Fatty acid composition of sweet bakery goods and chocolate products and evaluation of overall nutritional quality in relation to the food label information

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 88 (2020) 103438

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Original Research Article

Fatty acid composition of sweet bakery goods and chocolate products and evaluation of overall nutritional quality in relation to the food label information

T

Perihan Yolci Omeroglua,*, Tugba Ozdalb a b

Bursa Uludag University, Faculty of Agriculture, Food Engineering Department, 16059, Gorukle Campus, Bursa, Turkey Istanbul Okan University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, 34959, Akfirat, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Food analysis Food composition Fatty acid Bakery products Chocolate products Erucic acid Trans fatty acid Nutrition

The study aimed to determine fatty acid (FA) composition of some sweet bakery goods and chocolate products on Turkey market (n = 35) and to evaluate their overall nutritional quality in relation with the nutritional facts on the label. Moreover,“trans fatty acid (TFA)-free” declaration on the label was checked with the current labelling regulations in Turkey. Majority of the sample groups represented the prevalence of palmitic and oleic acid; on the other hand, it was difficult to specify a sample group with a specific FA. Erucic acid, for which European Commission set maximum limits, was not detected in any of the samples. It was observed that total saturated fatty acids (SFA) constituted more than 44 % of total FA. In all cases, total TFA content was lower than 1 % of total FA. Based on nutritional facts on the label, that type of products provide higher energy with the main source of fat and carbohydrates. Therefore, consumption of those products in a diet should be limited not to gain an excess amount of body weight and to have adverse health effects related to higher SFA content. This study can be regarded as a case surveillance study by providing updated data that can be used by Nutritionals and authorities to make risk assessments on consumer health.

1. Introduction The sweet bakery goods and chocolate products are the most preferred food categories for consumption by customers worldwide due to their practicality, good sensory acceptance and long shelf life period (Dias et al., 2015; Albuquerque et al., 2017). Along with the other ingredients, fats and oils including butter, margarine, shortening and vegetable oils have been used alone or as a mixture at different ratios in bakery production for many years (Zhou et al., 2014). Their main functions in the products include enabling acceptable structure and flavour providing energy as 37 kJ/g and facilitating the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (Aranceta and PerezRodrigo, 2012; Wassel, 2014). It has been known that the functionality of fats and oils both in the product and on the human health depends on their physical properties, and chemical and fatty acid compositions (Devi and Khatkar, 2018). For instance, hydrogenated shortenings are generally used to provide desired sensory attributes, texture and rheology in the final products, whereas they can result in some health problems due to their saturated (SFA) and possible trans fatty acid content (TFA) (Dogan et al., 2007).

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The reported studies revealed that unsaturated fats including cismonounsaturated (MUFA) and cis-polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids have hypo-cholesterolemic effects, whereas SFAs increase total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein levels. In addition, SFAs have effects on coagulation, inflammation, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular systems of human bodies (Aranceta and Perez-Rodrigo, 2012; Calder, 2015). Moreover TFAs, which are unsaturated fatty acids containing at least one methylene carbon-carbon group in trans configuration, lead to health disorders including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, breast cancer, prostate, cancer infertility, and coronary artery disease (Abd El-Aal et al., 2019; Islam et al., 2019). European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies proposed that in a daily diet, maximum 35 % of total calorie should be derived from fat. The Panel recommends that SFA content on a diet should be as low as possible; on the other hand the Panel proposes not to set any Dietary Reference Value for total MUFAs and total PUFAs (EFSA, 2017). European Commission has already set a maximum limit of trans fat, other than trans fat naturally occurring in fat of animal origin in food, as 2 g/100 g of total fat (European Union Commission (EU), 2019).

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Yolci Omeroglu), [email protected] (T. Ozdal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2020.103438 Received 21 February 2019; Received in revised form 30 December 2019; Accepted 27 January 2020 Available online 30 January 2020 0889-1575/ © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 88 (2020) 103438

P. Yolci Omeroglu and T. Ozdal

Table 1 Sample and sampling details. Sample Category

Branda

Sample Details (Sample No)

Number of unit in a composite sample

Biscuit (B) (n = 13)

A A A A A A A B B B B B B A A A A A A A C D E A

Chocolate coated, marshmallow and coconut biscuit (1) Cocoa biscuit with cream filling (2) Oated biscuit (3) Milk chocolate biscuit including higher fibre (4) Plain finger biscuit (5) Whole wheat bakery biscuit (6) Walnut and chocolate coated crispy biscuit (7) Biscuit with hazelnut cream (8) Biscuit with plain cream (9) Biscuit with chocolate sticks (10) Biscuit with hazelnut (11) Oated biscuit (12) Whole wheat biscuit (13) Cake filled with thick chocolate (14) Cake with banana (15) Cake with chocolate sauce and hazelnut (16) Chocolate coated cream filled cake (17) Chocolate coated cream and caramel filled cake (18) Cake with fruits (19) Cake with orange (20) Cake filled with chocolate sauce (21) Croissant filled with chocolate cream (22) Croissant filled with apricot marmalade (23) Whole wheat flour cookie with oatmeal, peanut, dried fig, cinnamon, sun flower seed and sesame (24) Tart filled with raspberry marmalade (25) Whole wheat flour cookie with oatmeal, peanut and cacao (26) Apple pie with cinnamon (27) Chocolate coated bar with peach and coconut (28) Milk chocolate coated corn and wheat flakes, coconut and lemonade bar (29) Milk chocolate coated milk and nougat bar (30) Milk chocolate filled with raspberry cream (31) Chocolate coated caramel filled bar (32) Caramel waffles filled with 50 % caramel containing 12 % butter (33) Waffle filled with chocolate and nut (34) Cocoa waffle with coconut cream (35)

