Feasibility of vermicomposting for the management of terrestrial weed Ageratum conyzoides using earthworm species Eisenia fetida

Journal Pre-proof Feasibility of vermicomposting for the management of terrestrial weed Ageratum conyzoides using earthworm species Eisenia fetida Chaichi Devi, Meena Khwairakpam

PII: DOI: Reference:

S2352-1864(19)30178-6 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.100696 ETI 100696

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Environmental Technology & Innovation

Received date : 25 April 2019 Revised date : 11 February 2020 Accepted date : 24 February 2020 Please cite this article as: C. Devi and M. Khwairakpam, Feasibility of vermicomposting for the management of terrestrial weed Ageratum conyzoides using earthworm species Eisenia fetida. Environmental Technology & Innovation (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.100696. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V.

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Feasibility of vermicomposting for the management of terrestrial weed

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Ageratum conyzoides using earthworm species Eisenia fetida

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Chaichi Devia*, Meena Khwairakpamb

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a

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Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, Shillong 793003. Meghalaya, India b

Centre for Rural Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India

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ABSTRACT

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This study illustrates the feasibility of vermicomposting of an invasive terrestrial weed Ageratum

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conyzoides for environment and economic benefits. This study presents the different mix

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proportion of substrate and cow dung as blending material in the vermicomposting process. It

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also advocates the potential of earthworm species Eisenia fetida for the bioconversion of

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Ageratum conyzoides into a valuable end product. The work is based on biochemical

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characterization along with earthworm growth and cocoon production to evaluate the properties

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of the final product. The vermicompost obtained from all the reactors attained stabilization with

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increase in nutrients and decrease in total organic carbon (TOC), CO2 evolution rate after the end

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of the process. The pH was obtained in the range of 6.7 to 7.4 during vermicomposting. The final

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C/N ratio falls within 12 to 17 in all the reactors. The highest Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN)

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value observed in the final vermicompost was 2.67% which was higher than the initial value

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1.83%. TOC decreased up to 30.05% at the end of the process. The earthworm biomass

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increased in a similar trend in all the reactors with highest biomass change of 25.75%. The

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results indicate that the biomass of Ageratum conyzoides can be efficiently utilized to produce a

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mature vermicompost with the potential of further applications. It may be inferred from the

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findings that vermicomposting can be an alternative environment friendly option for the

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management of Ageratum conyzoides and recommendable for on site management of the weed in

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an economical way.

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Keywords: Terrestrial weed management; Vermicomposting; Ageratum conyzoides; Eisenia

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fetida; Nutrients.

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28 1. Introduction

Any species which is not native to a particular location and that causes damage to the

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ecology, economy and health is termed as an invasive species. The different biotic invaders

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spread and continue to remain persistent which is detrimental to the environment. The plant

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invasive species are responsible to alter the nutrient cycling, hydrological cycle, fire regime and

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total energy balance in a native ecosystem which can adversely impact on the survival of other

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important native species (Mack et al., 2000). This is a prerequisite to deal with these invaders

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and to manage them properly (Simberloff, 2001). The morphological adaptation of these weed

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species helps in rapid dispersal. The small size of the seeds which mostly have wings or pappus

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can propagate to a long distance by wind. The different transmission modes like mixing with

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other seeds, accidental transport by immigration also favors the introduction of these species in

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non native environment (Chengxu et al., 2011).

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Ageratum conyzoides is a terrestrial weed species of the family Asteraceae whose centre of

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origin is Central America and the Caribbean and now distributed all over the globe. They exhibit

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hairy stem and leaves with purple to white flowers. The achene type of fruit and seeds are

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stimulated to germinate by light (Okunade, 2002). This is considered to be a noxious weed which

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is very difficult to control. In India this invasive species has disturbed various indigenous plant

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communities in different ecological region. Being an adaptive weed Ageratum conyzoides

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entered in the Shivalik hills of Himachal and it was found from the study that the productivity

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and diversity in terms of number of plant species , dry biomass has been substantially changed in

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the areas where invasion is prevalent (Dogra et al., 2009). This weed species is widely

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distributed in various habitats like agricultural land, plantation area, forest area, grassland,

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disturbed area, water ways and also in wetlands (Swarbrick and Hart, 2001). In the forest area

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the native species are threatened due to the existence of this weed. The shade under the tree

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canopy favors the extensive growth. In the agro ecosystem Ageratum conyzoides has impact both

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in terms of ecology and economy. The cost of maintenance is raised in the agricultural field. This

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also acts as a host to many crop pests. It is a major problematic weed in the rice field of Asia

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which inhibits the yield of rice (Batish et al., 2004). It was reported the morphological

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characteristics of wheat were negatively altered in the soil which was earlier infested by

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Ageratum conyzoides (Singh et al., 2003). Ageratum conyzoides infestation is a common

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problem in terraced fields in NW Himalayas causing severe damage to agricultural production

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(Choudhary and Suri, 2018). The management of this weed is a major concern for different scientific, farmer as well as

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forest communities and a cost effective management practice is utmost important to control this

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alien species. The different control methods adopted including chemical, physical, biological, are

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unable to complete eradication or management of Ageratum conyzoides and all these methods

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have few drawbacks. Chemical herbicides are not recommended due to toxic effects on soil and

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environment. Physical methods like cutting, uprooting, burning has negative impacts of high

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cost, on worker’s health as well as risk of regeneration vegetatively (Batish et al., 2004).

