- Email: [email protected]
Figs
C H A P T E R
21 Figs Shumaila Saif1, Muhammad Asif Hanif1, Rafia Rehman1, Maryam Hanif1, Oli Khan2, Sunil Khan3 1 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Department of Botany, Bangabasi College, Kolkata, India; 3 Department of Botany, Haripal Vivekananda College, Hooghly, India
O U T L I N E 1. Botany 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History/Origin 1.3 Location/Demography 1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology
274 274 275 276 276
2. Chemistry
277
3. Postharvest Technology
278
4. Processing
279
5. Value Addition
280
6. Uses
281
7. Pharmacological Uses 7.1 Antibacterial Activity 7.2 Antiviral Activity 7.3 Antioxidant Activity 7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity 7.5 Antipyretic Activity
282 282 283 283 283 284
Medicinal Plants of South Asia https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00021-5
273
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
274
21. FIGS
7.6 Antiangiogenic Activity 7.7 Hypoglycemic and Hypocholesterolemic Activity
284 284
8. Side Effects and Toxicity
284
References
285
Further Reading
286
1. BOTANY 1.1 Introduction The common fig (Ficus carica L.) (Fig. 21.1) is a deciduous tree that belongs to the Moraceae family (Mulberries). In ancient times, it had been used as an ornamental plant and a fruit. The genus Ficus contains
FIGURE 21.1 Fig tree and fruits.
1. BOTANY
275
approximately 2000 subtropical and tropical trees, shrubs, and vine species native to the hot parts of world. The uncertainty in the exact number of species within the genus is largely attributed to a huge variability among the constituent species. Variability is prevalent in morphology, growth habit, flower color, leaves, stems, and chemical composition. Fig self-pollinates very easily, and it does not require pollination by a wasp of another tree, but it can be pollinated by fig wasp to produce seeds (Stover et al., 2007). F. carica is known by different names in different regions of world. In English, it is typically known as “fig.” In Pakistan, specifically in Urdu, it is called “anjir” or “angeer.” It is also known as “higo” or “brevo” in Spanish, “fieguier” in French, “feige” in German, “kerma” in Arabic, and “figo” in Italian and Portuguese (Flaishman et al., 2008; Joseph and Raj, 2011a). Probably the most familiar fig is the common fig (F. carica); however, it has a wide range of varieties and cultivars. The cultivars of fig have various unique features such as compressed to spreading growth habits, fruit color, taste, shape, size, and plant hardiness (Himelrick, 1999).
1.2 History/Origin F. carica is native to the Mediterranean area from Afghanistan to Portugal and southwest Asia, where it was generally cultivated for its fruits in ancient times. The term fig originates from a Latin word “ficus.” In the southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula, it was first brought into cultivation by at least 3000 BC. After its cultivation, it circulated into Iran, Turkey, Syria, and all the Mediterranean countries. The fig was taken to most subtropical areas of the Western Hemisphere during the era of exploration following the discovery of America by Columbus. Dushevskii and Kazas (1985) described two forms of F. carica from the vicinity of Mangup Kale, a settled area on Mt. Baba Dag in Crimea abandoned in 1783. They are thought to be descendants of figs cultivated on the plateau from the 12th century (Hiwale, 2015). In the 1500s, fig trees were familiarized to England and Mexico, and in 1669 to the Eastern United States, and to California in 1881. Common figs were successfully cultivated all over California and the Gulf states, while Smyrna fig, which was not native to California, did not fruit until the cross-pollination process in plants by a tiny wasp. Then in 1899 the wasp (Blastophaga psenes) was introduced that cross-pollinates the common fig (F. carica) and closely related Ficus palmate. The Greek, Roman, and Egyptian civilizations were fond of the fruit. Egyptians made pastries from figs, and the Greeks forbade their export due to their high value. Romans considered the fig tree to be symbolic of the civilization’s prosperity (Condit, 1947).
276
21. FIGS
The most cited fruit in the Bible and in the Garden of Eden is a fig. It was also mentioned in the book of Genesis that Adam and Eve, after eating the “prohibited fruit” from Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, covered themselves with fig leaves. Moreover, illustrations of leaves of fig were used to cover the genitals of naked figures in sculpture and painting. The use of the fig leaf as a defender of humility has entered the language (Flaishman et al., 2008). Different countries have strong cultural connections with figs, and the fruit has many roles in political and religious histories. For example, the Hadith quotes Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) claiming that figs surely “descended from paradise.”