7 6 4 6 4 4 9 7 7 6 3 6 6 14 14 3 10 10 14 14 16 3 11 3

Cake and Croissant (CC) (n = 10)

Cookie, Pie&tart (CPT) (n = 4)

Chocolate, Nougat & Chocolate Bar (CNCB) (n = 5)

Waffle (WL) (n = 3)

a

A A D A A B B B A B F

3 3 10 15 15 20 11 10 4 3 4

Due to confidentially reason, the name of the trademarks have been changed by letters from A to F.

about fatty acid composition and total fat content of food is important to estimate daily intake correctly (Albuquerque et al., 2017). Moreover, the market based surveys should be performed to control the producers about the declaration of TFA content (Demir and Tasan, 2019) and fatty acid composition of fats/oils (Vicario et al., 2003) on the label correctly. To the best of our knowledge, there isn’t any national nutritional survey carried out before to determine the food categories contributing most to the fat consumption in Turkey. It is stated in Turkish National Nutritional Guideline (Anon, 2016) that sweet bakery goods and chocolate products contains higher amount of saturated fats and sugar, and their consumption should be reduced in the daily diet. There are limited reported studies on investigation of nutritional quality of fatty acid profiles of bakery and chocolate products consumed in Turkey (Daglioglu et al., 2000; Karabulut, 2007; Cakmak et al., 2011; Daglioglu et al., 2002; Demir and Tasan, 2019). Moreover, there isn’t any reported study that evaluates the nutritional quality of those types of products in relation to nutritional facts. The aim of this study were to determine fatty acid (FA) compositions of some sweet bakery goods and chocolate products on Turkey market (n = 35) and to evaluate their overall nutritional quality in relation with the nutritional facts on the label. Moreover,“trans fatty acid-free” declaration on the label was checked with the current labelling regulations in Turkey.

Increased consumer concern on health issues creates a challenge for bakery industry to revise their traditional recipes to produce foods with a low fat content, preferably mainly constituted by higher MUFA and PUFA level and lower TFA level. While achieving to formulize healthy products, but also they have to maintain high quality standards, namely concerning organoleptic features of their products (Tarancón et al., 2013; Wassel, 2014). Conscious consumers make a choice between different types of products on the market based on their labels. Therefore, the industry should also comply with the European Union Regulation 1169/2011 (European Union Commision (EU), 2011) specifying the criteria for nutrition fact declaration on the label. That criteria include energy value and the amounts of fat, saturates, carbohydrate, sugars, protein and salt. Information on MUFA, PUFA, polyols, starch, fibre, vitamins and minerals can be given in addition. In addition, the list of vegetable origin of oil and fat used in the production should be declared. In Turkey, if a food product contains total TFA more than 2 g/100 g of fat, its content should be stated on food label (Anon, 2017a). Furthermore, in order to make “trans fatty acid- free” declaration on the label, trans fatty acid content should be less than 1 g/100 g of total fat in the product (Anon, 2017b). There are some studies reported in literature on fatty acid composition of bakery and chocolate products (Parcerisa et al., 1999; Juan, 2000; Vicario et al., 2003; Martin et al., 2005; Caponio et al., 2008; Handa et al., 2010; Dias et al., 2015; Saadeh et al., 2015; Torres-Moreno et al., 2015; Trattner et al., 2015; Costa et al., 2016), whereas there are only two papers that compare nutritional issues in terms of salt along with fatty acid content (Albuquerque et al., 2017, 2018). Recent data

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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 88 (2020) 103438

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2. Material and method

2.3. Moisture content determination

2.1. Sampling and grinding

Moisture content of cake, croissant, tart and pie type samples was determined by vacuum oven (Memmert V09, Schwabach, Germany) at 100 °C temperature and at a pressure not exceeding 13.5 kPa for 4 h (International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2015). Moisture determination of chocolate, chocolate and nougat bars was performed at 103 ± 2 °C (Turkish Standardization Organization (TSE, 2010). For biscuit, cookie and waffle, the drying condition was changed as 130 ± 2 °C based on the method adopted from ISO 712 (2009).

In the scope of this study, 35 different types of sweet bakery goods and chocolate products under the category of ‘biscuits (B)’, ‘cookies, pies and tarts (CPT)’, ‘cakes and croissants (CC)’, ‘waffles (WF)’ and ‘chocolate and chocolate nougat bars (CCNB)’ were selected. Since there isn’t any specific sectorial consumption/selling rates based on specific type of products and brands, samples within each group were mainly selected based on distribution channels of the brands, appearance, ingredients, fat type used in the production, production techniques, nutritional facts given on the food label, and the consultation with the selling supervisors in the retailers. To create wide range of diversity within a group with a limited number of samples, the same type of products was sampled once. Based on those criteria, samples produced by six well known national and international brands were purchased randomly from four different leading retailers in Turkey in 2017. Depending on the package weight of a sample unit, 3–20 units in equal weight were collected to constitute at least 500 g of a composite sample for each type of the product. Palm, sunflower, corn, cotton, coconut, canola, and cacao fat were indicated on the label as vegetable origin of oils and fats used in the production. On the other hand, the percentage of each type of fat and oil in the formulation was not indicated. All samples were labelled with “trans fatty acid-free “declaration. Sampling details are given in Table 1. Each composite sample was transferred in to laboratory in its original package and was kept at its storage conditions till grinding. All analyses were carried out before the expiry date stated on the package. Prior to analyses, each composite sample except from CCNB group was individually grinded at 10,000 rpm for 1−2 min with a grinder (Retsch GM200, Haan, Germany) capable of producing final particle size less than 300 μm. CCBN composite samples were first left in a refrigerator to be hardened followed by grinding.

