- Email: [email protected]
Ficus sur
C H A P T E R
21 Ficus sur Analike Blom van Staden, Namrita Lall Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
FIGURE 21 Fruits of Ficus sur (JMK, 2012a) (A), large specimen of F. sur (Wiebe, 2012) (B), leaves of F. sur (JMK, 2012b) (C), TLC chromatogram, Lane 1; myricetin, Lane 2; quercetin, Lane 3; catechin, Lane 4; F. sur extract (D), distribution of F. sur in sub-Saharan Africa (GBIF, 2017) (E), chemical structure of oleanane (F).
Underexplored Medicinal Plants from Sub-Saharan Africa https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816814-1.00021-1
139
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
140
21. Ficus sur
1. General description 1.1 Botanical nomenclature Ficus sur Forssk
1.2 Botanical family Moraceae
1.3 Vernacular names Broom cluster fig (English) Besem-trosvy (Afrikaans) Mogo-tshetlo (North Sotho) Umkhiwane (Xhosa) Umkhiwane (Zulu)
2. Botanical description Ficus sur is an evergreen tree that can grow up to 35 m in height. It has elliptic to ovate-shaped leaves that are very hairy. The fruits, figs, are produced in clusters and can be found in the spring and summer months, from September to March (Plantzafrica, 2007; Van Noort and Rasplus, 2014).
3. Distribution Ficus sur is not endemic to South Africa but is found in the Western Cape, up to North Africa stretching toward Senegal and the Arabian Peninsula. It is found mostly in woodlands and moist forests, although it has been seen on river banks and drier woodlands (Plantzafrica, 2007; Van Noort and Rasplus, 2014).
4. Ethnobotanical usage The fruit of F. sur is eaten by the indigenous people. The fruits are also mixed with other plants, such as Terminalia macroptera to treat snake bites. Ficus sur fruit is ground into flour and included in meals or drinks with red potassium and some amount of water, together with sugar or honey
7. Pharmacological properties
141
and is taken for up to 4 weeks to treat thyroid fever. The bark, on the other hand, is used as a compress for boils (Faleyimu et al., 2010; Inngjerdingen et al., 2004; Mabona et al., 2013).
5. Phytochemical constituents Compounds and phytochemical groups previously identified from F. sur are saponins, saponin glycosides, oleanane, ursine, tannins, flavonoids, anthracenosides, anthocyanins, coumarins, and steroids (Eldeen et al., 2005; Eldeen and Van Staden, 2007; Feleke and Brehane, 2005; Kunle et al., 1999; Ramde-Tiendrebeogo et al., 2012; SolomoneWisdom et al., 2011).
6. TLC fingerprinting of plant extract To observe the separation of the compounds of F. sur, 2 mg of the ethanolic extract was weighed out and dissolved in 200 mL ethanol. For the standards, myricetin, quercetin, and catechin (SigmaeAldrich Co. St Louis, MO, USA) were weighed out in the same manner as the extract and dissolved in 600 mL of ethanol. For the thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis of F. sur crude extract, silica gel 60 F254 TLC plates were used to observe the separation of the compounds present within the extract. Plate markings were made with a soft pencil and glass capillaries were used to spot the samples onto the TLC plate. Reference standards, myricetin, quercetin, and catechin, were spotted to determine whether it was present in the extract. The spots were left to dry completely before placing the plate in a TLC tank, which contained 10 mL eluent 9:1 dichloromethane: methanol solvent system. The plate was observed under ultraviolet (UV light) (long and short wavelength), followed by spraying with freshly prepared vanillin/sulfuric acid (2%) to detect the bands on the TLC plate.
7. Pharmacological properties Ficus sur has not been extensively researched for its in vitro and in vivo medicinal properties. Although it is a widely distributed and well-known plant in South Africa, there is still an opportunity for research and development regarding this plant.
