Female tourism entrepreneurs in Bali, Indonesia

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-hospitalityand-tourism-management

Female tourism entrepreneurs in Bali, Indonesia Kayhan Tajeddini a, *, Vanessa Ratten b, Mela Denisa c a

Institute for International Strategy, Tokyo International University, Office 1-13-1 Matoba-kita, Kawagoe, Saitama, 350-1197, Japan Management and Marketing Department, La Trobe University, Australia c Graduate School of Management, GLOBIS University, Tokyo, Japan b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 31 October 2015 Received in revised form 13 October 2016 Accepted 18 October 2016

Bali is one of the most popular islands in Indonesia for tourism due to its beaches, nightlife and religious sites. Female tourism entrepreneurs are a growing segment of the hospitality industry in Bali due to their involvement in food stalls and small restaurants. This paper will focus on the strategic decisions of female Balinese tourism entrepreneurs by utilizing a purposeful sampling method in which in-depth interviews were carried out over a six-month period. Meaning units (MUs) were abstracted, which were compared and discussed with the interviewees until a basic agreement of terms could be made. Using in depth interviews and other supplemental evidence, this trend was examined in order to explore how women were influenced by environmental factors, in additional to their culture and heritage. The findings from this paper will help other tourism entrepreneurs how to develop their businesses using limited resources and financial capital but also provide suggestions about how female entrepreneurs can succeed in the globally competitive tourism industry. © 2016 The Authors.

Keywords: Bali Female entrepreneur Hospitality Indonesia Small business Tourism

1. Introduction In the last few decades, there has been extensive interest and debate over women entrepreneurial characteristics as a predictor of entrepreneurial success (Langowitz & Minniti, 2007; Riding & Swift, 1990; Sexton, 1990). This has been due to the increased role women play in business and society especially in developing countries (Gherardi, 2015; Ramadani, Gerguri-Rashiti, & Fayolle, 2015). Previous studies have mainly focused on work-family issues, pay differential across genders, women's entry in the labor force, and disparities in the work place (Ramadani, Dana, Gerguri-Rashiti, & Tasaminova, 2013). Policymakers and business experts often point to entrepreneurship involving women as a means of raising incomes and encouraging local self-determinism. The benefits to participating in business influence public policies and academic theories that are designed to promote female entrepreneurship (Sarri & Trihopoulou, 2005). There is debate around how to encourage more women entrepreneurs due to the different opinions about how gender influences businesses business decisions. Some researchers such as Rao (2013) suggests that

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (K. Tajeddini), v. [email protected] (V. Ratten), [email protected] (M. Denisa). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.10.004 1447-6770/© 2016 The Authors.

entrepreneurship education can help entrepreneurs but particularly females who may have less access to resources. Despite the fact that prior research has found that the rate at which women are forming new ventures has increased significantly (CWBR, 2004), issues involving women in entrepreneurship have not received adequate attention in academic research (Langowitz & Minniti, 2007; Tan, 2008). In addition, relatively less attention has been paid to female tourism entrepreneurs especially for developing countries like Indonesia. This is due to most research focusing on regional entrepreneurship in Asia-Pacific rather than country-level entrepreneurship (Otsuka & Natsuda, 2015). In earlier decades, however, Bras and Dahles (1998) found that in Bali women lacked empowerment, despite their entrepreneurial successes. Although the reasons behind the lack of empowerment are not clearly identified, it was noted that the Balinese women felt that their activities in tourism reinforced their gender roles, resulting in their lack of empowerment (Al Mazroei & Lynch, 2014). Despite the fact that the majority of tourism workers are women, studies focusing on Indonesian women entrepreneurs, particularly in Bali, are in short supply. This gap in the research about Indonesian women entrepreneurs is important to address particularly in Bali, which has a large percentage of females participating in the labor market.