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Vermicomposting, the biodegradation of organic waste by the activity of earthworms can

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be one of the viable alternative options to manage Ageratum conyzoides. Vermicomposting is

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one kind of composting process where earthworms are used for the transformation of organic

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matter into a quality end product. In this process earthworms consume the organic matter which

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accelerates the decomposition rate ultimately leads to stabilization of the substrate and the end

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product is a nutrient rich vermicompost which facilitates the plant growth by providing more

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nutrients (Garg et al., 2005). The activities of earthworm are an important factor for the control

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of weed as the seeds of the plant materials are destroyed by the earthworms due to contraction of

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the gizzard and various enzymatic activities leading to seed dormancy (Grant, 1983). There are

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various research going on for testing new substrate, various worm species and evaluation of

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vermicompost quality assessment in the recent time. In the previous studies composting and

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vermicomposting of various aquatic as well as terrestrial weed species e.g. Parthenium

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hysterophorus (Yadav and Garg, 2016), Lantana camara (Hussain and Abbasi, 2015; Singh and

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Kumar, 2017; Suthar and Sharma, 2013), Hydrilla Verticillata (Jain and Kalamdhad, 2019). etc.

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have been evaluated. Ageratum conyzoides can be a promising raw material for vermicomposting

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(Yadav and Garg, 2011).

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The studies on allelopathic effects and other ecological impacts of Ageratum conyzoides

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have been carried out at different time (Wardani et al., 2018; Dogra et al., 2009). The

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management of this weed by various other methods like mechanical, physical and chemical were

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done by previous researchers. Various weeding and elimination methods have been discussed by

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Aparicio and Gonzalez(2015) but these methods failed in completely eradicating Ageratum 3

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conyzoides. But detailed studies on management by bioconversion with the help of earthworms

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are not found earlier. The novelty of the current work lies on limited literature available on

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vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides. The study on management of Ageratum conyzoides

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by vermicomposting can be a promising solution with economical and environmental benefits.

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The major objective of the present study is to determine the feasibility of vermicomposting

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for the complete utilization of Ageratum conyzoides and production of a quality end product.

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Suitability of the worm species Eisenia fetida for the bioconversion of this weed is also

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determined. The different mixing ratios and substrate used in this study may be an influential

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factor in determining the quality of the final vermicompost, as it depends on the initial

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constituent of the feeding mixture as well as amendment made to it which is different from

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earlier studies. The different parameters like C/N ratio, TOC, EC are highly affected by the

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proportion of the mix. The determination of the ideal mixing ratio of cow dung and substrate

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Ageratum conyzoides to obtain nutrient enhanced product was another major objective of the

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current study.

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2. Materials and methods

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2.1. Materials and experimental design

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There are nearly 4,400 species of earthworms have been found till date all over the world

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(Rajendran and Thivyatharsan, 2013). Out of these only few species are employed in

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biodegradation process. The species selected for the present study was Eisenia fetida. It was

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reported that Eisenia fetida must be considered as an important species for use in natural

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ecosystems and commercial enterprises for accelerating the decomposition of biodegradable

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wastes (Neuhauser et al., 1988). The earthworm species Eisenia fetida were brought from

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Central Plantation Crop Research institute (CPCRI), Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

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Guwahati, India. The earthworms were precultured in hopper bottom Perspex bin sizes

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450mm×300mm×450mm in the laboratory. Before the addition of the culturing media and the

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earthworms, bedding was prepared. The bedding was then watered to keep it moist. Partially

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degraded cow dung was added for culturing the earthworms. For aeration and drainage purpose

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16 holes of 10 mm diameter were drilled along the longer sides and 16 at the bottom

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respectively. The weed species material Ageratum Conyzoides was collected from agricultural

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fields and roadside of NH 40 (Shillong-Guwahati National Highway), Meghalaya, India. This

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was used as the substrate material to be used in the vermicomposting process. The major

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characteristics of Ageratum Conyzoides are pH, 6.08; Electrical conductivity (EC), 5.3(ds/m);

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Total organic carbon (TOC), 41.53%; Total Kjedahl Nitrogen (TKN), 1.43%, Carbon to nitrogen

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ratio (C/N), 29.041; Ash content, 28.4%; Moisture content, 75.63%. The characteristics of

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Ageratum Conyzoides make it suitable to be employed as a raw material for the feed in the

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vermireactors. The substrate materials were blended with cattle manure to provide a favourable

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condition for earthworms. Cow dung was obtained from livestock farm of Guwahati, Assam,

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India.