1.3 Location/Demography Although fig is grown in a variety of climatic and environmental conditions, the optimum conditions are found in countries with dry and sunny areas. Warmth, light, and moisture are the key ecologic requirements for fig cultivation. Fig is less resistant to frost, and these spend the summer outdoors and are overwintered in a frost-free, cool place. However, it requires basic soil for cultivation. Fig cultivation is widely observed in different countries: Pakistan, Afghanistan, and some regions of Eastern and South India. The top five producers of figs are Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, and Iran. The United States placed at the sixth position in world production (Crisosto et al., 2011).
1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology Fig is a monoecious, deciduous tree or large shrub. It is generally 15e20 ft tall, with spreading branches, and the diameter of the trunk is hardly beyond 7 ft. Leaves are single, large, alternate (equal to 1 ft in length), and bright green in color. Flowers rise from the axils of old leaves. It exhibits a structure of receptacles. Female flowers occupy the upper part of the receptacle, and the lower part has male flowers. Syconium, the ripened receptacle, comprises a huge amount of small whitish seeds, which can be small, large, medium, and range in number per fruit from 30 to 1600. Fruit is a syconium, is pyriform fleshy, solitary, 5e8 cm long, very sweet, and tasty (Mawa et al., 2013). The bark is flat. Outer bark is ashcolored, exfoliated through asymmetrical, rounded flakes. The sections of middle bark look light reddish brown. The layers of light yellowish or orange-brown-colored granular tissue are present in the inner bark (Badgujar et al., 2014). Fig requires warm, temperate, or Mediterranean conditions. The areas having an arid or semiarid environment, plenty of sunshine, high summer temperature, and moderate winter are suitable for the plant
2. CHEMISTRY
277
development. Although plants can survive at temperature as high as 45 C, beyond 39 C the quality of fruit deteriorates. Fig requires calcareous, well-drained, medium to heavy and deep (about 1 m) soil. While for better root establishment, light sandy, shallow, and deep soils are suitable. It grows well in soils with a pH ranging from 7 to 8. In general, the limiting factor for its cultivation is climate rather than soil.
2. CHEMISTRY The fruit of the fig tree has a fleshy and succulent pulp and is sweetened slightly. It is appreciated for dessert. A large number of fig ecotypes have been described on the basis of their taste, flavor, and other phenotypic characters. Fig color varies from dark purple to green. Cedrol, gmuurolene, manoyl oxide, a-terpinyl acetate, abietatriene, a-pinene, and pentadecanal are the main components of leaves, while cedrol, a-terpinyl acetate, manoyl oxide, a-pinene, and abietadiene are main components of the fruits. However, the aroma of leaves and fruits is the outcome of a complex mixture of aldehydes, esters, alcohols, terpenoids compounds, and others, at low concentrations that reach the olfactory epithelium, intensely contributing to the taste of foods. Most of recognized mixtures certainly add to the pleasant taste and aroma of fig fruits to different extents (Soltana et al., 2017). F. carica contains a large amount of minerals, carbohydrates, vitamins, sugars, dietary fiber, organic acids, and phenolic compounds. Fig is an extremely nourishing fruit. It has an excellent amount of calories, proteins, iron, calcium (higher than milk), and maximum fiber content. Figs are fat and cholesterol free and contain a high concentration of amino acids. Sugars and organic acids are also found in fig that influence their quality, like other fruit species. It also contain phenolic substances, which contribute significantly to their value, because it was proved that their consumption shown a positive result on health of humans (Veberic et al., 2008). The dried and fresh figs contain a huge amount of fiber and polyphenols. Figs are a rich source of phenolic compounds like proanthocyanidins. Fig is a very poor source of vitamin C but very rich in sugar, next to dates (Mawa et al., 2013). Total sugar content of fresh fig is 16% and of dried is 52%. Besides essential or fixed oils, the plant also includes coumarins, sterols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and triterpenoids, etc., in different parts of the plant. The compounds found in F. carica leaf extracts are quercetin, rutin, carotene, luteolin, psoralen, and bergapten. The latex contains resin, rennin, albumin, cerin, caoutchouc, sugar and malic acid, proteolytic enzymes, lipase, diastase, esterase, catalase and peroxidase, 6O-linoleyl-b-D-glucosyl-b-sitosterol, 6-O-oleyl-b-D-glucosyl-b-sitosterol, and 6-O-palmitoyl-b-D-glucosyl-b-sitosterol. Fruits have cyanidin-3-
278
21. FIGS 1
O
(E)-2-Hexenal 2
O
O
(Z)-3-Hexenyl benzoate 3
O
n-nonanal
H
4 H HO
Phyton
FIGURE 21.2 Potent chemical components of Fig.
orhamnoglucoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cholesterol, insoluble sugars, protein, saturated fat, vitamin A, vitamin C, sodium, iron, and calcium. Roots contain bergapten and psoralen (Chawla, 2012; Joseph and Raj, 2011b; Patil and Patil, 2011b). The fig essential oil contains (Z)-3-hexeny benzoate, n-nonanal, n-tetracosane, (E)-2-hexenal n-hexadecanoic acid, and n-docosane (Ayoub et al., 2010). Some potent chemical components of Fig are shown in Fig. 21.2.
3. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY Conventionally, the best harvesting times of figs are, first, in early summer (late June) and, second, in late summer or early fall (August or September). The exact harvesting timing of the main crop depends on conditions and climate. For example, cultivators in cooler coastal areas generally harvest their figs during October and November. The typical
4. PROCESSING
279
harvest time is between June and September for warmer and inland climates. Figs must be allowed to ripen completely on the tree before they are picked. They will not ripen if picked when immature. A ripe fruit will be slightly soft and starting to bend at the neck. Harvest the fruit lightly to prevent yellowing. Fresh figs do not keep well and can be stored in the refrigerator for only 2e3 days. Some fig cultivars are delicious when dried. They take 4e5 days to dry in the sun and 10e12 hours in a dehydrator. Dried figs can be stored for 6e8 months (Yemis¸ et al., 2012). In some tropical locations, fig trees may bear certain fruit all year, with increased production in early summer and midwinter. Figs are broadly used up fresh, either peeled or not. Fresh fruits obviously have a short, postharvest life of 7e10 days, but with a combination of cooler conditions and a CO2-enriched atmosphere, the fruit can be stored for up to 2e 4 weeks. Figs are also very widespread as dried fruit, since drying prolongs their storability (Veberic et al., 2008). It is best to use, eat, dry, or freeze figs as soon as possible after harvest. If the figs are dried either in the sun or using a dehydrator, they will last for up to 3 years in the freezer. The figs must be washed and dried and placed on a baking sheet and frozen until hard. Once the fruit is hard, it can be transferred to a container and stored in the freezer for up to 3 years. Fresh figs will keep in the refrigerator when placed in a single layer on a tray. The tray should be placed in the coldest part of refrigerator, generally the crisper. However, the figs must not be placed close to fresh vegetables, as they can cause the veggies to rot quickly.
4. PROCESSING Fig is consumed in diverse ways for various purposes. Fresh figs are subjected to two different drying processes, i.e., oven drying and sun drying. The fig is completely ready when it drops to ground. To remove soil and rubbish, the fig must be washed. Trim off damaged and cracked parts. Before proceeding, perfectly dry them with a dishcloth or paper towel. A sharp peeling knife must be used to cut the figs in half from stem to tip. They will dry more rapidly by cutting in half. For this purpose, a drying rack must be used, or purchase screening with adequate ventilation holes. A cover of cheesecloth must be used to line the rack before settings the figs on top. The figs must not be dried on a solid sheet. For proper drying, they need airflow from below and above. If a rack with very large holes is used, then a double layer of cheesecloth must be used. As they dry, they will be protected from insects by using this double layer of cheesecloth. The cheesecloth must be strongly placed around the drying rack, locking it with tape if necessary, to guaranteed it will not come loose. This method works best when it is very dry and hot outside.