2.4. Fat content determination In order to release bound fat and convert salts of fatty acids to free acids, total fat was determined by an acid hydrolysis method (Nordic Commitee on Food Analysis (NMKL, 1998) with 2 M of 37 % Hydrochloric acid solution and petroleum ether in an automatic fat extractor (Velp SER148/6, Usmate, Italy). The extracted fat was also used for determination of fatty acid compositions as explained in the following section. 2.5. Preparation of methyl esters of fatty acids Methyl esters were formed rapidly by trans methylation method under alkaline conditions (methanolic potassium hydroxide) (International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2014a,b,c). 0.1 g of fat extracted from the sample was weighted in to 2 ml screw capped test tube. Sample was dissolved in 2 ml heptane followed by shaking vigorously for few minutes. 0.2 ml of 2 N potassium hydroxide in methanol solution was added for methylation of fatty acids. Following the centrifugation of the solution at 4500−5000 rpm (Sigma 2−16 P, Osterode, Germany), the upper clear supernatant which included methyl ester of fatty acids was transferred to gas chromatography (GC) vials. The vials were kept at refrigerator for maximum 12 h, if the analysis was not performed subsequently. Agilent 7890A Series GC with flame ionization detector (FID) (Little Falls, USA) equipped with HP-88 capillary column of 100 m, 0.25 mm i.d., and 0.20 μm film thickness (Agilent, Little Falls, USA) was used for identification and determination of FAMEs composition in the sample. The injections were performed using a split ratio of 50:1. Helium was used as carrier and make-up gases at 29.061 ml/min. Hydrogen and dry air were used as flame gases and set at maximum flow rate of 30 ml/ min, and 400 ml/min, respectively. All gases were provided with higher purity. The injector and detector temperatures were 250 °C and 255 °C, respectively. The oven was programmed at an initial temperature of 130 °C and a subsequent increase to 170 °C with 4 °C /min. In the next step, temperature was increased to 215 °C with 1.7 °C /min ramp holding 20 min at the same temperature, and finally increased to 240 °C

2.2. Chemicals and standards All chemicals and reagents used in the study were of analytical grade and obtained from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). The reference standard of the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Supelco 37 Component FAME mix, Darmstad, Germany) and kept at −20 °C. The weight fraction of each FAME in the mixture changed between 2%–6%. Depending on the targeted concentration level, the reference of the mixture was diluted in chloroform and was kept at −20 °C till needed.

Fig. 1. Typical chromatogram of reference standard mixture of fatty acid methyl esters and their retention time in minute. (1) C4:0 (9.720); (2) C6:0 (9.926); (3) C8:0 (10.841); (4) C10:0 (12.387); (5) C11:0 (13.452); (6) C12:0 (14.728); (7) C13:0 (16.219); (8) C14:0 (17.927); (9) C14:1 (19.397); (10) C15:0 (19.843); (11) C15:1 (21.479); (12) C16:0 (21.962); (13) C16:1 (23.438); (14) C17:0 (24.263); (15) C17:1 (25.847); (16) C18:0 (26.724); (17) C18:1n9t (27.688); (18) C18:1n9c (28.176); (19) C18:2n6t (29.308); (20) C18:2n6c (30.448); (21) C20:0 (32.002); (22) C18:3n6 (32.131); (23) C20:1 (33.178); (24) C18:3n3 (33.537); (25) C21:0 (34.752); (26) C20:2 (35.946); (27) C22:0 (37.562); (28) C20:3 n6 (37.716); (29) C20:3n3 (39.115); (30) C22:1n9 (39.240); (31) C20:4 n6 (39.550); (32) C23:0 (40.618); (33) C22:2 (42.053); (34) C20:5 n3 (42.540) (35) C24:0 (44.059); (36) C24:1 (45.659);(37) C22:6n3 (46.693).

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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 88 (2020) 103438

P. Yolci Omeroglu and T. Ozdal

Fig. 2. Typical chromatogram of milk chocolate filled with raspberry cream. The numbers shows the individual fatty acids shown in Fig. 1. (1) C4:0; (2) C6:0; (3) C8:0; (4) C10:0; (5) C11:0; (6) C12:0; (8) C14:0; (9) C14: (10) C15:0; (12) C16:0; (13) C16:1; (14) C17:0; (15) C17:1; (16) C18:0; (18) C18:1n9c; (20) C18:2n6c; (21) C20:0; (22) C18:3n6; (24) C18:3n3;(27) C22:0; (35) C24:0.