K. Tajeddini et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

2. Research background 2.1. Women entrepreneurship in tourism Female entrepreneurs are defined as females involved in making independent business decisions related to managing a business (Zapalska & Brozik, 2014). In general, despite the level of female entrepreneurship increasing, there still is little research on women entrepreneurs particularly in developing countries (Verheul, Van Stel, & Thurik, 2006; Welsh, Memili, Kaciak, & Al Sadoon, 2014). Notably, Brush and Cooper (2012) state that research on women entrepreneurs constitute less than 10% of all studies in the field of entrepreneurship. However, research shows that the contribution of women to the worldwide economic development is significant (De Vita, Mari, & Poggesi, 2014). This is seen in 2010 with187 million women being involved in creating and operating enterprises, meaning that almost 42% of entrepreneurs in the world were women (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2010). Moreover, the interactions between entrepreneurial activities and society are multifaceted and hard to disentangle (Achtenhagen & Welter, 2011). Yet, recent research has shown that entrepreneurship needs to be explored in its societal context in order to capture the diverse facets of entrepreneurial activities (Steyaert & Katz, 2004). Bali, the home of Indonesia's Hindu minority, is experiencing a rapid growth in tourism and hospitality businesses. This has meant that there are increasing opportunities for female entrepreneurs wanting to start their own tourism businesses. The role of women in the economy of Bali has been growing in importance for many years and enterprising women have become a significant part of the economy. It is believed that women can play an important role in promoting economic growth and development, as well as reducing poverty (Tambunan, 2006). Therefore, it can be anticipate that in the future, women are likely to be increasingly important to the economy (Ball, 2001). A large number of hotels and galleries are owned and managed by women. According to one estimate, women own 90 percent of such establishments (Copeland & Murni, 2010). There is a long tradition of women participating in the informal tourism sector and gaining greater control over their lives as a result (Wilkinson & Pratiwi, 1995). Women's participation in the informal sector has differed to that of men because of their focus on the food industry, in which they sell food goods to tourists (Ramadani et al., 2013). In addition, this informal type of entrepreneurship has meant that females have been able to supplement their incomes and be more independent without relying on the hierarchy typical in male owned businesses (Ramadani et al., 2015). Progress of women in management and entrepreneurship has been a major step in increasing female Balinese participation in the process of economic development, generating job opportunities and improving their economic independence, social, educational and health status as well as their families' lives (Wright & Tellei, 1993/1994; Zapalska & Brozik, 2014). They experience, and the challenges they have to overcome (Starr & Yudkin, 1996). Particularly, after the economic slowdown in Bali that was caused by terrorist bombings in 2002 and 2005, women were urged to generate more income for the family. Street food stalls provide an opportunity to do so. The influence of tourism upon traditional food stalls (called warungs) is an example of adjusting traditional types of business to opportunities to emerging situations for women near local and international hotels (Cukier, Norris, & Wall, 1996). Married women, in particular, use warungs to become self-employed. 2.2. Tourism in Indonesia, Bali As in many other developing countries, Indonesia has identified tourism as an industry that deserves to be nurtured, and in recent

53

decades, tourism has emerged as an important source of foreign exchange. According to the 2015 report released by Jakarta Post, the country's ranking in the biennial Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report jumped 20 places, from 70th in 2013 to 50th in 2015 (Jakarta post, 2015). The Indonesian island of Bali is a favorite destination for both adventurers and those in need of a little relaxation. The island is celebrated for pristine beaches, biodiversity, a cultural legacy, and an artistic heritage. These assets have encouraged a rapid growth in tourism, creating opportunities for both large and small businesses. The situation of Bali parallels many other developing regions where tourism has emerged as a major economic force (Bali Tourism Board, 2011). According to Bandem (2003), many of the small islands of Bali are rapidly embracing tourism because (1) they lack marketable natural resources, (2) they are not suitable for manufacturing, (3) the small-scale, labor-intensive environment facilitates tourism, (4) cultural and ecological attractions exist, and (5) Bali lies in close proximity to populations possessing discretionary wealth that support tourism (including Australia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia and Japan.). The interest in Bali tourism goes back at least to the early 20th century when the Dutch opened a tourist bureau to promote the Dutch East Indies that extended to Bali (Copeland & Murni, 2010). The development of a tourism infrastructure in Bali and the arrival of wealthy aristocrats resulted in Bali being nicknamed “the Last Paradise.” After Indonesia won independence, Bali's tourism sector continued to expand. Positioning itself as Bali as a destination for leisure travel, growth rates of 8%e10% annually been the highest in Indonesia (Copeland & Murni, 2010). This rapid expansion in tourism over the past thirty-five years has seen the average annual number of foreign visitors growing from 153,030 in 1981 to in 2,576,142 in 2010 (Bali Tourism Board, 2011). Although terrorist threats existed in the first years of the 21st century, they have subsided and no longer discourage tourists as the tourism industry continued to exhibit rapid growth (Tsiotsou & Ratten, 2010). 3. Method The benefits of a qualitative approach to entrepreneurship research are becoming increasingly recognized by both academics and practitioners because it can delve more deeply into understanding the complex psychosocial issues that are part of women’s entrepreneurship (Ramadani et al., 2015). This study utilized a qualitative methodology by including a series of semi-structured face-to-face interviews with female owners of small restaurants located in the Denpasar and Badung districts of Bali. A purposeful snowball sample of nine Balinese women restaurant managers was selected across a wide range of tourism services because of the emphasis on food in the informal economy and the number of female entrepreneurs starting food related businesses. This helped to provide both theoretical and literal replication (Yin, 1994) based on two dimensions of (1) small restaurants, and (2) over 5 years of work experience. This method helped to formulate a more intellectual strategy rather than the simple demographic stratification of epidemiological studies (Marshall, 1996). Nine females who granted permission to conduct in depth face to face interviews were willing to participate in, and potentially benefit from, this study and considered themselves active participants in entrepre€ m, Hellstro € m, neurship and innovation activities. Following Hellstro and Berglund (2002), it is important to note that this study is not designed to make generalizations about behaviors and characteristics of all Indonesian women restaurant owners, but rather to focus upon those in Bali as a distinct group. In-depth interviews using a semi-structured protocol were conducted by two interviewers. Each interviewer was thoroughly briefed on the study's

54

K. Tajeddini et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

objectives and received training in field interviewing. One interviewer was fluent in both the native language and English. Both interviewers had prior experience in both the study and practice of entrepreneurship and social science. All interviews were recorded and transcribed. The interviews ranged in length from one to 2 h, and were conducted over a six month period. Responses were confined to the respondents' actual, practical experiences such as risk taking, innovation, and proactiveness within their businesses, and usually based on specific instances of implementation of entrepreneurship. A copy of the instrument used when conducting the interviews is included in an appendix. A summary of respondents is shown in Table 1.