142
21. Ficus sur
7.1 Antibacterial activity In one the leaves and stems of F. sur were collected and an ethanolic extract was prepared. The ethanol crude extract showed growth inhibitory activity against Propionibacterium acnes, American type culture collection (ATCC) 6919 and ATCC 11827 strains, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 500 mg/mL (Blom van Staden and Lall, 2018). No bactericidal effect was observed for F. sur. When the extract of F. sur was combined with the known antibiotic, tetracycline, the synergistic effect, at a ratio of 7:3, resulted in the MIC for the extract to reduce to 2.34 mg/mL, whereas the MIC of the drug reduced to 0.547 mg/mL for the ATCC 11827 strain. The synergistic effect, at a ratio of 5:5 for the ATCC 6919 strain, resulted in the MIC for the extract to reduce to 7.81 mg/mL, whereas the MIC of the drug reduced to 0.781 mg/mL (Blom van Staden and Lall, 2018). The MIC values recorded for the bark aqueous extract of F. sur for the different skin pathogens, namely Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, gentamycin methicillin-resistant S. aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 2223, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27858, Candida albicans ATCC 10231, Microsporum canis ATCC 3629, and Brevibacillus agri ATCC 51663, were >16.00 mg/mL. However, the MICs for the dichloromethane: methanol extracts were as follows; 0.75 mg/mL for S. aureus, 1.00 mg/mL for S. epidermidis ATCC 2223, 1.25 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa ATCC 27858, 2.00 mg/mL for C. albicans ATCC 10,231, >16.00 mg/mL for M. canis ATCC 3629, and 8.00 mg/mL for B. agri ATCC 51663. The MIC values recorded for the leaf aqueous extract of F. sur for the different skin pathogens, namely S. aureus ATCC 25923, methicillinresistant S. aureus, gentamycin methicillin-resistant S. aureus, S. epidermidis ATCC 2223, P. aeruginosa ATCC 27858, M. canis ATCC 3629, and B. agri ATCC 51663 were >16.00 mg/mL, except for C. albicans ATCC 10231 and M. canis ATCC 3629, which were found to be 4.00 mg/mL. However, the MICs for the dichloromethane: methanol leaf extracts were as follows; 4.00 mg/mL for S. aureus, 2.00 mg/mL for S. epidermidis ATCC 2223, 4.00 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa ATCC 27858, 1.00 mg/mL for C. albicans ATCC 10231, 1.00 mg/mL for M. canis ATCC 3629, and 2.00 mg/mL for B. agri ATCC 51663. Another study found that F. sur had a MIC of 2.5 for S. aureus and E. coli (Mabona et al., 2013; RamdeTiendrebeogo et al., 2012).
7.2 Antidiabetic activity The potential antidiabetic activity of the Ficus species has previously been investigated. The antidiabetic activity was determined by evaluating
8. Additional information
143
the digestive enzymes regarding the antioxidant activity, polyphenol content, and glucose uptake by the muscle, fat, and liver cells. Antidiabetic studies included the investigation of insulin secretion and the effect on cells through cytotoxicity assays. The acetone extract of F. sur inhibited the a-amylase and a-glucosidase enzymes (Olaokun, 2012; Olaokun et al., 2013).
7.3 Phytochemical content and antioxidant The leaf and stem ethanolic extracts of F. sur, obtained from the University of Pretoria, were collected and screened for its phytochemical constituents. The extract was tested for total tannins, saponins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, flavonoids, and total phenolics. The ethanol extracts of F. sur showed the presence of tannins, saponins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolics. Phenolic compounds are vital plant components, as they are mostly responsible for a plant’s antioxidant activity, via the interaction with free radicals and the prevention of the breakdown of hydro-peroxides. The flavonol content in F. sur was determined as 0.27 0.01 mg/g and the 50 % inhibitory concentration (IC50) value for the antioxidant activity against diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was found to be 31.83 0.55 mg/mL (RamdeTiendrebeogo et al., 2012).