2006). To assess the trueness of the analytical methods used in the scope of the study, two quality control (QC) sample certified for C16:00, C18:0, C18:2, and C18:3 (vegetable oil-FAPAS T1414QC, and infant formulaFAPAS T14145C, United Kingdom) and a QC sample certified for moisture content at 130 °C (International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2009) (wheat flour-FAPAS T2461QC, United Kingdom) were analysed. The average results obtained at the laboratory lied between the ranges of the assigned values given on the certificates. It was concluded that there were no significant differences between the assigned values of QC sample and the average results obtained at the laboratory. Moreover, the relative bias ranged between -0.15 % and -3.06 % (Magnusson and Örnemak, 2014) (Supplement Table 1). Each analysis was performed in duplicate measurements. The acceptability criteria were based on the precision limits (repeatability limit, r) (Magnusson and Örnemak, 2014). If the difference between two measurements was less than the limits, accordingly the results from duplicate analysis of the sample were accepted at 95 % confidence level. As a summary, the analytical results obtained in the scope of the study were evaluated as reliable and acceptable.

with 100 °C /min ramping holding for 1 min (Fig. 1).The injection volume was 0.2 μm and the run was occurred at constant pressure of 242 kPa. Fig. 2 shows typical chromatogram of a sample analysed (milk chocolate filled with raspberry cream). 2.6. Calculation of the composition of fatty acid methyl esters The individual FAMEs were identified by their retention time and in comparisons with FAME reference standards. Accordingly, the percentage area of an individual FAME in a sample was calculated from the ratio between the area of individual FAME and the sum of areas under all peaks of all individual FAMEs (International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2014c). Fatty acids excluding TFA were grouped into three fractions: SFA, MUFA and PUFA containing no double bonds, a single double bond and two or more double bonds, respectively (Schwingshackl and Hoffmann, 2012). To express total SFA, MUFA, PUFA and TFA in a sample, the percentage areas of all individual FAMEs classified under the related fractions were summed up. It was assumed that the ratio of peak areas of FAMEs was approximately identical to ratio of their mass fractions (International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 2014c). Therefore, total percentage area of SFA, MUFA and PUFA were also converted to grams per 100 g sample by taking into account the fat content of the sample.

2.9. Statistical analysis of the results The existence of difference between groups in terms of determined fatty acid composition and nutritional acts on the label were evaluated by one-way ANOVA followed by post-hoc Duncan comparison tests. The difference between average results obtained at laboratory and assigned values provided on the certificates of QC samples was assessed by student-t test. Tukey comparison tests. Statistical significance was defined for p < 0.05 for all analyses. All statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS software (IBM Statistic 23).

2.7. Nutritional facts Nutritional facts including energy, protein, salt, carbohydrate, fibre and sugar contents were based on the information given on the label. The fat and moisture content of the sample were analysed in the laboratory according to the method described in Sections 2.3 and 2.4. 2.8. Reliability of the methods

3. Results Reliability of the analytical results was provided by applying preverified analytical methods based on international guideline (Magnusson and Örnemak, 2014). The representative coefficient of variances of repeatability (CVr) and within-laboratory reproducibility (intermediate precision, CVi) values for fatty acid composition analysis method ranged between 0.21–5.26 % and 0.32–7.03 %, respectively. Limit of detection (LOD) of the method was obtained as 0.05 %. The representative CVr and CVi values for moisture and fat content analysis ranged between 0.55 %–1.62 % and 1.40 %–1.97 %, respectively. CVr and CVi values of each method were less than the corresponding parameter indicated in the reference method (Sections 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5). If reference method did not include corresponding value, the fitness for purposes was checked with the HORRAT value which is a guide parameter to determine acceptability of a method (Horwitz and Albert,

3.1. Fatty acid profile The average fatty acid content of different sample group is presented in Table 2. Moreover, individual sample results are provided in Supplement Tables 2–4. The majority of the analysed sample group (B, CPT, CCNB, WF) showed a prevalence of SFA in their composition above 50 % of total fatty acids. The lowest level was obtained for CC group (44 % of total fatty acids). There is a statistically significant difference between WF and CCNB and the other groups. The highest mean total SFA content (72.8 % of total fatty acids) was observed in WF group. In our study, the MUFA contents of all samples were below the total SFA contents and did not show significant differences between 4 groups including B, CPT, 4

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 88 (2020) 103438

P. Yolci Omeroglu and T. Ozdal

Table 2 Average fatty acids composition (expressed as % of total fatty acid) and standard deviation for the five groups of sample (diff ;erent superscript letters in the same row indicate the existence ofsignificant (p < 0.05) diff ;erences between the groups). Biscuits (B)1 Saturated Fatty Acids- SFA C4:0 0.1 ± 0.1b C6:0 0.1 ± 0.1c C8:0 0.5 ± 0.5b C10:0 0.5 ± 0.4b C11:0 < LODa,6 C12:0 4.7 ± 3.2b C13:0 < LODa C14:0 2.7 ± 1.2b C15:0 0.1 ± 0b C16:0 37.6 ± 4.4a C17:0 0.1 ± 0.1b C18:0 8.2 ± 5.8b C20:0 0.4 ± 0.1b C21:0 < LODa C22:0 0.1 ± 0.1a C23:0 < LODa C24:0 0.10 ± 0.06ab Total SFA 54.9 ± 7.9b Monounsaturated Fatty Acids- MUFA C14:1 < LODa C15:1 < LODa C16:1 0.2 ± 0b C17:1 < LODa C18:1n9cis 34.4 ± 4.4ab C20:1 0.1 ± 0.1b C22:1n9 < LODa C24:1 < LODa Total MUFA 34.7 ± 4.5a Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids- PUFA C18:2n6cis 9.9 ± 4.4a C20:2 < LODa C22:2 < LODa C18:3n3 0.3 ± 0.2ab C18:3n6 0.1 ± 0.1a C20:3n3 < LODa C20:3n6 < LODa C20:4n6 < LODa C20:5n3 < LODa C22:6n3 < LODa Total PUFA 10.1 ± 3.5a Trans FattyAcids- TFA C18:1n9trans < LODa C18:2n6trans 0.1 ± 0a Total TFA 0.1 ± 0a 1 2 3 4 5 6