4. Research procedures The interview data were collected through in-depth interviews, which took place on restaurant premises. This method was chosen because a less structured approach facilitates the incorporation of more detailed probing into specific issues raised by the interviewees (Eldabi, Irani, Paul, & Love, 2002). Interviews began with general inquiries regarding the professional background of the participant, the ambience of the establishment, and a description of target customers. With these preliminaries completed, the respondents were encouraged to cite specific examples of business and tourism, which were discussed in detail. Main questions relating to the subject were brought up and continuously revisited during the interview. A complete list of questions was distributed to interviewees beforehand to allow time for consideration and to establish an atmosphere of trust between the two fieldworkers and the informant. A commitment to confidentiality was assured. In addition to audio recording, the interviews were documented by detailed note taking as recommended by Lofland, Snow, Anderson, and Lofland (1984). Particular attention was given to key quotations that illustrate relevant aspects of the subject (Tajeddini & Trueman, 2008, 2014). An inductive approach involving “meaning units” (MUs) was used to analyze the responses € m et al. (see O'Donoghue, 2010 for details). In doing so, Hellstro (2002) recommend that we first transcribed the notes for ease of comparison, and the transcripts were then crosschecked for accuracy and reliability. The text was broken down into discrete parts, not according to syntactic rules (e.g. sentences) but with respect to € m et al., 2002; Tajeddini, change of meaning in the text (Hellstro 2009; Tajeddini, 2013). In this method, interviews transcripts were read in detail to identify MUs: meaningful segments of text ^ te , Salmela, that can be used to support an emerging theory (Co Trudel, Baria, & Russell, 1995). The themes identified in the analysis included overt and covert beliefs in the equality of gender in business, work availability, and perceptions of gender in Balinese society.

5. An overview of the informants Data were collected from the interviews that dealt with the restaurant industry (particularly in the Denpasar and Badung districts) and with a focus upon women business owners. Providing profiles of the women who participated in this project is useful and provided in Table 1, which shows that informants were very diverse in terms of their educational qualifications and ages. Some respondents had different family compositions but all were married. The range of experience varied from 8 years to 29 years reflecting the diversity of the respondents. In addition, the restaurants in which the respondents worked ranged from having 3 to 40 employees. This variation provided a wide variety of responses and perspectives. Although this sample was not used to provide a statistical analysis, it does offer vital clues regarding these women, the influences impacting them, and their responses. 6. Findings: contributing factors 6.1. Gender According to Balinese Hinduism and adat (traditional practices), women and men are considered to be equal (Wiratmaja, 1991). Nevertheless, a de facto hierarchy of the sexes exists that place women on the lower rungs of the scale (see Hermawati & Kindon, 1993). The culture encourages women to adhere to the Five Duties of Women (Panca Dharma Wanita) which includes (1) being a loyal companion to the husband, (2) managing the household, (3) educating and providing guidance to children, (4) earning supplementary income as required, and (5) being a useful member of the community (Suryakusuma, 1991: 52). This code is consistent with the premise that women have traditionally been economically autonomous in Bali's informal economic sector. Women have a tradition of working in small businesses in order to provide for their families' needs (Kindon, 1993). The research reported here demonstrates that this cultural pattern continues to be important. Decision making by Indonesian business women can be grouped into at least three categories. First, in some instances women make their own decisions. On other occasions women make decisions after consulting with their husbands, parents, and/or relatives. Lastly, in some cases husbands dominate the decision making process (Firdausy, 1999). The specific women interviewed for this project all fell into the second category (i.e. they made decisions in consultation with family members. Respondent (9), for example notes: “My husband supported me to open and run this business. So, if there is any decision that I should make, especially if it is related to my family, I always ask his opinion. However, I'm free to spend the money as I wish. I can buy whatever I like and I can give whoever I want. I'm not dependent on him anymore.” In parallel fashion, respondent (8) states: “I always ask my husband and children regarding everything I

Table 1 Profiles of respondents. Person

Age

Qualification

Marital Status

Number of Children

Experience (years)

Restaurant Scale

Number of Employees

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

25 36 37 41 42 46 49 61 67

High School Diploma High School Junior High Diploma High School High School Junior High Junior High

Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Married Married

1 2 0 2 3 3 4 3 4

8 17 12 3 15 15 14 25 29

Small Small Small Small Medium Small Small Medium Small

3 17 6 5 40 14 8 20 8

Note: Restaurant Scale: Small: 1e19 Employees and Medium: 20e99 Employees.