8. Additional information 8.1 Therapeutic (proposed) usage Antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic
8.2 Safety data Not available
8.3 Trade information Not threatened, not endangered and abundant
8.4 Dosage Not available
144
21. Ficus sur
References SolomoneWisdom, G., Shittu, G., Agboola, Y., 2011. Antimicrobial and phytochemical screening activities of Ficus sur (Forssk). New York Science Journal 4 (1), 15e18. Blom van Staden, A., Lall, N., 2018. Medicinal plants as alternative treatments for progressive macular hypomelanosis. In: Medicinal Plants for Holistic Health and Well-Being, pp. 145e182. Eldeen, I., Van Staden, J., 2007. Antimycobacterial activity of some trees used in South African traditional medicine. South African Journal of Botany 73 (2), 248e251. Eldeen, I., Elgorashi, E., Van Staden, J., 2005. Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticholinesterase and mutagenic effects of extracts obtained from some trees used in South African traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 102 (3), 457e464. Faleyimu, O., Akinyemi, O., Idris, Y., 2010. Survey of forest plants used in traditional treatment of typhoid fever in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Journal of Biomedicine and Health Sceinces 6, 2. Feleke, S., Brehane, A., 2005. Triterpene compounds from the latex of Ficus sur I. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia 19 (2), 307e310. GBIF, 2017. Ficus sur Forssk. In: GBIF Secretariat (2017). GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Checklist dataset. https://doi.org/10.15468/39omei. accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-08-01. Inngjerdingen, K., Nerga˚rd, C.S., Diallo, D., Mounkoro, P.P., Paulsen, B.S., 2004. An ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for wound healing in Dogonland, Mali, West Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92 (2), 233e244. JMK, 2012a. Fig cluster on a Cape fig, near Louwsburg, KwaZulu-Natal. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ficus_sur,_vyetros,_b,_Louwsburg.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0). Accessed June 2018. JMK, 2012b. Fresh winter leaves of a Cape fig, near Louwsburg, KwaZulu-Natal. Argentine ants are patrolling the leaves. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Ficus_sur,_vars_winterblare,_Louwsburg.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0). Accessed June 2018. Kunle, O., Shittu, A., Nasipuri, R., Kunle, O., Wambebe, C., Akah, P., 1999. Gastrointestinal activity of Ficus sur. Fitoterapia 70 (6), 542e547. Mabona, U., Viljoen, A., Shikanga, E., Marston, A., Van Vuuren, S., 2013. Antimicrobial activity of southern African medicinal plants with dermatological relevance: from an ethnopharmacological screening approach, to combination studies and the isolation of a bioactive compound. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (1), 45e55. Olaokun, O.O., 2012. The Value of Extracts of Ficus Lutea (Moraceae) in the Management of Type II Diabetes in a Mouse Obesity Model. University of Pretoria. Olaokun, O.O., McGaw, L.J., Eloff, J.N., Naidoo, V., 2013. Evaluation of the inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes, antioxidant activity and polyphenolic content of extracts of ten African Ficus species (Moraceae) used traditionally to treat diabetes. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13 (1), 1. Plantzafrica, 2007. Marcini Govender. http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab. Accessed 30 July 2018. Ramde-Tiendrebeogo, A., Tibiri, A., Hilou, A., Lompo, M., Millogo-Kone, H., Nacoulma, O.G., Guissou, I.P., 2012. Antioxidative and antibacterial activities of phenolic compounds from Ficus sur Forssk. and Ficus sycomorus L.(Moraceae): potential for sickle cell disease treatment in Burkina Faso. International Journal of Brain and Cognitive Sciences 6 (1), 328e336. Wiebe, K., 2012. Cape fig in a garden in Kaapsehoop, Mpumalanga. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ficus_sur,_Kaapsehoop.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0). Accessed June 2018. Van Noort, S., Rasplus, J.Y., 2014. Ficus Glumosa. Figweb. http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/ Subgenus_Urostigma/Section_Galoglychia/Subsection_Platyphyllae/Ficus_glumosa.htm. Accessed 30 July 2018.