Cookie, pie&tart (CPT)2

Cake and croissant (CC)3

Waffle (WF)4

Chocolate, chocolate&nougat bar (CCNB)5

0.1 ± 0.2ab 0.1 ± 0.2c 0.3 ± 0.2b 0.6 ± 0.2b < LODa 3.4 ± 1.8b < LODa 2.4 ± 0.8b 0.1 ± 0b 38.6 ± 0.2a 0.1 ± 0.1b 5.9 ± 0.4b 0.4 ± 0.1b < LODa 0.2 ± 0.2a < LODa 0.2 ± 0.2a 52.1 ± 4.2b

0.1 ± 0b 0.1 ± 0c 0.3 ± 0.3b 0.3 ± 0.2b < LODa 3.3 ± 4.0b < LODa 1.9 ± 1.4b 0.1 ± 0b 30.7 ± 13.2ab 0.1 ± 0b 7.3 ± 1.1b 0.4 ± 0.1b < LODa 0.1 ± 0.1a < LODa 0.1 ± 0ab 44.6 ± 15.6ab

< LODb 0.5 ± 0.1a 3.1 ± 2.5a 2.8 ± 1.9a 0.1 ± 0a 21.7 ± 18.3a < LODa 10.5 ± 6.4a 0.2 ± 0.1a 24.5 ± 13.0c 0.1 ± 0.1b 9.1 ± 0.5b 0.3 ± 0.1c < LODa 0.1 ± 0a < LODa < LODb 72.8 ± 15.6a

0.2 ± 0.1a 0.3 ± 0.2b 1.2 ± 1.1b 1.1 ± 0.9b < LODa 7.9 ± 7.0b < LODa 4.5 ± 2.2b 0.2 ± 0.1a 29.8 ± 2.1bc 0.2 ± 0a 22.1 ± 3.4a 0.8 ± 0.1a < LODa 0.1 ± 0a < LODa 0.1 ± 0ab 68.3 ± 5.1a

0.1 ± 0a < LODa 0.2 ± 0.1ab < LODa 37.4 ± 4.6ab 0.32 ± 0.31a < LODa < LODa 38.0 ± 5.0a

< LODa < LODa 0.4 ± 0.1a < LODa 41.3 ± 9.9a 0.36 ± 0.40ab < LODa < LODa 42.2 ± 10.5a

0.44 ± 0.14b < LODa 0.3 ± 0.2ab < LODa 20.2 ± 13.8c 0.1 ± 0.1ab < LODa < LODa 20.6 ± 14.b

< LODa < LODa 0.3 ± 0.1ab < LODa 28 ± 4.2b 0.1 ± 0b < LODa < LODa 28.4 ± 4.2a

9.6 ± 2.4a < LODa < LODa 0.3 ± 0.1ab 0.1 ± 0.1a < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa 9.9 ± 2.4a

11.4 ± 3.0a < LODa < LODa 1.7 ± 2.7a 0.1 ± 0a < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa 13.1 ± 5.5a

6.0 ± 3.1ab < LODa < LODa 0.4 ± 0.5ab < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa 6.3 ± 3.6ab

3.1 ± 1.5b < LODa < LODa 0.1 ± 0b < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa < LODa 3.1 ± 1.5b

< LODa 0.1 ± 0a 0.1 ± 0.2a

< LODa 0.1 ± 0a 0.1 ± 0a

< LODa < LODa < LODa

< LODa < LODa < LODa

n = 13 (n is the number of the composite sample analyzed within each group). n = 4. n = 10. n = 4. n = 5. For statistical calculations LOD (Limit of detection) replaced by 0.05 % and if the average results was less than 0.05 %, the result was reported as < LOD.

For the majority of groups, the third fatty acid that showed high prevalence was linoleic acid (C18:2cis) ranged from 6.0%–11.4 % of the total fatty acids, with the exception of two groups including WF and CCNB that included higher content of stearic acid (C18:0) than linoleic acid. The stearic acid contents of all groups investigated in the scope of this study were ranged from 5.9%–22.1 % of the total fatty acids. The CCNB have statistically higher stearic acid values than other four groups. Another fatty acid that showed high prevalence was lauric acid (C12:0) ranged from 3.3%–21.7% of total fatty acids. The lauric acid value of WF group was statistically higher than other four groups and it was found even higher than oleic acid and linoleic acid (C18:2n6cis) in this group. Besides, CCNB have also higher lauric acid contents than linoleic acid contents. In addition, myristic (C14:0) acid is another fatty acid that showed higher prevalence ranged from 1.9%–10.5 % of total fatty

CC and CCNB. However, the MUFA content of WF group was lower significantly than those groups. Regarding the PUFA content, the CCNB was significantly lower than 3 groups including B, CPT and CC groups. Total TFA was not detected in WF and CCNB groups, and total TFA showed prevalence lower than 0.2 % of total fatty acids for the rest of the sample groups. The majority of the sample groups represented prevalence of palmitic acid (C16:0), ranged from 24.5%–38.6 % of the total fatty acids, followed by oleic acid (C18:1) with 20.2 %–41.3 % proportion. The only exceptions were found in CC group where oleic acid was the main fatty acid. The lowest oleic acid values were observed in WF group, where lauric acid (C12:0) was the predominant in the group with an average level of 21.7 %. The higher variation within the group was resulted from the sample defined as “Caramel waffle filled with 50 % caramel containing 12 % butter” with a lower lauric acid (1.3 %) and highest oleic acid (34.6 %) and palmitic acid (39.3 %) level.