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The experiments were conducted in triplicate in locally made bamboo containers

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(reactor) of volume 90.47×104 mm3 (radius 120mm and depth 90mm). The containers were kept

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in the laboratory room. The bedding of the reactors was kept 10cm with partially degraded

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banana leaves. 1kg of different proportions of plant material and cow dung was added to each of

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the reactors referred as R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 respectively (Table 1). The reactors for each

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proportion which were kept without the addition of earthworms are termed as controls. The

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controls are referred as C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5. The weed was shredded into pieces of 1-2 cm. in

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mechanical shredder before applying as feeding materials into the reactors. Based on the findings

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that the earthworm can consume the material half their body weight per day under favourable

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conditions approximately 40 g of earthworms were added to each of the reactors. Gunny bags

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were used to cover the reactors to prevent moisture loss. The experiment was done under room

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temperature as the practical implication of the current study depends on field environment where

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temperature control is difficult. The temperature was within the tolerance limit of the earthworm

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species used in the study.

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2.2. Sampling procedure

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The earthworm biomass was measured after every 15th day. The net biomass gain of mean

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weight was calculated from the initial and final biomass in percentage. Earthworm harvesting

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and cocoon count was done by Dump and Hand sort method. In this method the content of the

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vermireactors were dumped over a plastic sack and the contents were divided into several cone

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shaped piles. When there was enough light the worms quickly move into the centre of each pile.

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By gently removing the outer cover of each pile worms were hand-picked from the deeper end of 5

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the pile. The worms and contents were replaced into the reactors after measuring the biomass

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with the help of weighing balance and refilled the empty reactors with fresh bedding. Eventually

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the cocoons from each pile were counted by hand sorting method. The Cocoons/Worm/day was

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calculated for each of the reactors from the number of cocoons per worm to the number of total

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earthworms at end of 45th day for each day generation of cocoons. Physico-chemical and

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biological analysis of the samples collected from the reactors were carried out in the laboratory.

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The wet samples were analysed after sampling on every 15 days for biological parameters

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whereas sample were oven dried and sieved for the physico-chemical parameters by different

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analytical methods.

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2.3. Analytical Methods

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pH and EC were determined by substrate to water extract ratio of 1:10 (w/v) to get pH and

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EC values. pH was measured using pH meter and EC with conductivity meter (Tiquia and Tam,

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1998). TOC was determined by the weight by ignition at 550OC in the Muffle furnace is a

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measure of the volatile solids (VS), which are classed as organic materials (Jain et al., 2018).

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TKN was determined by Kjeldahl method (APHA, 2012). Total phosphorus (TP) was

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determined by stannous chloride (acid digestion) method (APHA, 2012). Spectrophotometer was

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used to measure absorbance at 690nm. Macronutrients, Potassium (K), Calcium( Ca) were

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determined by flame photometry (Jain et al., 2018). Biodegradable organic matter was

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determined by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) estimation following the dilution method

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(APHA, 2012) and the dichromate method was used to measure chemical oxygen demand

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(COD) (APHA, 2012). By static measurement method the stability parameter Carbon-di-oxide

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(CO2) evolution rate was measured (Varma and Kalamdhad, 2014).

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The results obtained in triplicates for each reactor and their mean with standard deviation

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is reported in the results. The results were statistically analyzed at 0.05 levels using one way

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analysis of variances (ANOVA) and Tukey’s HSD test was used as a post-hoc analysis to

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compare the means using SPSS 20 software.

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3. Results and discussion

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3.1. TOC

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The various processes involved in vermicomposting including biological, physical, chemical

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leads to change in organic carbon. During the vermicomposting process decline in TOC was

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observed in all the reactors. The maximum percentage decrease was seen in R3 (30.05%) which

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may be attributed to highest earthworm growth in this reactor which gradually led to rapid

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degradation of organic matter by earthworm action. The absence of earthworms in the controls

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diminished the degradation process. The initial percentage of TOC was recorded

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41.18%,43.09%, 47.38%, 47.44%, 49.35% for R1, R2,R3,R4 and R5 reactors respectively

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which was gradually decreased to 35.74%, 32.37%, 33.14%, 33.3%, 38.58% after 45th day

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(Table 2). During vermicomposting consumption of available carbon as a source of energy leads

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to loss of TOC as carbon dioxide. TOC loss is an important factor to measure the rate of

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degradation as the reduction in total organic carbon may be due to the assimilation of organic

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carbon into the worm biomass and also due to evolution of CO2 in the decomposition process

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(Kumar et al., 2017). The similar trend in total organic carbon was observed in the previous

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studies (Singh and Suthar, 2012, Sharma and Garg, 2018). The significant change in TOC was

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observed till the 45th day of the vermicomposting process whereas the controls have the

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minimum change as shown in Fig.1. The total organic carbon is varied significantly (P<0.05) in

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all the reactors.

