arrows). Fig. 13, on the right, shows the cut location. Fig. 14, on the left, shows the analyzed areas. This is the place where the torn-off part of the car tyre starts occurring (Fig. 14, on the right). Location A shows the area near the disk, the missing part of the rubber is visible (compared to Fig. 13). Place B (Fig. 12, Fig. 14) shows the separated parts of the car tyre and place C shows the missing part of the tyre on its side wall. Such damage can be triggered by improper geometry of the wheel, when the wheel has an excessive lean to one side and the strain shows on the car tyre bead.
5. Conclusions The process of failure analysis of car tyres is demanding not only to implement but also to process individual results. Good and clear understanding of individual changes, processes and identification of the different categories of defects requires methods and procedures based on 3D approach. Such an option is currently available when employing the method of industrial metrotomography. For its use, however, it is necessary to be aware of its limits, possibilities of car tyre damage processes analysis and identification of individual types of defects. Within the framework of presented research, the basic types of defects were analyzed in terms of their detection and realization of basic types of metrological operations. The results of experiments revealed the existence of various disorders and limitations, the existence of which is a consequence of the mutual interaction of the used analytical technology and the construction of the car tyre. However, their identification is necessary for the results of analytical processes to be valid and relevant. The results of such analyzes can then be the basis for expanding the knowledge base and for better understanding of car tyre damaging processes. On the basis of analyses results, we can conclude that the method of industrial metrotomography is suitable for application in the field of investigation of processes of car tyres damaging and that the identified undesirable accompanying phenomena does not ultimately affect the accuracy, validity and reliability of the performed analytical processes.
Fig. 12. 3D reconstruction of a car tyre. 406
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Fig. 13. Crack near the car tyre edge.
Fig. 14. Analysis of various sections of the crack.
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