K. Tajeddini et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

want to do, if they agree, I continue, if not, I'll stop.” Similarly, respondent (3) suggests that “It is not good for a woman to make her own decision. Everything should be consulted with my husband and family.” These responses are consistent with Balinese culture and traditions. According to Kindon (1993), in almost all levels of decision-making (governmental policies and the traditional indigenous adat system), men dominate the leadership positions, situation that provides them with greater control over the decision making process. Kindon (1993), furthermore, found that in Bali women are often depicted as too emotional to make rational decisions. Although women may be viewed as something of an underclass, the women had pride in their sex. Thus, Respondent (6) states that “… Regarding … income generation, Balinese women are not dependent to their husbands. Women are stronger than men. You may even see women as masons, women laying bricks for construction or breaking stones to pave a road. They know what responsibility means. On the other hand, men do whatever they like to do, like gambling or cock fights. Rarely [do] you find them as cheap labors. But, they are expected to respect and honor of the family and household. How sad it is!” Even though the informants believed women are strong and have potential, they lament that they face obstacles. Respondent (2) explains that “Most of women in Bali get married soon. It is true that they have many opportunities, but if there is no motivation and skill, isn't [it] difficult? [Regarding requests for operating capital] it is not possible for them to ask for aid from their husbands, they will not give it.” Respondent (5) believes this inequality might drive women into starting their own businesses. She states “Women are responsible to support their husbands … by being [the] family income earner as well as household manager. However, women are not encouraged to take part in … [the] decision making process or seek to become leaders. This may be one reason many women choose to work in informal sector.” These attitudes regarding gender are portrayed in Table 2. 7. Religion and ethnicity Throughout the world, religions dictate dietary restrictions. This is true in Bali as well as elsewhere. In particular, Muslims who adhere to their religion avoid pork and honor strict dietary requirements (the Halal system). The Halal system also requires that the name of Allah must by invoked by a Muslim before an animal is slaughtered. Restrictions upon diet such as these, of course, can have serious implications for the hospitality and restaurant industry. Muslim patrons of restaurants tend to prefer establishments that are owned and managed by fellow Muslims because they fear Balinese restaurants are likely to use pork that Muslims avoid. This issue can create a handicap for non-Muslims who operate in the catering industry. In this regard, informant (6) states that “There are so many tourists in Bali and most of them are fanatic with certain beliefs. Even though there is a ‘Halal’ label and the cook is Muslim, if

55

they find that the owner is Balinese, they go away. This issue is difficult to overcome. Maybe that is one reason that many restaurant entrepreneurs from Java are more successful here.” Similarly, respondent (7) notes “In Bali, there is a chaos related with ‘Halal’ and ‘non-Halal’ restaurants. Sometimes, restaurants which are owned by Balinese put ‘Halal’ label in their restaurants. It creates confusion for Muslims, especially tourists from Java.” Because the Balinese are a minority ethnic group, their distinctiveness sometimes works against them when they participate in the hospitality and restaurant industry. The strict dietary code of the Muslim religion compounds this problem. These statements are also consistent with the destination attributes literature indicating that tangible and intangible aspects (e.g., availability of Halal food) influence Muslim tourists in choosing their holiday destination (Mussalam & Tajeddini, 2015). 8. Behavioral decision making As discussed above, a useful strategy to document the findings of qualitative research was employed to select and discuss particular responses that are thought to be particularly revealing. In specific, key responses are discussed in terms of the relevant information they reveal. In particular, self-esteem, responses to economic circumstances, a proactive style and networking/innovative habits were discussed. The findings are reported below. 9. Enhancing self-esteem The findings of this research indicate that the informants benefited in multiple ways form business ownership. Typically, however, they were initially driven to their decision by necessity and opportunity. Respondent (4), for example, states that “… After I started the business, I felt my husband appreciated me more in everything I do. I also feel that I am respected in the community.” Closely related to the respect that was gained is the fact that the informants indicated that they gained a greater self-esteem. This increased confidence, self-respect, confidence, and prestige is related to the fact that they were making a financial contribution to the household. They also gained confidence through their contact with customers and patrons. Similarly, Respondent (3) admits “… I felt bad by just staying at home and depending upon my husband. Women have the same rights and obligations as men; we [as women] have to stand by ourselves. If I have my own income, my man will not say that I ask too much from him. I also need to support my parents in the village. Because both my husband and I love to cook, we decided to open a food stall.” These responses are consistent with the findings of researchers (such as Gürol & Atsan, 2006; Tajeddini & Mueller, 2009, 2012) who note that entrepreneurs exhibit a higher degree of self-esteem than the population in general. The informants in this research project indicate that their participation in business helped them develop a positive identity and image of themselves (see Mahto, Davis, Pearce, & Robinson, 2010).

Table 2 Perceptions of the impact of gender. Issue

Analysis

Overt belief Covert belief Work Available

The overt system belief of the Balinese emphasizes the equality of the sexes. A covert traditional holds that males to be superior to females. Men often enjoy rights and privileges that are denied to women. For a variety of reasons, most women are forced to settle for low paying laboring positions. These women are held back by their lower levels of education (and/or a lack of adequate training) and by cultural norms. As a result, they are available to work in small informal businesses The informants portrayed men as lazy idlers who waste their time in diversions of no economic value while women work hard. The informants portrayed women as strong, hardworking, and responsible to their families even when receiving minimal support from their men.