280
21. FIGS
The figs must not be placed in the shade because they will not dry as rapidly, and then they can spoil before they are preserved properly. Every evening, take them inside if temperature does not fall more than 20 at night. Turn the figs over, so they dry uniformly from all sides in the mornings. When the outside seems rubbery and no juice may be seen on the inside on squeezing, then the figs are ready. An oven can be used to finish if the figs remain a little tacky. To make them last even longer, the dried figs must be stored in a dry and cool place or freeze them. The temperature of the oven must be adjusted to 140 F (60 C) because it is necessary to dry the figs at a low temperature. A food dehydrator can also be used to dry figs. Wash figs carefully with water. Any broken parts are carefully trimmed away and perfectly dry them with a paper towel or dishcloth. Cut the figs in half, and by using a sharp trimming knife, they can be sliced from stem to tip, lengthwise. A rack with ventilation holes must be used to place them cut side up so the figs dry from below and above. The figs that do not dry evenly must be dried by using a regular baking pan. After placing those in the oven, prop the door of oven somewhat open to permit moisture to escape and prevent the figs from getting too hot and cooking instead of drying. During the drying process the figs must be turned occasionally. Figs must be allowed to stay in oven for up to 8e24 hours. When the outsides are rubbery and no juice may be seen on the inside on splitting one open, then the figs are dried. The dried figs can be stored in airtight vessels or freezer bags and must be kept in a refrigerator or freezer for approximately 18e24 months when appropriately stored. Essential oil can be extracted from figs through hydro distillation. Essential oil is concentrated in the leaves. Essential oil has rich amount of oxygenated compounds (Ayoub et al., 2010; Zito et al., 2013).
5. VALUE ADDITION The fresh or dried fig can be eaten but is mainly used in making of jam and pickling. The fig paste, fig powder, fig concentrate, fig nuggets, and diced and sliced figs are considered food products including figs. In fig jam, preserves, and paste the natural flavor of figs can be preserved. For making fig concentrate, which replaces corn syrup and sucrose, the water is extracted from figs. Diced, chopped, and sliced figs are fused into food products. Figs are added to bars, cookies, and snacks when dried. Moreover, high-quality figs are used for fresh consumption, so few figs are canned. The oil is present in dried seeds of figs and is 30% fatty acids. The beneficial ingredients for health and beauty products such as soap, moisturizers, and fragrance are formed from the natural humectants of figs. In India, after the harvest of fruit, the leaves of figs are plucked and used for fodder. The leaves of figs are used as a source of
6. USES
281
perfume material because the leaves create a woody, mossy scent in southern France. Since the beginning of civilization, fresh and dry fig have mostly been used as food. The syrup of fig is used as a medicine for minor constipation. For domestic animals, the leaves of figs are traditionally consumed as a fodder. For the production of tremendously familiar milk products such as cheese through different indigenous communities, the latex of the plant is used as a clotting agent. Moreover, the wood is used for jewels, crowns, and for decoration purposes (Badgujar et al., 2014).
6. USES Many herbs and spices contribute significantly to health despite the low amounts of consumption, as they are full of antioxidants and certain mineral compounds. In addition to this, they are a good source of certain minerals and dietary fiber. Fig is a tree, and its fruit is usually eaten. To make medicine, the fruit and leaves are used. Fig fruit is used as a cathartic to get rid of constipation. Fig fruits contain a high content of dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids, and fig is fat and cholesterol free, so this fruit is ideal to control hypertension, diabetics, and colon cancer. Fig leaf is used for diabetes, high cholesterol, and skin disorders such as psoriasis, eczema, and vitiligo. Some people apply milky sap from the tree directly to skin for treatment of skin tumors and warts (Mawa et al., 2013). Fig has been used for many years as a culinary vegetable and for medicinal and spiritual purposes. Green, unripe fig is used as a vegetable for preparing soup. Fresh or dried fruits of F. carica can be eaten and are also used as jam. In warm and humid climates, fresh and raw figs are usually eaten without peeling, and they are frequently obliged with cream and sugar. Pies, cakes, puddings, and other bakery products such as jam, jellies, and preserves are made from processed figs. Dried figs can be used in appetizers and desserts such as cakes, porridge, muesli bars, muffins, oatmeal, or breakfast cereals. Fresh figs are usually used in healthy salads. Peeled or unpeeled, the fruits can be cooked by different methods, such as in cakes, pastries, bread, desserts, or bakery goods, or added to ice cream mixture. Home owners can preserve complete fruits in sugar syrup or cook them as jam, paste, or marmalade. Fig paste forms the filling for bakery products. Other current uses are as icepack, lotion, gargle, and drink (Ahmad et al., 2013; Chawla, 2012; Chawla et al., 2017). Fig has an extensive list of traditional medical uses. It is considered a good nutritional support for diabetics. For controlling menorrhagia, through its sharp action, these compounds bring a styptic effect. Fruits of figs are used in lithotripter, for nose bleeding, as aphrodisiacs, for leprosy, hair health, and as antipyretics, demulcents, and cathartics. Different