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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 88 (2020) 103438

P. Yolci Omeroglu and T. Ozdal

Fig. 3. Comparison of average moisture, fat content and fatty acid composition of different food groups analyzed in the study (┬ and ┴are error bars) (different letters for each group indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between the groups). SFA: saturated fatty acids; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids.

CCNB groups were found to be significant and the lowest and highest sugar content was found to be in CC and CCNB groups, respectively. Moreover, there was no statistically significant difference between fibre contents of all groups. The highest fibre content was found in a biscuit sample which was a milk chocolate biscuit including high fibre and contained fibre at 6.3 g/100 g level. It was followed by oated biscuit and whole wheat biscuit with a fibre content above 5 g/100 g. Furthermore, there were no statistically significant differences between protein contents of all groups. The highest value was found in oated biscuits.

acids. WF group have statistically higher results than other fatty acids according to their myristic acid contents and it was higher than stearic acid content. WF have also statistically higher contents of caprylic acids (C8:0) and capric acid (C10:0) contents compared to other groups. Trans C18:1n9 was not detected in any of the products and trans C18:2n6 was not detected in WF and CCNB groups (LOD is 0.05 % of total fatty acids), and it showed prevalence lower than 0.2 % of total fatty acids for the rest of the sample groups. Erucic acid was not detected at all. 3.2. Overall nutritional quality in relation to the food label

4. Discussion Overall nutritional quality of the sample groups investigated in the scope of the study was evaluated based on the nutritional facts on their labels and the fat, moisture and SFA, MUFA, PUFA and TFA levels determined in the laboratory. The comparison of average moisture, fat content and nutritional fatty acid fractions of different food groups analysed in the study were presented in Fig. 3 in g/100 g sample unit. Regarding moisture content, the differences between mean values of B, WF and CCNB groups were found to be insignificant. However, the mean values of CPT and CC groups were showed significant differences from the others. The obtained results indicated that the highest moisture content was found in CC group ranged, while the lowest content found in B. The lowest amount of fat was found in plain finger biscuits (14.52 g/100 g) and the highest amount in milk chocolate filled with raspberry cream (33.4 g/100 g). On the other hand, the differences among the mean fat contents were found statistically insignificant. The mean total SFA, MUFA, and PFA contents ranged between 10.4–17.5 g/ 100 g sample, 4.3–9.4 g/100 g sample, 0.7–2.8 g/100 g sample, respectively. The total SFA level in all samples constitutes more than MUFA and PUFA levels. The MUFA/SFA and PUFA/SFA ratios for all sample groups ranged from 0.3 to 0.9, and from 0 to 0.3, respectively. The lowest MUFA/SFA and PUFA/SFA ratios were obtained for WF and CCBT groups, respectively. The highest MUFA/SFA and PUFA/SFA ratios were obtained for B and CC, respectively. Since TFA showed negligible prevalence for all sample groups, it was not included in the Fig. 3. Nutritional facts including energy, salt, carbohydrate, fiber, and protein based on labels are presented in Fig. 4. CC group have the lowest energy content compared to other groups and their energy content shows statistically significant differences compared to other groups. The highest energy value yielded for CCNB group as 2625 kJ/ 100 g. There are no significant differences between all products in the scope of the study in terms of their salt contents. The maximum salt content is around 0.9 g/100 g. The highest carbohydrate content was found in B group and its carbohydrate content was significant from other groups. The differences between sugar contents of CC, W, and

4.1. Common fatty acids in sample groups As shown in Table 2, caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid and myristic acid were mainly observed in WF groups. Vegetable fat, originated from coconut oil or palm kernel oil, has a higher ratio of caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid and myristic acid (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2003; Marina et al., 2009). Karabulut also (2007) reported that lauric acid was a predominant fatty acid in palm kernel oil and as its content is also rich in coconut oil. Animal fats such as butter contains those short and medium chain fatty acids (Ozcan et al., 2016). Eventhough, there is no information on the labels regarding the fractions and the percentage of palm oil used in the formulations, it can be indicated that WF group is differentiated from others with the vegetable and animal fat used in their formulations (Vicario et al., 2003). Stearic acid differentiates CCBT groups from the others probably due to the cacao levels in the formulations and the higher stearic acid content of cacoa beans (Torres-Moreno et al., 2015). B and CPT groups have similar fatty acid compositions especially with their palmitic and oleic acid contents. Those fatty acids are specific to palm oils. Actually, those fatty acid are also predominant in animal fat (Ozcan et al., 2016), but due to its higher price they are not used commonly in the production of bakery products (Vicario et al., 2003). CC group has a slight difference in its stearic, oleic and linolenic acid compositions from B and CPT groups due to the compositional difference in its vegetable oil fractions (Vicario et al., 2003). According to the labels, palm, canola, cotton, and sunflower, were indicated as the main vegetable origin of fats and oils used in the productions with ratio of 92 %, 88 %, 74 %, and 62 %, respectively. Corn, butter and cacao fat were choosed for production of CCBT and WF groups in addition to other types of fats and oils. Actually, it should be stated that in a mix of fats and oils with overlapping FA profiles and the limited number of samples, it is very difficult to specify a sample group with a specific FA. In our study, the standard deviations of the mean fatty acids were high for some sample groups and it shows that there is a great variability within the same 6

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Fig. 4. Nutritional facts stated on the labels of the food groups analyzed (B:biscuit; CPT: cookie, pie&tart; CC: cake and croissant; WF: waffle; CCNB: chocolate, chocolate&nougat bars) (┬ and ┴; maximum and minimum values; blocks represents 25th&75th percentile of the values; the horizontal line in the middle of the blocks represents the mean values) (different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between the groups).