Depictions of men Depictions of women

Discussion Apparently, a covert tradition of male superiority and dominance exists. The informants indicates the men in their lives tended to exploit this situation. The informants indicated that women work very hard under trying conditions and are responsible.

56

K. Tajeddini et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

10. A proactive orientation Some of these respondents realize that women entrepreneurs have to be strategically proactive in order to effectively cater to their customer base. Some of the informants introduced different cuisines in Bali. They recall that building customer demand took a long time. Respondent (8), recalls, “… When I wanted to open this restaurant, I was wondering what kind of food is suitable for Muslims. It was very difficult to find restaurants, which offer Halal food. I tried to introduce ‘Ayam Taliwang’ from Lombok, a spicy and salty food that fit with Balinese taste.” Similarly, Respondent (3) says, “… I was the first to sell ‘Coto Makassar’ in Bali. I am happy that many people like it. In specific, visitors from the Netherlands like it so much, some of my patrons even took the food to their home country”. These women, therefore, engage in a sophisticated and systematic process of observing what their customers want, taking risks by introducing new products, and responding to demand. 11. Innovation and marketing communication Some of the informants mentioned that promotions, networking, and innovation are important tactics that can use useful in competitive markets, In addition, they felt that pursuing these options incurs minimal risk. Respondent (7), for example, states that “The menus have been devised on a trial and error basis, according to the sales and customer preferences.” In addition, the informants understood the importance of the “marketing concept” which affirms that “customers are kings” and their wants and needs much be respected. Thus, informant (2) notes “Promotion and having good connections with our customers are the most important strategy to survive. Moreover, if the customers are satisfied and they keep coming.” Similarly, Respondent (6) states, “Actually … [my] target customers are the students who live near this restaurants, that's why I provide the food at an affordable price. However, since I offer ten percent discount to tour guides, many international tourists are brought here.” This evidence is consistent with earlier research indicating that entrepreneurs are considered to have more behavioural traits including being innovative, proactive, and prone to take calculated risks (Sarri & Trihopoulou, 2005). 12. Tourism and women in Bali The tourism industry is highly labor-intensive and a valuable source of unskilled employment in rural areas. As a result, tourism is especially attractive to women in both the formal and informal sectors (ILO, 2011). Women work in a variety of tourism roles, as both employees and as business owners/managers. In Bali, most female tourism workers tend to earn above the minimum wage. Reflecting upon benefits to the local economy, Respondent (6) affirms that, “… Tourism significantly effects the economy of Bali and increases family welfare. In addition, tourism gives women many opportunities to grow and expand their businesses.” In addition, Respondent (7) summaries that, “Tourism and service industries are developing rapidly in … [Bali], which creates many [job] opportunities [including a chance to own a small business]. I firmly believe that Balinese women are very hard working people.” The shift towards tourism in the mainstream economy has resulted in many small scale informal business being established. In this regard, Respondent (8) recognizes that “Because of tourism development, many hotels, restaurants, shops were built. Many people, including women, shifted their jobs from primary sectors, as farmers, to tertiary industry, as employees in hotels or restaurants.” The informal sector has increased the participation of women in the hospitality industry. As a result, many female business owners have emerged as relatively well off financially. Despite a heavy

workload, women participating in the informal tourism sector gain greater control over their lives and greater economic independence than other women (Wilkinson & Pratiwi, 1995). The hospitality industry, furthermore, provides a socially acceptable way for women to earn income through an extension of traditional gender roles. In a country that is coming to be known for sex tourism, such socially acceptable options are welcome. In addition, women are able to pursue restaurant work while simultaneously satisfying their family responsibilities (Long & Kindon, 1997). Women often cycle from one segment of the tourism industry to another. Respondent (3), for example states “A large number of Balinese women work at hotels or restaurants as employees, until they get married. At that point they tend to quit their jobs and work in the informal sector (opening a warung or making handicrafts at home, which is easier for them if they need to take care of their families.” In Bali, the influence of tourism upon food stalls and small restaurants is an example of traditional institutions evolving to take advantage of emerging (tourism) opportunities. Although relatively few international tourists from outside Asia eat at warungs, these small family-owned establishments serve a wide range of local employees, especially in the tourism industry. According to some respondents, the number of restaurants and warungs in Denpasar and Badung areas is increased because of a growing demand. In this regard, Respondent (4) states that “Tourism affects my business, indirectly, because most of my customers work in tourism industry, nearby here. They work in hotels … If the business at their hotels increases, they are more willing to spend their money. In contrast, if they earn less, my sales decline.” Respondent (7) continues this chain of thought: “My customers mostly work in hotels and travel agencies. Tourism is the major industry in Bali; if it keeps expanding, the cash flow in Bali will get better.” Although mainstream Western tourists seldom not eat at informal food stalls, domestic tourists and those from Asia are patrons. Respondent (1) recalls that “Many of my customers are domestic tourists, especially Javanese”. 13. New target markets Female tourism entrepreneurs in Bali are focusing on new target markets to increase their profits and develop new kinds of products. This is important as typically most businesses have been informal food stalls and restaurants primarily serving local people, and Asians. But this might be changing as some adventurous Westerners, for example, actively seek out what they call “street food” in the belief that doing so provides a degree of authenticity to their travels. In particular, so-called “backpacker tourist”, is young, on a tight budget and interested in experiencing a culture on its own terms. As a result, these tourists shun modern and Westernized facilities that cater to “mainstream” tourists. As an alternative, these backpackers typically gravitate to informal restaurants and food stalls. This is the pattern in Central America, Asia, and other places (Walle, 2016). Other long term changes are impacting Bali and transforming economic opportunities. Thus, Respondent (6) states that “… Perhaps because Bali is getting more secure and safe, we are seeing more Western tourists. Many of them stay for several months and some even choose to live here. Therefore, they like to taste our food.” 14. Tourism concern in Bali The global tourism market is competitive and constantly changing based on consumer demand. This has meant that more female Balinese tourism entrepreneurs are concerned about the viability of their businesses particularly with the increase in multinationals entering the hospitality industry. Respondent (6), for example, says, “Bali is very attractive mainly because of its distinctive