282
21. FIGS
inflammations such as paralysis, chest pain, liver diseases, and piles are also treated by fig fruits. The fruit’s juice mixed with honey is used for hemorrhage. However, fruits are used as a minor laxative, medicine, and diuretic in Indian medicine. It is used as an aid in spleen and liver diseases. The dry fruit of F. carica is a supplement food for diabetics. It is commercialized in the market as sweet due to its high level of sugars. To get rid of pain, fruit paste is applied to swellings, tumors, and inflammations (Mawa et al., 2013). For treatment of leukoderma, stimulant, and ringworm contamination, roots are used. Latex is used as anthelmintic, diuretic, antianemic, and expectorant. Leaves are used as antidiabetic, vermifuge, and for dermatitis in humans or phototoxicity in animals. The seeds are used as cooked oil, grease, etc. (Ahmad et al., 2013; Chawla, 2012; Joseph and Raj, 2011b). Physical and mental exertion is removed by fig, and it provides the body with improved potency and strength. Fig is an excellent stimulant for those who suffer from cracks in tongue, lips, and mouth (Hiwale, 2015). Figs are valued as sacred, denoting a symbol of peace, fertility, or prosperity by many civilizations from ancient times. Figs have been in existence since the beginning of the world according to the Old Testament. In the Holy Bible, it was also revealed when Eve picked the forbidden fruit that it was not an apple tree, but some scholars believe it was a fig. Plato accepted that Greek athletes at Olympia were fed a diet of figs to increase their total strength and running speed. Angeer as a dry fruit is also considered a good nutritional support.
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES 7.1 Antibacterial Activity Antibacterial activity of F. carica extracts has been widely studied against several bacterial strains. It has been shown that F. carica leaf methanol extract inhibits the growth of clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to penicillin. In addition, this extract had an additive effect when tested in synergy with antibiotics. Its action was mainly linked to the cell loss of viability as a property of phenolic compounds to cross the bacterial membrane. The methanol and ethanol extracts of the fruit of F. carica were tested against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus sp., Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, and Salmonella paratyphi (Jasmine et al., 2014). The antibacterial activity of the extracts of chloroform, hexane, ethyl acetate, and alcohol has also been investigated. Ethyl acetate extract showed a significant zone of inhibition against S. aureus. While in another study, the ethanolic leaf extracts were
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES
283
tested against several bacterial strains, and the results showed an inhibitory activity against Streptococcus anginosus at a concentration of MIC ¼ 0.156 mg/mL (Bouyahya et al., 2016).
7.2 Antiviral Activity A small contagious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms is a virus. Methanol, chloroformic, ethyl acetate, hexanic, and hexane-ethyl acetate extracts of F. carica have been confirmed for antiviral activity. In vitro antiviral potential action has been considered via observing cytopathic effect toward echovirus type 11 (ECV-11), herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1), and adenovirus (ADV). It has been concluded that hexane-ethyl acetate and hexanic extracts prohibited development of viruses at concentrations of 78 mg/mL. For herbal medicines, these two extracts are the most effective candidates. Viral contagious diseases like adenovirus, herpes virus, and echovirus are being treated by the treatment of these extracts (Badgujar et al., 2014).
7.3 Antioxidant Activity It is well known that F. carica products from latex and fruit are rich in phenolic compounds (polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, etc.) with an antioxidant power. Using different systems, several organic extracts from F. carica proved capable of reducing free radicals. A study was carried out on polyphenols and flavonoids that extracted from F. carica latex and used the radical scavenging activity in vivo assay system via the determination of the action of superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase. It showed a significant reduction in the rate of these two enzymes in liver cells. An in vitro antioxidant action of F. carica leaf methanolic extracts was also evaluated using the scanning technique of the radical DPPH, revealing its antioxidant capacity (IC50) to be 0.0903 mg/mL. It also found an inhibition of 10.222 DPPH radical at a concentration of 250 mg/ mL (Bouyahya et al., 2016).
7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity In traditional medicine, leaves of F. carica are used to get rid of different inflammatory ailments such as hemorrhoids, insect bites, and stings. The antiinflammatory effect in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema and cotton pellet granuloma method was studied (Patil and Patil, 2011a). The ethanolic extract at 600 mg/kg/day of body weight showed best antiinflammatory activity of 75.90% in acute swelling, and in long-lasting inflammation, there was a 71.66% reduction in granuloma weight. All
284
21. FIGS
extracts showed a greater antiinflammatory effect than that of indomethacin, which is a standard drug. This antiinflammatory activity might be correlated to antiradical activity of extracts and, by extension, to their chemical composition (Ali et al., 2012).