21 Ficus sur Analike Blom van Staden, Namrita Lall Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
FIGURE 21 Fruits of Ficus sur (JMK, 2012a) (A), large specimen of F. sur (Wiebe, 2012) (B), leaves of F. sur (JMK, 2012b) (C), TLC chromatogram, Lane 1; myricetin, Lane 2; quercetin, Lane 3; catechin, Lane 4; F. sur extract (D), distribution of F. sur in sub-Saharan Africa (GBIF, 2017) (E), chemical structure of oleanane (F).
Underexplored Medicinal Plants from Sub-Saharan Africa https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816814-1.00021-1
139
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
140
21. Ficus sur
1. General description 1.1 Botanical nomenclature Ficus sur Forssk
1.2 Botanical family Moraceae
1.3 Vernacular names Broom cluster fig (English) Besem-trosvy (Afrikaans) Mogo-tshetlo (North Sotho) Umkhiwane (Xhosa) Umkhiwane (Zulu)
2. Botanical description Ficus sur is an evergreen tree that can grow up to 35 m in height. It has elliptic to ovate-shaped leaves that are very hairy. The fruits, figs, are produced in clusters and can be found in the spring and summer months, from September to March (Plantzafrica, 2007; Van Noort and Rasplus, 2014).
3. Distribution Ficus sur is not endemic to South Africa but is found in the Western Cape, up to North Africa stretching toward Senegal and the Arabian Peninsula. It is found mostly in woodlands and moist forests, although it has been seen on river banks and drier woodlands (Plantzafrica, 2007; Van Noort and Rasplus, 2014).
4. Ethnobotanical usage The fruit of F. sur is eaten by the indigenous people. The fruits are also mixed with other plants, such as Terminalia macroptera to treat snake bites. Ficus sur fruit is ground into flour and included in meals or drinks with red potassium and some amount of water, together with sugar or honey
7. Pharmacological properties
141
and is taken for up to 4 weeks to treat thyroid fever. The bark, on the other hand, is used as a compress for boils (Faleyimu et al., 2010; Inngjerdingen et al., 2004; Mabona et al., 2013).
5. Phytochemical constituents Compounds and phytochemical groups previously identified from F. sur are saponins, saponin glycosides, oleanane, ursine, tannins, flavonoids, anthracenosides, anthocyanins, coumarins, and steroids (Eldeen et al., 2005; Eldeen and Van Staden, 2007; Feleke and Brehane, 2005; Kunle et al., 1999; Ramde-Tiendrebeogo et al., 2012; SolomoneWisdom et al., 2011).
6. TLC fingerprinting of plant extract To observe the separation of the compounds of F. sur, 2 mg of the ethanolic extract was weighed out and dissolved in 200 mL ethanol. For the standards, myricetin, quercetin, and catechin (SigmaeAldrich Co. St Louis, MO, USA) were weighed out in the same manner as the extract and dissolved in 600 mL of ethanol. For the thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis of F. sur crude extract, silica gel 60 F254 TLC plates were used to observe the separation of the compounds present within the extract. Plate markings were made with a soft pencil and glass capillaries were used to spot the samples onto the TLC plate. Reference standards, myricetin, quercetin, and catechin, were spotted to determine whether it was present in the extract. The spots were left to dry completely before placing the plate in a TLC tank, which contained 10 mL eluent 9:1 dichloromethane: methanol solvent system. The plate was observed under ultraviolet (UV light) (long and short wavelength), followed by spraying with freshly prepared vanillin/sulfuric acid (2%) to detect the bands on the TLC plate.
7. Pharmacological properties Ficus sur has not been extensively researched for its in vitro and in vivo medicinal properties. Although it is a widely distributed and well-known plant in South Africa, there is still an opportunity for research and development regarding this plant.