K. Tajeddini et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

57

Table 3 Behavioral decision making. Issue

Analysis

Self Esteem

Women who own and manage small business often gain a higher degree of self-esteem and gain the respect of their family and the larger community. Women often choose to start businesses due to circumstances and needs. They report, however, that other benefits including psychological wellbeing results from their efforts. The informants indicated that they are constantly thinking strategically and adjusting their products and services to cater to demands. Networking and innovation were seen as easily accomplished and low risk ways of dealing with change and accepting new opportunities.

Circumstances Proactiveness Innovation/Marketing communication Tourism and women Potential Markets Tourism Concern

The growth of tourism has had a profound impact upon women who own and operate food stalls and small restaurants. Historically they have served employees in the hospitality industry. It appears that Western expatriates and young backpacking tourists might emerge as lucrative target markets. If so, adjustments might have to be made. Many rural and indigenous peoples are troubled by changes wrought by tourism and Westernization. The informants in this project were concerned even though they were intimately involved with tourism.

Discussion Although the businesses they run are small and their level of education typically minimal, it appears that the women who run and manage food stalls and small restaurants are strategic in their thinking and thoughtful in their actions. It is hoped that those dealing with them will recognize this fact and respond to their depth, abilities, and vision.

culture and unique rituals. Balinese culture is very different with the other areas in Indonesia. I'm happy that many foreign tourists come here to enjoy its beauty. However, the visitors also bring their lifestyle and a variety of clubs have opened. They are open day and night. Young people imitate their behavior, use drugs, and show affection in public. Nothing is taboo anymore.” Similarly, Respondent (8) says, “Bali has changed a lot, it is not pure anymore. As many foreigners come here, they have shifted the Balinese culture more and more. I feel that Bali is becoming westernized” Thus, women who own and manage food stalls and small restaurants respond to circumstances in a number of ways and are transformed accordingly. An overview of these impacts and influences is presented in Table 3. 15. Discussion and conclusion During the last decade, the role of gender in economic activity (Minniti & Nardone, 2008) has been the subject of extensive research, debate, and policy concerns as part of a wider interest entrepreneurship and business ownership among women (Harrison & Colin, 2007). The approach taken in this study was one of “listening” to a group of women who are small business owners in the informal hospitality and tourism industry. This study assessed the entrepreneurial characteristics of nine Balinese women entrepreneurs in hospitality and tourism industry who responded to adversity by introducing various elements of hospitality and tourism entrepreneurship. Moreover, the informants indicate that they are consciously or unconsciously willing to sacrifice growth and potential larger profits in order to avoid unacceptable risks. In addition, many women entrepreneurs lack mainstream marketing and management skills. The fact that they can combine professional and family responsibilities is an incentive to stay with small informal businesses. A wide number of influences including Balinese gender traditions, religion, ethnicity, education attainment, and marital status combine to build the ability and willingness of women to become business owners. In Bali, religion and ethnicity play important roles both the personal and professionals lives of people. Strong social, religious, ethnic networks, furthermore, often provide important financial and moral support for women who start their own businesses. Balinese women anticipate serving as supplementary wage earners as required. Women, however, are also expected to prioritize their role as wives, mothers, and homemakers. The flexibility offered by establishing small informal hospitality business facilities balancing employment and family responsibilities. This is

consistent with the findings of Sarri and Trihopoulou (2005) who state that the increasing interest in female entrepreneurship is “fed” by the continuous increase in the participation of women in the job market and the ownership of small businesses, which indicate the need for a reduction in the obstacles faced by them on a national level. In a nutshell, encouraging women to own and manage their own businesses can promote economic growth and development as well as increase the wellbeing of specific women and their families (Minniti & Nardone, 2008) reflecting the vision of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (2005). Although the situation of Bali is unique in some ways, it seems to reflect a pattern that exists elsewhere. In Central America, for example, parallels clearly exist (Walle, 2016). The fact that the United Nations is concerned with empowerment, education, and professional activity, indicates issues that extend far beyond Bali. It is hoped that while this research will illuminate key issues regarding Bali, it will also provide insights regarding other regions. Finally, further research is required to explore the operations these women running their businesses, the average initial investments, the actual and potential barriers to entry, the effectiveness of their management style, the ownership and leadership styles etc. It could also be of interest to understand whether the performance of entrepreneurship among women in Bali differs from those of ventures residing in other countries. For this purpose an international comparative study would certainly be highly beneficial.