7.5 Antipyretic Activity An antipyretic is used to lower body temperature when a fever is present. Several studies have revealed the antipyretic activity of figs. Indeed, the ethanolic extracts of leaves were tested and showed a significant reduction in body temperature; their effect is comparable to that of paracetamol. This effect may be related to the inhibitory action of these extracts on heat shock proteins or due to their effect on the thermoregulatory center (Bouyahya et al., 2016).
7.6 Antiangiogenic Activity The development of new blood vessels is called angiogenesis. If we can stop cancers from increasing blood vessels, we can slow the evolution of the cancer, or occasionally shrink it. Antiangiogenic drugs are treatments that stop tumors from growing their own blood vessels. The antiangiogenic and antiproliferative possibilities of F. carica latex extract was examined by using human umbilical vein endothelial cells. It has been concluded that latex extracts of F. carica contain solid antiangiogenic and antiproliferative activities. Latex extract may be a suitable candidate for inhibition of angiogenesis in cancer and other long-lasting ailments, and as a potential agent (Badgujar et al., 2014).
7.7 Hypoglycemic and Hypocholesterolemic Activity Hypocholesterolemic activity has also been observed in fig leaves. The aqueous decoction of fig leaves is used to prepare the chloroform extract. It causes a decrease in the total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ratio and deterioration in the levels of total cholesterol, together with a reduction of hyperglycemia. Additionally, in hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2), the cell content of cholesterol appreciates the decrease of blood cholesterol level in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (Canal et al., 2000).
8. SIDE EFFECTS AND TOXICITY Eating too many figs can be heavy on the stomach and can even cause a stomachache, as too much fiber is bad for the stomach. It causes gas and
REFERENCES
285
bloating, increases skin sensitivity to sunlight, is harmful for the liver and intestines, increases the risk of calcium deficiency, causes retinal, rectal, and vaginal bleeding, increases the risk of hypoglycemia, causes allergic reactions, and is harmful for individuals suffering kidney and gallbladder problems. Eating figs can lower the blood sugar level in body and is harmful for the individuals who have to undergo surgery. Consult with a doctor before eating figs during pregnancy or during the breastfeeding stage.
References Ahmad, S., Bhatti, F.R., Khaliq, F.H., Irshad, S., Madni, A., 2013. A review on the prosperous phytochemical and pharmacological effects of Ficus carica. International Journal of Bioassays 2, 843e849. Ali, B., Mujeeb, M., Aeri, V., Mir, S.R., Faiyazuddin, M., Shakeel, F., 2012a. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of Ficus carica Linn. Natural Product Research 26 (5), 460e465. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.488236. Epub 2011 Jun 12. Ayoub, N., Singab, A.N., Mostafa, N., Schultze, W., 2010. Volatile constituents of leaves of Ficus carica Linn. grown in Egypt. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants 13, 316e321. Badgujar, S.B., Patel, V.V., Bandivdekar, A.H., Mahajan, R.T., 2014. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus carica: a review. Pharmaceutical Biology 52, 1487e1503. Bouyahya, A., Bensaid, M., Bakri, Y., Dakka, N., 2016. Phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology of Ficus carica. International Journal of Biochemistry Research & Review 14, 1e12. Canal, J., Torres, M.D., Romero, A., Pe´rez, C., 2000. A chloroform extract obtained from a decoction of Ficus carica leaves improves the cholesterolaemic status of rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Acta Physiologica Hungarica 87, 71e76. Chawla, A., 2012. Ficus carica Linn.: a review on its pharmacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Phytopharmacological Research 1, 215e232. Chawla, A., Kaur, R., Sharma, A.K., 2017. Ficus carica Linn.: a review on its pharmacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Phytopharmacological Research 1, 215e232. Condit, I.J., 1947. The Fig. Chronica Botanica Co., USA. Crisosto, H., Ferguson, L., Bremer, V., Stover, E., Colelli, G., 2011. Fig (Ficus Carica L.), Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Cocona to Mango. Elsevier, pp. 134e160e. Dushevskii, V.P., Kazas, A.N., 1985. Byulletin Gosudartvennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada 58, 50e53. Flaishman, M.A., Rodov, V., Stover, E., 2008. The fig: botany, horticulture, and breeding. Horticultural Reviews-Westport Then New York 34, 113. Himelrick, D., 1999. Fig Production Guide. Alabama A & M Auburn Universities, Alabama Cooperative Extension System. ANR-1145 1. Hiwale, S., 2015. Fig (Ficus carica), Sustainable Horticulture in Semiarid Dry Lands. Springer, pp. 159e175. Jasmine, R., Manikandan, K., Niveditha, B., Thirupathi, K., Manikandan, G., 2014. Evaluation the efficiency of Ficus carica fruits against a few drug resistant bacterial pathogens. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3, 1394e1400. Joseph, B., Raj, S.J., 2011a. A comparative study on various properties of five medicinally important plants. International Journal of Pharmacology 7, 206e211.