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3. 2. Ash content

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Ash content was observed to be in increasing trend for all the reactors. The maximum

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increase in ash content was observed in R3 from 18.3% to 42.85%. Whereas in R4 and R5, the

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increase relatively lesser than R3. The variation in ash content is shown in Table 2. The ash

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content is indicative for rate of volatilization and it was observed that ash content was increasing

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in all the reactors during the vermicomposting period although in the controls the increase was

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less. Similar results reported in previous studies, indicates that earthworms are consuming the

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wastes in a faster rate (Khwairakpam and Bhargava, 2009a). The ash content was observed to be

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more in the initial 30 days which may be due to ample availability of food leading to higher

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decomposition rate. This further causes liberation of inorganic substances causing reduction in

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organic matter and increase in inorganic fraction. Jain and Kalamdhad (2018) reported increment

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in ash content during the composting of Hydrilla verticillata. However, very low increase in ash

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content was reported (Malinska et al., 2016) during vermicomposting of sewage sludge due to

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biochar amendment which contains more stable organic compound which is difficult to be

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consumed by the earthworms decelerates the process of mineralization results into lower increase

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in ash content. There is a significant change in the Ash content of all the reactors. The ash

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content is varied significantly (P<0.05) in all the reactors.

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3.3. TKN

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The TKN was observed to be 2.28%, 2.63%, 2.64%, 2.67%and 2.26% in R1, R2, R3, R4 and

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R5 (Table 3) respectively which was higher than the initial value and change was higher than the

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respective control. The increment in nitrogen may be attributed to addition of nitrogenous

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excretory products, mucus, dead tissues and enzymes (Suthar, 2007). The TKN content in the

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final product is dependent on the initial nitrogen content in the feeding substrate as well as the

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rate of decomposition (Crawford, 1983). The TKN variation among the reactors was observed in

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the current study as final TKN depends on the initial C/N ratio of the mix. The addition of cow

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dung which helped in maintaining the initial C/N ratio of different reactors, the final TKN was

218

influenced by it. The maximum percentage change was observed for the reactor R2 (52.11%)

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whereas minimum percentage change was observed for the reactor R5. The higher percentage

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change of TKN in R2 may be due to mortality and decay of worm biomass apart from excretory

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products as protein is the major constituent in dry mass of worm. The increase in nitrogen

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content is dependent on C/N ratio. Ananthavalli et al.(2019) has reported increment in TKN in

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their study to evaluate the potential of different seaweeds as a bio resource for vermicompost.

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The nitrogen content shown a greater increment in the vermicompost prepared from the aquatic

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weed water hyacinth (Das et al., 2016) which reported similar trend of result as recorded in

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earlier studies of different organic materials (Jain and Kalamdhad, 2019; Suthar et al., 2016). The

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TKN is varied significantly (P<0.05) in all the reactors. The change in the controls was observed

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to be minimal as compared to the reactors documented in Fig.2.

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3.4. TP

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The mineralisation of the organic matter leads to increase in TP. Increase in TP was attributed

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to direct action of worm gut enzymes. The release of nutrients during oxidation of chemical

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compounds in organic matter also leads to increase in TP in a soluble inorganic form (Baggie et

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al., 2004). The increase in TP from the initial value in the reactors R1 (9.06 g/kg), R2 (9.17 8

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g/kg), R3 (10.75 g/kg), R4 (10.26 g/kg) and R5 (8.85 g/kg) are as shown in Table 3. Organic

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phosphorus reduced faster under earthworm mediated vermicomposting process leads to higher

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release of mineral phosphorus (Ghosh et al., 1999). The maximum percentage increase was

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observed for R3 which was attributed to high rate of mineralization by the earthworms in this

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reactor to form easily accessible phosphorus in the final vermicompost. The maximum TP

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increase of 11% was reported by Hanc and Chadimava, 2014 in their study on nutrient recovery

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from apple pomace waste by vermicomposting. The increase in TP may be the result of direct

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action of worm gut enzymes. The similar trend of phosphorus increase was seen in the earlier

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studies (Singh and Suthar, 2012, Sharma and Garg, 2018). The Total Phosphorus is varied

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significantly (P<0.05) in all the reactors.

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3.5. pH

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The similar pattern of change in pH was observed in all the reactors which falls in the range

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of 6.7 to 7.4 (Table 4). The shift in the reactors was recorded towards acidic but the final pH was

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within recommended range for vermicompost to apply in soil (CPHEEO, 2000). The

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mineralisation of nitrogen and phosphorus and production of intermediate organic acids by the

249

biodegradation of the substrate could be the significant reason for lowering of pH during the

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process (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2000a). The near neutral range of pH was also reported in

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earlier study on Parthenium weed by Yadav and Garg (2016). In few of the studies pH changed

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towards alkaline (Varma et al., 2016) which was following a reverse trend of the present study as

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the shift in pH is not static and may have different trends depending on the nature of the substrate

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material, the types of amendment done during the process, types of earthworm used. Slight

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acidic pH observed due to intermediate organic acids only as there was no any amendment done

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except cow dung in any of the reactor which may influence the pH during the process. The

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determination of pH during the process is important as the survival of different earthworm

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species depends on specific pH range and substrates having more acidic pH are not suitable for

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vermicomposting as higher pH showed faster degradation (Singh et al, 2005). The pH varied

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significantly (P<0.05) in all the reactors.