References Achtenhagen, L., & Welter, F. (2011). ‘Surfing on the ironing board’ e The representation of women's entrepreneurship in German newspapers. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development: An International Journal, 23(9e10), 763e786. Al Mazroei, L., & Lynch, P. (2014). The experiences and meaning of empowerment for omani women in tourism entrepreneurship. In XVIII ISA world congress of sociology, Yokoyama, Japan. Bali Tourism Board. (2011). Number of foreign visitors arriving directly by nationality to Bali, 1981-2010. Retrieved from: http://bali.bps.go.id/series_data/tampil_ data_series.php. Ball, S. (2001). Entrepreneurship and small business development for the hospitality and tourism industry. BSc (Hons) hospitality management - Distance learning module workbook. Sheffield Hallam University. Bandem, I. M. (2003). Tourism in Bali: A cultural approach to development. Retrieved from: http://www.isi-dps.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2010/02/ Tourism-In-Bali.pdf. Bras, K., & Dahles, H. (1998). Women entrepreneurs and beach tourism in Sanur, Bali: Gender, employment opportunities, and government policy. Pacific Tourism Review, 1, 243e256. Brush, C. G., & Cooper, S. Y. (2012). Female entrepreneurship and economic development: An international perspective. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 24(1e2), 1e6. Copeland, J., & Murni, N. W. (2010). Secrets of Bali. Bangkok: Orchid Press.

58

K. Tajeddini et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 31 (2017) 52e58

^ te , J., Salmela, J., Trudel, P., Baria, A., & Russell, S. (1995). The coaching model: A Co grounded assessment of expert gymnastic coaches' knowledge. The Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 1e17. Cukier, J., Norris, J., & Wall, G. (1996). The involvement of women in the tourism industry of Bali, Indonesia. The Journal of Development Studies, 33(2), 248e270. CWBR. (2004). Capturing the impact: Women-owned businesses in the United States'. 1411 K Street, NW, Suite 1350,Washington, DC 20005: Center for Women's Business Research. De Vita, L., Mari, M., & Poggesi, S. (2014). Women entrepreneurs in and from developing countries: Evidences from the literature. European Management Journal, 32, 451e460. Eldabi, T., Irani, Z., Paul, R. J., & Love, P. E. D. (2002). Quantitative and qualitative decision-making methods in simulation modeling. Management Decision, 40(1/ 2), 64e74. Firdausy, C. M. (1999). Women entrepreneurs in SMEs in Indonesia. In women entrepreneurs in SMEs in the APEC region. APEC Project. Retrieved on November 12, 2011, from: http://www.apec.org/Groups/SOM-Steering-Committee-onEconomic-and-Technical-Cooperation/TaskGroups/~/media/Files/Groups/GFPN/ 99_aggi_entrep.ashx. Gherardi, S. (2015). Authoring the female entrepreneur while talking the discourse of work-family life balance. International Small Business Journal, 33(6), 649e666. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). (2010). In D. J. Kelley, C. G. Brush, P. G. Greene, & Y. Litovsky (Eds.), Women's report, the most comprehensive study ever conducted about the entrepreneurial activity of women across the globe. Babson College, and the Global Entrepreneurship Research Association (GERA). Gürol, Y., & Atsan, N. (2006). Entrepreneurial characteristics amongst university students: Some insights for entrepreneurship education and training in Turkey. Education and Training, 48(1), 25e38. Harrison, R. T., & Colin, C. M. (2007). Does gender Matter? Women business angels and the supply of entrepreneurial finance. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice May, 445e472. € m, T., Hellstro € m, C., & Berglund, H. (2002). The innovating Self: Exploring Hellstro self among a group of technological innovators. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(4), 267e286. Hermawati, P., & Kindon, S. (1993). Gender roles, relations and needs in the balinese development process. Student publication series research paper no.14. Waterloo, Ontarion: University Consortium on the Environment. International Labor Organization (ILO). (2011). Promoting decent work in a green economy. Retrieved from: www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_emp/% 40emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_152065.pdf. Jakarta Post. 2015. RI tourism leaps forward. Jakarta post, http://www. thejakartapost.com/news/2015/2005/2015/ri-tourism-leaps-forward.html. Accessed Dat May 2015, 2015. Kindon, S. (1993). Bali sustainable development Project: Gender and development training workshop, June 22-23 1992. University consortium on the environment publication series research paper no. 48. Waterloo, Ontario: University Consortium on the Environment. Langowitz, N., & Minniti, M. (2007). The entrepreneurial propensity of women, entrepreneurship theory and practice. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 341e364. Lofland, J., Snow, D., Anderson, L., & Lofland, L. H. (1984). Analyzing social settings: A guide to qualitative observation and analysis. Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth. Long, V. H., & Kindon, S. L. (1997). Gender and tourism development in Balinese Villages. In Sinclair, & M. Thea (Eds.), Gender, work and tourism (pp. 60e90). London: Routledge. Mahto, R. V., Davis, P. S., Pearce, J. A., & Robinson, R. B. (2010). Satisfaction with firm performance in family businesses. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 34(5), 985e1001. Marshall, M. N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practicedan international journal, 13(6), 522e525. Minniti, M., & Nardone, C. (2008). Being in someone Else's shoes: The role of gender in nascent entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 28(2), 223e238. Mussalam, G. Q., & Tajeddini, K. (2015). Tourism and Place Branding in Switzerland: How perceptions of place attributes for short and long visits can influence destination choice. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 26, 18e26. Otsuka, K., & Natsuda, K. (2015). The determinants of total factor productivity in the Malaysian automotive industry: Are government policies upgrading technological capacity? The Singapore Economic Review, 60(3), 1e18.