142
21. Ficus sur
7.1 Antibacterial activity In one the leaves and stems of F. sur were collected and an ethanolic extract was prepared. The ethanol crude extract showed growth inhibitory activity against Propionibacterium acnes, American type culture collection (ATCC) 6919 and ATCC 11827 strains, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 500 mg/mL (Blom van Staden and Lall, 2018). No bactericidal effect was observed for F. sur. When the extract of F. sur was combined with the known antibiotic, tetracycline, the synergistic effect, at a ratio of 7:3, resulted in the MIC for the extract to reduce to 2.34 mg/mL, whereas the MIC of the drug reduced to 0.547 mg/mL for the ATCC 11827 strain. The synergistic effect, at a ratio of 5:5 for the ATCC 6919 strain, resulted in the MIC for the extract to reduce to 7.81 mg/mL, whereas the MIC of the drug reduced to 0.781 mg/mL (Blom van Staden and Lall, 2018). The MIC values recorded for the bark aqueous extract of F. sur for the different skin pathogens, namely Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, gentamycin methicillin-resistant S. aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 2223, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27858, Candida albicans ATCC 10231, Microsporum canis ATCC 3629, and Brevibacillus agri ATCC 51663, were >16.00 mg/mL. However, the MICs for the dichloromethane: methanol extracts were as follows; 0.75 mg/mL for S. aureus, 1.00 mg/mL for S. epidermidis ATCC 2223, 1.25 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa ATCC 27858, 2.00 mg/mL for C. albicans ATCC 10,231, >16.00 mg/mL for M. canis ATCC 3629, and 8.00 mg/mL for B. agri ATCC 51663. The MIC values recorded for the leaf aqueous extract of F. sur for the different skin pathogens, namely S. aureus ATCC 25923, methicillinresistant S. aureus, gentamycin methicillin-resistant S. aureus, S. epidermidis ATCC 2223, P. aeruginosa ATCC 27858, M. canis ATCC 3629, and B. agri ATCC 51663 were >16.00 mg/mL, except for C. albicans ATCC 10231 and M. canis ATCC 3629, which were found to be 4.00 mg/mL. However, the MICs for the dichloromethane: methanol leaf extracts were as follows; 4.00 mg/mL for S. aureus, 2.00 mg/mL for S. epidermidis ATCC 2223, 4.00 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa ATCC 27858, 1.00 mg/mL for C. albicans ATCC 10231, 1.00 mg/mL for M. canis ATCC 3629, and 2.00 mg/mL for B. agri ATCC 51663. Another study found that F. sur had a MIC of 2.5 for S. aureus and E. coli (Mabona et al., 2013; RamdeTiendrebeogo et al., 2012).
7.2 Antidiabetic activity The potential antidiabetic activity of the Ficus species has previously been investigated. The antidiabetic activity was determined by evaluating
8. Additional information
143
the digestive enzymes regarding the antioxidant activity, polyphenol content, and glucose uptake by the muscle, fat, and liver cells. Antidiabetic studies included the investigation of insulin secretion and the effect on cells through cytotoxicity assays. The acetone extract of F. sur inhibited the a-amylase and a-glucosidase enzymes (Olaokun, 2012; Olaokun et al., 2013).
7.3 Phytochemical content and antioxidant The leaf and stem ethanolic extracts of F. sur, obtained from the University of Pretoria, were collected and screened for its phytochemical constituents. The extract was tested for total tannins, saponins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, flavonoids, and total phenolics. The ethanol extracts of F. sur showed the presence of tannins, saponins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolics. Phenolic compounds are vital plant components, as they are mostly responsible for a plant’s antioxidant activity, via the interaction with free radicals and the prevention of the breakdown of hydro-peroxides. The flavonol content in F. sur was determined as 0.27 0.01 mg/g and the 50 % inhibitory concentration (IC50) value for the antioxidant activity against diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was found to be 31.83 0.55 mg/mL (RamdeTiendrebeogo et al., 2012).