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3.6. EC

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EC was gradually increased with the proceeding days. The EC value was in the range of 3.5

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-3.8 ds/m as shown in Table 4. This increasing trend may be attributed to formation of ions due

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to mineralization in the presence of earthworms as reported by other studies (Yadav and Garg,

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2013). The increase in EC was observed in earlier studies (Yadav and Garg, 2019; Hanc and

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Chadimova, 2014; Sharma and Garg, 2017). The EC value is not only important for assessment

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of vermicompost quality but also it determines the survival of the earthworm species

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(Ananthavalli et al., 2019). The increase in EC is dependent on the earthworm metabolism both

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ingestion and excretion of the materials which releases available minerals and ions (Ananthavalli

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et al., 2019). The highest earthworm activities in the reactors R3 and R4 have contributed to

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more EC in these reactors with 3.87 ds/m and 3.89 ds/m respectively at the end of the process.

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During the decomposition process phytotoxicity disappears which is very important to apply

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vermicompost in agricultural land and EC is an important parameter which determines soluble

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ions as excessive salinity in the vermicompost can cause phytotoxicity to plant growth (Tiquia,

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2010). The high salt concentration in the final vermicompost leads to soil disruption and destroys

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the physical property of soil crating toxicity. This results into disruption plant physiology and

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germination when applied to soil (Ravindran et al., 2017). The growth of spinach observed to be

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low where the EC was more than accepted value in the manure. It is recommended to leach the

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soil with water before plantation if EC in the compost is more than 6 ds/m (Ravindran et al.,

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2017). The EC for all the reactors are within permissible limit which is less than 4 ds/m

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(CPHEEO, 2000). The EC varied significantly (P<0.05) in all the reactors.

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3.7. C/N ratio

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The C/N ratio in the final product indicates the maturity and stabilisation of the

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vermicompost. The C/N ratio in the end product must be less than or equal to 20 (CPHEEO,

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2000). The initial C/N ratio of the substrate is important to furnish actual nutrition for the growth

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of earthworms in the vermireactors as carbon and nitrogen is important for cell synthesis in all

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living organisms (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2000a). The rapid degradation of organic matter due

288

to increase in earthworm population may be attributed to decrease in C/N ratio during the

289

vermicomposting period (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2000b). The initial C/N ratio was recorded

290

more than 20 in all the reactors. The C/N ratio in the final product was in the range of 12-17 for

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the reactors R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 respectively (Table 5). The maximum reduction was

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observed in R3. The maximum earthworm growth in R3 may be correlated with lowest C/N ratio

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as earthworms contributed to more nitrogenous excretion and active action on organic matter

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which released more carbon as CO2. The C/N ratio in all varied more in the reactors than the

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controls. The significant variation (P<0.05) was observed in all the reactors.

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3.8. CO2 evolution rate

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During the initial days of the vermicomposting period the maximum decrease in CO2

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evolution was observed and in all the reactors similar trend of reduction was seen. The reduction

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in CO2 evolution was recorded more (Table 5) with the proceeding days as compared to controls

300

as shown in Fig.3 may be attributed to the evaluation of compost stability as low rate of aerobic

301

respiration as well as aerobic biological activities at the end of the process (Dominguez et al.,

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2013). The decreasing trend was observed in earlier studies (Khwairakpam and Bhargava,

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2009b; Jain and Kalamdhad, 2018). The CO2 evolution rates decreased into 2.31, 2.35, 1.98, 2.03

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and 2.21 mg/g VS/day for the reactors R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 respectively. The more TOC loss

305

may be attributed to maturity of the vermicompost in R3 where the highest decrease in CO2

306

evolution was observed (75.88%). The CO2 evolution rate is varied significantly (P<0.05) in all

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the reactors when analyzed statistically.

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3.9. BOD and COD

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The percentage of biological organic content is very much important to assess the quality

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of the final vermicompost. The change biological organic matter is correlated with BOD and

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COD and the decline in biodegradable organic matter reduces the BOD and COD which leads to

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reduction in CO2 emission (Jain et al., 2018). Reduction in BOD and COD was observed in

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similar trend (Table 6) for all the reactors till the end of the process which is indicative towards

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the stable vermicompost at the end of the process. When compared to control reduction was

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more in every reactor. The highest BOD reduction was observed in R3 (88.22%) while for COD

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maximum percentage change was recorded in R4 (58.23%). The minimum reduction was seen

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for R1 for both BOD and COD with percentage change 83.77% and 55.63% respectively. The

318

similar trend of observation was reported in previous studies (Khwairakpam et al., 2009). The

319

rapid reduction in BOD and COD from 15th to 30th day in reactor R3 and R4 was due to

320

stabilization of the process faster in these reactors, whereas the minimal BOD and COD change

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was observed in other reactors indicating continuation of the degradation process. Because of

322

this slightly less matured vermicompost was obtained in these reactors as compared to R3 and

323

R4. The BOD and COD have significant (P<0.05) variation in all the reactors.