have observed that linoleic acid was the third fatty acid in the bakery and pastry products, representing 8–24 % of their profile with the exception of coated oated cookies that have a high percentage of stearic acid (C18:0) than linoleic acid and lauric acid. In comparision to our results with the previous studies conducted in Turkey, Daglioglu et al. (2000,2002) and Demir and Tasan (2019) revealed that biscuits and cakes contained considerable amounts of fat, mainly composed of palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids. Daglioglu et al. (2000) reported that palmitic and stearic acids (16.9 %–41.5 % and 4.5–8.4 %, respectively) were the major saturated fatty acids, oleic and linoleic acids (23.5 %–40.6 %, and 5 %–18.5 %, respectively) were major unsaturated fatty acids. All those findings are in the accordance with our study. Erucic acid (C22:1n9) which occurs at high concentrations mainly in the seeds of species of the Brassicaceae (e.g. rape seed) (EFSA, 2016) was not detected (< 0.05 % of total FA) in any of the sample analysed within the scope of this study. The same findings were reported by Ansorena et al. (2013). Due to its health effect under chronic exposure, EU set maximum limits for erucic acid in foods (European Union Commission (EU), 2014). According to risk assessment report released by EFSA (2016), fine bakery foods were defined as the main contributor to erucic acid exposure for humans. On the other hand, odur results can be attributed to the selection of canola oil with low erucic acid level in formulations (Wendlinger et al., 2014; EFSA, 2016). Natural TFAs (composed of mainly vaccanic acid, C18:1n11trans) occur naturally by bio hydrogenation process in ruminant meat and dairy products at trace amounts. On the other hand TFAs (mainly elaidic acid, 18:1n9trans) occur in industrially produced partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (Trattner et al., 2015; Handa et al., 2010; Saadeh et al., 2015). Moreover, the deodorization step in the refining of oils leads to the formation of di-trans (C18:2trans and C18:3trans) and mono-trans isomers (C18:1trans) of PUFA while partial hydrogenation of oils results in the production of chiefly mono trans isomers of the

product groups on the market due to the type and compositional differences in fats and oils used in the formulations (Daglioglu et al., 2000; Vicario et al., 2003; Caponio et al., 2008; Demir and Tasan, 2019). On the other hand, this is also due to the limited number of the sample varieties within a group. By taking the current study as a basis for the related Turkish market, future studies should be performed with a welldesigned sampling plan to cover a wider range of bakery products. In that way, more representative data for each sample group can be obtained.

4.2. Fatty acid profile The majority of the sample groups represented prevalence of palmitic acid (C16:0), and oleic acid (C18:1). In the literature, it was also reported that for bakery product there were two main predominant fatty acid; namely palmitic acid and oleic acid (Vicario et al., 2003; Caponio et al., 2008; Saadeh et al., 2015; Albuquerque et al., 2017). Dias et al. (2015) reported that palmitic acid was the most abundant fatty acid in 14 of the 19 types of biscuits. The percentage of palmitic acid ranged from 22.3 % in a chocolate sandwich with cream filling to 50.6 % in fine herbs biscuits. More recent study reported by Albuquerque et al. (2017) stated that the majority of pastry and bakery groups showed a prevalence of oleic acid, representing 33–46 % of their total fatty acids, followed by palmitic acid with a 28 %–37 % proportion. The presence of high amounts of palmitic acidis an indication of the presence of palm oil (Caponio et al., 2008). It was also reported that fatty acid profile of chocolate changing according to growing conditions of cocoa beans included mainly palmitic and stearic acids and they affected the quality characteristics of the final product (Afoakwa, 2010). The other main fatty acids that showed high prevelance in the sample groups were linoleic acid (C18:2) and lauric acid (C12:0). This is in accordance with the findings of Albuquerque et al. (2017) as they 7

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and compatible with the value given in the literature (Vicario et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2014; Torres-Moreno et al., 2015; Afoakwa, 2010; Saadeh et al., 2015) and with studies conducted in Turkey (Daglioglu et al., 2000; Demir and Tasan, 2019). It has been known that SFA, MUFA, PUFA and TFA levels in the products depends on the type of the vegetable oil/fat used in the formulation (Schwingshackl and Hoffmann, 2012). Therefore, in addition to control of fat content of a food on a diet, the fatty acid composition should be investigated. It has been known that salt is used in bakery products not only enabling salty taste for salty snacks but also increasing sweetness and decreasing metallic taste and other off flavour in bakery goods (Miller and Hoseney, 2008). There are only a few data in literature focused on salt content of bakery products, as they have focused on the fatty acid profile of those products. The salt content declared on the label is in line with the findings reported by Albuquerque et al. (2017). The highest sugar content among the others was observed for CCNB group since addition of chocolate, hazelnut cream, and marmalade to the formulations increases sugar content of the products. The increase in dietary sugar intake is highly correlated with increase in obesity, metabolic syndrome and diabetes (Johnson et al., 2013). The World Health Organization (WHO) highlighted that free sugars can cause dental and weight gain problems both in adults and children, therefore WHO recommends to decrease the free sugar in diet to < 10 % of total energy (WHO, 2015). Besides, according to dietary reference values released by EFSA (2017), an adult takes approximately 8360 kJ per day depending on the age, gender and physical activity level. It means that between 16 % and 30 % of daily energy can be gained by consumption of a 100 g of those type of products investigated in the scope of the study. Moreover, if 40 g portion of a sweet bakery good and chocolate with maximum fat content of 33 g/100 g is consumed in a day, total fat and SFA content of the product contributes 6 % and 4 % to recommended total diet energy content (EFSA, 2017), respectively. Those values are less than the maximum recomended values, but if the consumption is not limited in a daily base, than those ratio will be higher with contribution of other foods on the daily diet. Therefore, producers should try to replace or decrease fat content in the recipe with alternatives to obtain low calorie products while keeping desired quality to satisfy consumer expectation (Moriano et al., 2018).