O'Donoghue, P. (2010). Research methods for sports performance analysis. New York: Routledge. Ramadani, V., Dana, L.-P., Gerguri,-Rashiti, S., & Tasaminova, T. (2013). Women entrepreneurs in the republic of Macedonia: Waiting for directions. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 19(1), 95e121. Ramadani, V., Gerguri-Rashiti, S., & Fayolle, A. (2015). Female entrepreneurship in transition economies: Trends and challenges. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Rao, A. S. (2013). World is classroom: The case of Univexcellence.com. Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies, 3(2), 1e9. Riding, A. L., & Swift, C. S. (1990). Women business owners and terms of credit: Some empirical findings of the Canadian experience. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(5), 327e340. Sarri, K., & Trihopoulou, A. (2005). Female entrepreneurs' personal characteristics and motivation: A review of the greek situation. Women in Management Review, 20(1), 24e36. Sexton, D. L. (1990). Female and male entrepreneurs: Psychological characteristics and their role in gender-related discrimination. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(1), 29e36. Starr, J., & Yudkin, M. (1996). Women entrepreneurs: A review of current research. Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College Centre for Research on Women. Steyaert, C., & Katz, J. (2004). Reclaiming the space for entrepreneurship in Society: Geographical, discursive, and social dimensions. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 16(May), 179e196. Suryakusuma, J. (1991). State Ibuism: The Social Construction of Womanhood in the Indonesian New Order. New Asian Vision6 (pp. 46e71). Tajeddini, K. (2009). Perceptions of learning among Swiss watch managers. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(7), 525e537. Tajeddini, K. (2013). Using grounded theory to model market orientation experiences at practice. International Journal of Business Excellence, 6(5), 553e571. Tajeddini, K., & Mueller, S. (2009). Entrepreneurial characteristics in Switzerland and the UK: A comparative study of techno-entrepreneurs. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 7(1), 1e25. Tajeddini, K., & Mueller, S. L. (2012). Corporate entrepreneurship in Switzerland: Evidence from a case study of swiss watch manufacturers. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 8(3), 355e372. Tajeddini, K., & Trueman, M. (2008). The potential for innovativeness: A tale of the swiss watch industry. Journal of Marketing Management, 24(1e2), 169e184. Tajeddini, K., & Trueman, M. (2014). Perceptions of innovativeness among Iranian hotel managers. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 5(1), 62e77. Tambunan, T. H. (2006). Development of small & Medium enterprises in Indonesia from the Asia- pacific perspective. Jakarta: LPFE-Usakti. Tan, J. (2008). Breaking the ‘‘Bamboo Curtain’’ and the ‘‘Glass Ceiling’’: The Experience of Women Entrepreneurs in High-Tech Industries in an Emerging Market. Journal of Business Ethics, 80, 547e564. The Millennium Development Goals Report. 2005. UN Report. NEW YORK, 2005: United Nation. Tsiotsou, R., & Ratten, V. (2010). Future research directions in tourism marketing. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 28(4), 533e544. Verheul, I., Van Stel, A., & Thurik, R. (2006). Explaining female and male entrepreneurship at the country level. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 18(2), 151e183. Walle, A. H. (2016). Outside perspectives and local traditions: Charting a strategic course for the Middle East. Middle East J. Management, 3(2), 95e109. Welsh, D. H. B., Memili, E., Kaciak, E., & Al Sadoon, A. (2014). Saudi women entrepreneurs: A growing economic segment. Journal of Business Research, 67, 758e762. Wilkinson, P., & Pratiwi, W. (1995). Gender and tourism in an Indonesian village. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2), 283e299. Wiratmaja, A. (1991). Hindu women in a projection (Wanita Hindu dalam Suatu Proyeksi). Bandung, Indonesia: Ganesa exact Bandung. Wright, L., & Tellei, V. C. (1993/1994). Women in management in Indonesia. International Studies of Management & Organization, 23(4), 19e45. Yin, R. K. (1994). In Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications. Zapalska, A. M., & Brozik, D. (2014). Female entrepreneurial businesses in tourism and hospitality industry in Poland. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 12(2), 7e13.