324

3.10. Macronutrients

repro of

321

There is an increment in K was observed. Highest increment was observed for the reactor R3

326

while it is less for R1. After TKN and P, K is more essential for plant production. The

327

decomposition process is responsible for the release of these nutrients (Benitez et al., 1999). The

328

increment of K in the vermicompost prepared from another terrestrial weed Parthenium

329

hysterophorus reported by Yadav and Garg, 2016. Similar trend was observed in earlier studies

330

(Sharma and Garg, 2017; Yadav and Garg, 2019). There was no higher significant change in Ca

331

for all the vermicomposting days. The earthworm feeding ability and the blending of substrate

332

with cow dung is responsible for the enhancement of Ca in the final product (Subramanian et al.,

333

2010). Yadav and Garg (2016); Jain and Kalamdhad (2018) also reported increase in Ca in their

334

respective studies on different weeds. The Ca was observed to be more in R4 might be presence

335

of more favorable environment for the earthworms to release the organically bound nutrients into

336

available forms. Nutrient enhancement was more in R3 and R4. The increment in EC was

337

directly correlated to the nutrient recovery in these reactors as EC is dependent on mineralization

338

process. Mineralization liberates more plant available nutrients in the vermicompost (Yadav and

339

Garg, 2019). In the controls the change was minimal. The variation in macronutrients was shown

340

in Table 7. The K and Ca varied significantly (P<0.05) in all the reactors.

341

3.11. Growth and reproduction of earthworms

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325

There is a change in earthworm biomass in all the reactors during the vermicomposting

343

period till the 45th day. The earthworm biomass was increased in a similar trend although the

344

variation was observed. The initial mix of the feeding material highly influences earthworm

345

growth (Suthar, 2007). The highest increase was observed for R3 with 25.75% change in

346

percentage at the end of the process may be the earthworm growth was promoted due to

347

appropriate mixing of substrate and cow dung in this reactor which favors the earthworm

348

metabolism as well as reproduction rate. The cocoon production was higher for all the reactors

349

although R5 have shown lesser cocoon production as compared to others. The lower cocoon

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production may be attributed to higher C/N ratio in R5 as the C/N ratio of the feed is a major

351

determining factor for the increase in earthworm population (Das et al., 2016). The quality of the

352

final product is affected by the type of earthworm species used (Rajendran and Thivyatharsan,

353

2013).The significant biomass increment was observed for Eisenia fetida in this study (Table 8).

354

It was stated that for the decomposition of waste the epigeic earthworms have the greater

355

potential in compared to other classes and Eisenia fetida has the potential to feed upon a wide

356

range of organic matter which is biodegradable (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2004).

repro of

350

It was inferred from the result that R3 has better end product as compared to other reactors.

358

The final nutrients (TKN, TP, K, Ca) are detrimental to evaluate the vermicompost quality as it

359

was enhanced during process into various soluble forms and these parameters has to be

360

monitored (Mistry et al., 2015) . From the study it was found that out of all the reactors R3 has

361

shown better performance followed by R4 and R2. If we increase the amount of substrate it may

362

affect the general metabolism of earthworms making its survival difficult. The major objective of

363

the study was to find out the most suitable mix of substrate and cow dung to optimise the result.

364

The reactors having more substrate material also producing a nutrient rich vermicompost but as

365

compared to R3 the earthworm growth and cocoon production was retarded in R4 and R5

366

respectively.

367

3.12. Practical implications of this study

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The major challenge of the study is that the care should be taken while handling the weed

369

species in field as it is allergic to skin. When considering the practical implications from the

370

study it is important to keep in mind that earthworms act as mini reactors within the

371

vermireactors and proper care should be taken for them. Earthworm culture needs to be

372

monitored on regular basis and moisture level should be maintained. The future applicability of

373

this study is that the weed can be managed on site with less money and man power. The

374

vermicomposting process is a zero waste management practice with no environmental impacts.

375

The vermicompost prepared from Ageratum conyzoides can be directly applied to the field as the

376

parameters falls under vermicompost quality standards by Central Public Health and

377

Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO, 2000) (Table 9).

378

4. Conclusion

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It can be concluded from this study that the management of Ageratum conyzoides by

380

vermicomposting is feasible. Vermicomposting has the potential to convert this weed into a

381

valuable end product by mixing with cow dung. The decomposition indicates the decrease in

382

C/N ratio, TOC, CO2 evolution indicating the stabilization of the vermicompost whereas it is rich

383

in nutrients like TKN, TP, K, Ca. The vermicompost obtained from Ageratum conyzoides was

384

matured as indicative from the CO2 evolution rate. The increase in biomass in all the reactors

385

was evident for the active earthworm metabolism and survival in the substrate material. The

386

study reveals that the earthworm species Eisenia fetida is efficient in the bioconversion of

387

Ageratum. conyzoides and shows a significant change in biomass as well as cocoon production

388

during the process. Highest in R3 with 25.75% biomass change indicates the ideal proportion for

389

earthworm growth and activities. It was observed that the substrate up to 50% can achieve a

390

good quality of end product. The C/N ratio for all the reactors is under 20 which is the

391

recommended limit for the vermicompost to apply directly to the soil. The lower C/N ratio in the

392

final product makes it suitable for the application in soil and plants. The nutritional enhancement

393

and maturity of the final vermicompost indicates Ageratum. conyzoides as one of the suitable

394

substrate for vermicomposting and efficient management of this weed is possible by this process.