naturally occurring cis-C18:1 (Saadeh et al., 2015). In our study, elaidic acid was not dedected in any of sample analyzed and trans linolelaidic acid (C18:2n6trans) showed negligible prevalence for majority of the samples. In comparison with international data; Martin et al. (2005) and Caponio et al. (2008) reported that biscuit sample showed high elaidic acid. Dias et al. (2015) observed that biscuits on Brazilian market contained low level of TFA (sum of elaidic and linolelaidic acid) with a ratio of 0.9 %. On the other hand in the same year, Saadeh et al. (2015) reported that elaidic acid, major TFA inbiscuits sampled from Lebanon, ranged between 0.1 % and 9 %. The studies reported by Albuquerque et al. (2017, 2018) revealed that mean TFA contents of pastry and bakery foods was below 0.2 % of their total FA. In comparision to national studies, Daglioglu et al. (2000, 2002) observed that elaidic acid was the predominant monounsaturated trans fatty acid isomer, and that trans elaidic and trans linolelaidic acid in different type of waffle, biscuit, dounut, cakes ranged between 0.5 %–24.2 % respectively. Significant differences in trans fatty acid levels among the biscuit types was attributed to different type of shortening used in the formulations. The recent study conducted by Demir and Tasan (2019) in Turkey revealed that trans eladic acid contents found in the cakes and biscuits less that 0.1 % of total FA. Due to health concerns and regulations (Anon, 2017a,b, European Union Commission (EU), 2019; Demir and Tasan, 2019), food industry has been started to replace hydrogenerated oil with tropical and fractionated tropical oils (e.g. palm oils, palm kernel oil and coconut oil), in addition to application of interesterification technique (Handa et al., 2010). The results of the studies conducted in Turkey and other countries along with our findings revelaed that the content of TFAs in bakery products has been decreased significantly throughout the years based on those applications. 4.3. Overall nutritional quality in relation to the food label Regarding the nutritional fractions of fatty acids; SFA constituted the major fractions of total FAs in bakery goods and chocolate products analysed in the scope of our study with having highest value obtained for WF and CCNB groups. In line with our study, the study reported by Albuquerque et al. (2017) revealed that 88.9 % of the analysed pastry and bakery groups showed total SFA in their composition above 40 % level and Karabulut (2007) reported that chocolate products had higher amount of SFA compared to bakery products. Eventhough majority of the studies in the literature reveals that SFA constitutes higher ratio of total FA of bakery and chocolate products (Ansorena et al., 2013; Dias et al., 2015; Santos et al., 2015; Trattner et al., 2015), Ansorena et al. (2013) have shown that a type of chocolate nut spreads had higher content of MUFA compared to other fractions. Daglioglu et al. (2000) revealed that biscuit sampled from Turkey markets in 2000 comprised SFAs ranged between 27.2–48.2 % of total FAs. This range is below our findings for biscuit (40.4–71.4 % of total FAs). Juan (2000) and Tratnerr et al. (2015) indicated that such a shift in FA can be attributed to replacement of partially hydrogenated vegetable oils with the use of vegetable fats and oils with a high level of SFA (16:0) such as palm oil, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, cocoa butter. All sample groups analysed in the scope of this study contained negligible amount of total TFA, which means that recent industry reformulations have significantly contributed to the decrease of TFA. Therefore, the products analysed within the scope of that study does not constitute any health risk in terms of TFA. On the other hand, while decreasing TFA level, it is very obvious that SFA levels increased slightly in due course. In addition, it can be claimed that all samples comply with the current legislations in terms of TFA (European Union Commission (EU), 2019; Anon, 2017a,b) and “trans fatty acid-free” declaration on the labels are verified with the experimental studies. The fat contents of samples ranged between 14.5 g/100 g and 33.4 g/100 g. Those findings are related with the type of the products

5. Conclusion This study can be attributed as a case study for analyzing fatty acid profiles of sweet bakery goods and chocolate products from Turkish market and evaluating their relations with the label information including vegetable origin of fat and oil used in the production and nutritional compositions and “trans fatty acid-free” declaration. The majority of the analysed foods showed a prevalence of total SFA in their composition above 40 % of their total fatty acid content. The major fatty acids included were palmitic and oleic acid. SFA, MUFA and PUFA levels in the products depends on the type of the vegetable oil/fat used in the formulation therefore by taking the limitations of the sensorial and textural expectations from the product by consumer, the type of the vegetable oil should be changed to get more balance in fatty acid composition. Concerning the TFA content, similarly to what happens in other countries, a significant decrease was observed along the years in Turkey, and the analysed foods had negligible amount of TFA. This indicates that the replacement of partially hydrogenated oils with new techniques was eff ;ective. Moreover, label information including nutritional facts, “trans fatty acid-free” declaration and the list of the vegetable origin of fat and oil used in the production are very useful tool for consumer to select a proper food for their healthy diet. CRediT authorship contribution statement Perihan Yolci Omeroglu: Project administration, Investigation, 8

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Writing - review & editing. Tugba Ozdal: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing.

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