8. Additional information 8.1 Therapeutic (proposed) usage Antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic
8.2 Safety data Not available
8.3 Trade information Not threatened, not endangered and abundant
8.4 Dosage Not available
144
21. Ficus sur
References SolomoneWisdom, G., Shittu, G., Agboola, Y., 2011. Antimicrobial and phytochemical screening activities of Ficus sur (Forssk). New York Science Journal 4 (1), 15e18. Blom van Staden, A., Lall, N., 2018. Medicinal plants as alternative treatments for progressive macular hypomelanosis. In: Medicinal Plants for Holistic Health and Well-Being, pp. 145e182. Eldeen, I., Van Staden, J., 2007. Antimycobacterial activity of some trees used in South African traditional medicine. South African Journal of Botany 73 (2), 248e251. Eldeen, I., Elgorashi, E., Van Staden, J., 2005. Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticholinesterase and mutagenic effects of extracts obtained from some trees used in South African traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 102 (3), 457e464. Faleyimu, O., Akinyemi, O., Idris, Y., 2010. Survey of forest plants used in traditional treatment of typhoid fever in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Journal of Biomedicine and Health Sceinces 6, 2. Feleke, S., Brehane, A., 2005. Triterpene compounds from the latex of Ficus sur I. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia 19 (2), 307e310. GBIF, 2017. Ficus sur Forssk. In: GBIF Secretariat (2017). GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Checklist dataset. https://doi.org/10.15468/39omei. accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-08-01. Inngjerdingen, K., Nerga˚rd, C.S., Diallo, D., Mounkoro, P.P., Paulsen, B.S., 2004. An ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for wound healing in Dogonland, Mali, West Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 92 (2), 233e244. JMK, 2012a. Fig cluster on a Cape fig, near Louwsburg, KwaZulu-Natal. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ficus_sur,_vyetros,_b,_Louwsburg.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0). Accessed June 2018. JMK, 2012b. Fresh winter leaves of a Cape fig, near Louwsburg, KwaZulu-Natal. Argentine ants are patrolling the leaves. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Ficus_sur,_vars_winterblare,_Louwsburg.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0). Accessed June 2018. Kunle, O., Shittu, A., Nasipuri, R., Kunle, O., Wambebe, C., Akah, P., 1999. Gastrointestinal activity of Ficus sur. Fitoterapia 70 (6), 542e547. Mabona, U., Viljoen, A., Shikanga, E., Marston, A., Van Vuuren, S., 2013. Antimicrobial activity of southern African medicinal plants with dermatological relevance: from an ethnopharmacological screening approach, to combination studies and the isolation of a bioactive compound. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (1), 45e55. Olaokun, O.O., 2012. The Value of Extracts of Ficus Lutea (Moraceae) in the Management of Type II Diabetes in a Mouse Obesity Model. University of Pretoria. Olaokun, O.O., McGaw, L.J., Eloff, J.N., Naidoo, V., 2013. Evaluation of the inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes, antioxidant activity and polyphenolic content of extracts of ten African Ficus species (Moraceae) used traditionally to treat diabetes. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13 (1), 1. Plantzafrica, 2007. Marcini Govender. http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantab. Accessed 30 July 2018. Ramde-Tiendrebeogo, A., Tibiri, A., Hilou, A., Lompo, M., Millogo-Kone, H., Nacoulma, O.G., Guissou, I.P., 2012. Antioxidative and antibacterial activities of phenolic compounds from Ficus sur Forssk. and Ficus sycomorus L.(Moraceae): potential for sickle cell disease treatment in Burkina Faso. International Journal of Brain and Cognitive Sciences 6 (1), 328e336. Wiebe, K., 2012. Cape fig in a garden in Kaapsehoop, Mpumalanga. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ficus_sur,_Kaapsehoop.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0). Accessed June 2018. Van Noort, S., Rasplus, J.Y., 2014. Ficus Glumosa. Figweb. http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/ Subgenus_Urostigma/Section_Galoglychia/Subsection_Platyphyllae/Ficus_glumosa.htm. Accessed 30 July 2018.