395

Although there is a variation in parameters for different reactors but all the reactors have shown

396

more matured vermicompost as compared to the controls.

397 398

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Table 1

R4

R3

R2

R1

Reactor

700

600

500

400

300

Substrate material(g)

300

400

500

600

700

Cow dung(g)

repro of

Mixing proportions of Substrate and cow dung

R5

15 Day

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Table 2

30 Day

45 day

Ash (%) 0 Day

Variation in TOC and Ash content during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides Reactors

15 day

30 Day

45 Day

41.18±0.61a 41±0.55a 38.14±0.98a 35.74±0.79a 28.98±0.61a 29.30±0.55a 34.24±0.78a 38.37±0.79a R1 43.09±0.93b 42.24±0.81b 40.02±0.79b 32.372±0.9b 25.69±0.93b 27.16±0.81b 31±0.79b 44.18±0.9b R2 47.38±0.83c 43.92±0.88c 39.78±0.96c 33.14±0.87c 18.30±0.83c 24.27±0.88c 31.41±0.96c 42.85±0.87c R3 47.4±0.93c 44.02±0.81d 39.94±0.87b 33.3±1.5c 18.19±1.3c 24.1±0.79d 31.13±0.87b 42.57±0.5c R4 49.35±0.83d 45.02±0.88e 42.3±0.78d 38.58±0.91d 14.91±0.76d 22.38±0.51e 26.95±0.45d 33.48±0.89d R5 Values followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different (ANOVA; Tukey’s test, P<0.05).

TOC (%) 0 day

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Table 3

30 Day

45 day

repro of

15 day

TP (g/kg) 0 Day

Variation in TKN and TP during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides TKN (%) 0 day

15 Day

30 Day

45 Day

45 day

EC (ds/m) 0 Day

15 Day

rna lP

9.06±0.17a 9.17±0.067a 10.75±0.16b 10.26±0.087c 8.85±0.17d

Reactors

1.69±0.016a 1.76±0.013a 2.02±0.018a 2.28±0.021a 5.71±0.15a 6.71±0.098ad 8.04±0.087a R1 1.73±0.01b 1.85±0.013b 2.36±0.02b 2.63±0.018b 5.82±0.087ab 6.91±0.16bd 8.84±0.071b R2 1.81±0.013b 1.98±0.011c 2.37±0.015b 2.64±0.025bc 5.87±0.087b 7.15±0.1c 9.07±0.071c R3 1.83±0.025b 1.96±0.021bc 2.361±0.02b 2.67±0.018c 5.84±0.071b 7.21±0.15c 9.25±0.098d R4 1.89±0.021c 2.0±0.02c 2.13±0.025c 2.26±0.021d 5.93±0.087b 6.84±0.093d 7.73±0.091e R5 Values followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different (ANOVA; Tukey’s test, P<0.05).

Reactors

30 Day

Variation in pH and EC during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides

Table 4

45 Day

15 day

3.76±0.024a 3.8±0.015b 3.87±0.021c 3.89±0.027d 3.86±0.015e

30 Day

pH 0 day

7.44±0.021a 7.23±0.015a 6.95±0.03a 6.72±0.024a 3.5±0.021a 3.67±0.015a 3.71±0.03a R1 7.61±0.018b 7.36±0.021b 7.21±0.027bd 6.93±0.015b 3.58±0.018a 3.69±0.021a 3.77±0.027a R2 7.73±0.03c 7.54±0.017c 7.21±0.029bcd 7.02±0.021ad 3.65±0.03b 3.78±0.017b 3.81±0.029b R3 7.7±0.035c 7.59±0.015c 7.33±0.021c 7.21±0.027c 3.67±0.035c 3.81±0.015c 3.85±0.021c R4 7.76±0.018c 7.68±0.021d 7.51±0.027d 7.39±0.015d 3.68±0.018d 3.8±0.021d 3.83±0.027d R5 Values followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different (ANOVA; Tukey’s test, P<0.05).

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Table 5

30 Day

45 day

repro of

C/N Ratio

15 day

CO2 evolution (mg/g VS/day)) 0 Day

Variation in C/N Ratio and CO2 evolution during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides

Reactors 0 day

45 day

COD (mg/l) 0 Day

15 Day

15 Day

rna lP

30 Day

30 Day

30 Day

24.37±0.31a 23.18±0.25a 18.86±0.28a 15.66±0.16a 7.91±0.13a 5.58±0.08a 3.15±0.05a R1 24.91±0.36a 22.73±0.41a 16.94±0.31b 12.3±0.18b 7.93±0.071b 5.79±0.13b 3.25±0.06b R2 25.17±0.27b 22.14±0.35b 16.76±0.41c 12.52±0.38c 8.21±5.91b 5.91±0.05a 3.27±0.11c R3 25.91±0.31c 22.41±0.3c 16.91±0.45d 12.46±0.16d 8.35±0.13c 6.03±0.065a 3.43±0.14d R4 25.984±0.28c 22.47±0.41d 19.82±0.31e 17.01±0.38e 8.41±0.145d 6.15±0.15c 3.51±0.13e R5 Values followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different (ANOVA; Tukey’s test, P<0.05).

Table 6

15 day

Variation in BOD and COD during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides

Reactors

BOD (mg/l) 0 day

451.33±6a 338.9±7.8a 128.51±5.5a 73.21±7.1a 1188.13±9.3a 1155.35±7.8a 735.11±6.6a R1 463.2±5.3a 440.34±6.3b 173.9±8.13b 61.33±5.6b 1195.41±6.5a 1138.47±13.1b 764.27±9.5b R2 470.73±6.62a 425.95±7.8c 165.6±5.7c 55.43±6.3c 1206.56±8.8b 1149.08±9.6b 781.61±12.1c R3 477.49±6.91b 429.15±5.5d 171.1±8.17d 56.21±6.15c 1221.21±7.1b 1151.26±9.3c 793.3±11.6d R4 481.61±5.1c 463.31±7.8e 193.54±5.7e 70.56±6.3d 1227.28±15.1c 1157.29±10.5d 805.16±8.4e R5 Values followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different (ANOVA; Tukey’s test, P<0.05).

45 Day

2.31±0.11a 2.35±0.1b 1.98±0.06c 2.03±0.075d 2.21±0.08e

45 Day

527.45±8.3a 523.67±16.6b 506.23±8.3c 510.14±8.7d 535.51±12.1e

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Table 7

15 day 2.42±0.05a 2.45±0.04a 2.65±0.03c 2.71±0.02d 2.67±0.05e

30 Day 2.89±0.021a 2.91±0.014a 3.23±0.01c 3.31±0.07d 3.19±0.02e1

45 day 3.18±0.003a 3.21±0.04b 3.88±0.01c 3.93±0.06d 3.41±0.013e

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K% 0 day 2.14±0.01a 2.16±0.02a 2.42±0.06b 2.48±0.03c 2.51±0.015d

Ca% 0 Day 2.58±0.06a 2.58±0.02b 2.65±0.035ac 2.64±0.019c 2.69±0.02d

Variation in macronutrients (K, Ca) during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides Reactors R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

15 Day 2.69±0.03a 2.68±0.016bd 2.75±0.06b 2.73±0.032c 2.71±0.07d

30 Day 2.81±0.005a 2.84±0.03b 2.88±0.018b 2.93±0.026c 2.83±0.04d

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Values followed by the same letter within each column are not significantly different (ANOVA; Tukey’s test, P<0.05).

Table 8

Reactors

40 40 40 40 40

Initial Weight(g)

43.5 48 50.3 50.1 45

Final Weight(g)

8.75 20 25.75 25.25 12.5

Live Biomass Change(%)

0.35 0.27 0.29 0.3 0.21

Cocoons/worm/day

Live biomass change and cocoon production in different reactors

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

45 Day 3.01±0.018a 3.03±0.06b 3.13±0.02b 3.17±0.015c 2.87±0.005d

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Table 9

R2

R3

R4

R5

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Comparative study table of final value of different reactors with Compost and Vermicompost quality standard (CPHEEO, 2000)

R1

3.21±0.04

3.88±0.01

3.93±0.06

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6.72±0.024 6.93±0.015 7.02±0.021 7.21±0.027 7.39±0.015 3.76±0.024 3.8±0.015 3.87±0.021 3.89±0.027 3.86±0.015

Parameter

6.5-7.5 4

15.66±0.16 12.3±0.18 12.52±0.38 12.46±0.16 17.01±0.38 2.28±0.021 2.63±0.018 2.64±0.025 2.67±0.018 2.26±0.021

Compost and Vermicompost quality standard (CPHEEO, 2000)

<20 0.8

3.18±0.003

3.41±0.013

0.4

pH EC(ds/m), maximum C/N TKN(%), minimum K(%), minimum

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Fig.1. Variation in TOC in the reactors and controls during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides 

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The TOC is varied significantly (P<0.05)

Fig.2. Variation in TKN in the reactors and controls during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides The TKN is varied significantly (P<0.05)

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Fig.3. Variation in CO2 evolution rate in the reactors and controls during vermicomposting of Ageratum conyzoides

   

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The CO2 evolution rate is varied significantly (P<0.05)

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Feasibility of vermicomposting for the management of terrestrial weed Ageratum conyzoides using earthworm species Eisenia fetida

a

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Chaichi Devia*, Meena Khwairakpamb Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, Shillong 793003. Meghalaya, India b

Centre for Rural Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India

Highlights

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Feasibility study of vermicomposting of A. conyzoides using E. fetida. Physico-chemical characteristics along with earthworm growth are evaluated. The best mixing proportion of substrate material and cowdung was reported. E. fetida is efficient in the bioconversion of A. conyzoides The management of A. conyzoides by vermicomposting is possible.

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   

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There is no any conflict of interest.

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CRedit author statement Chaichi Devi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-Original draft preparation

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Meena Khwairakpam: Supervision, Writing- Reviewing and editing.