286
21. FIGS
Joseph, B., Raj, S.J., 2011b. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical properties of Ficus carica LinneAn overview. International Journal of Pharmtech Research 3, 8e12. Mawa, S., Husain, K., Jantan, I., 2013. Ficus carica L.(Moraceae): phytochemistry, traditional uses and biological activities. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013. Patil, V.V., Patil, V.R., 2011a. Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory Activity of Ficus Carica Linn. Leaves. Patil, V.V., Patil, V.R., 2011b. Ficus carica Linn. An overview. Research Journal of Medicinal Plant 5, 246e253. Soltana, H., Flamini, G., Hammami, M., 2017. Volatile compounds from six varieties of Ficus carica from Tunisia. Records of Natural Products 11, 6. Stover, E., Aradhya, M., Ferguson, L., Crisosto, C.H., 2007. The fig: overview of an ancient fruit. HortScience 42, 1083e1087. Veberic, R., Colaric, M., Stampar, F., 2008. Phenolic acids and flavonoids of fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) in the Northern Mediterranean region. Food Chemistry 106, 153e157. Yemis¸, O., Bakkalbas¸ı, E., Artık, N., 2012. Changes in pigment profile and surface colour of fig (Ficus carica L.) during drying. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 47, 1710e1719. Zito, P., Sajeva, M., Bruno, M., Rosselli, S., Maggio, A., Senatore, F., 2013. Essential oils composition of two Sicilian cultivars of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.(Cactaceae) fruits (prickly pear). Natural Product Research 27, 1305e1314.
Further Reading Bala´zs, A., Ficsor, E., Gy} ory, H., 2010. The history of the fig tree (Ficus carica L.) and its use in phytotherapy. Orvosi Hetilap 152, 72e75. Bercu, R., Popoviciu, D., 2014. Anatomical study of Ficus carica L. leaf. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology 19, 33. Chandrasekar, S., Bhanumathy, M., Pawar, A., Somasundaram, T., 2010. Phytopharmacology of Ficus religiosa. Pharmacognosy Reviews 4, 195. Robinson, J.P., Nithya, K., Ramya, R., Karthikbalan, B., Kripa, K., 2014. Effect of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza Glomus fasciculatum on the growth and physiological response in Sesamum indicum L. International Letters of Natural Sciences 18.
21 Figs Shumaila Saif1, Muhammad Asif Hanif1, Rafia Rehman1, Maryam Hanif1, Oli Khan2, Sunil Khan3 1 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Department of Botany, Bangabasi College, Kolkata, India; 3 Department of Botany, Haripal Vivekananda College, Hooghly, India
O U T L I N E 1. Botany 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History/Origin 1.3 Location/Demography 1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology
274 274 275 276 276
2. Chemistry
277
3. Postharvest Technology
278
4. Processing
279
5. Value Addition
280
6. Uses
281
7. Pharmacological Uses 7.1 Antibacterial Activity 7.2 Antiviral Activity 7.3 Antioxidant Activity 7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity 7.5 Antipyretic Activity
282 282 283 283 283 284
Medicinal Plants of South Asia https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00021-5
273
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
274
21. FIGS
7.6 Antiangiogenic Activity 7.7 Hypoglycemic and Hypocholesterolemic Activity
284 284
8. Side Effects and Toxicity
284
References
285
Further Reading
286
1. BOTANY 1.1 Introduction The common fig (Ficus carica L.) (Fig. 21.1) is a deciduous tree that belongs to the Moraceae family (Mulberries). In ancient times, it had been used as an ornamental plant and a fruit. The genus Ficus contains
FIGURE 21.1 Fig tree and fruits.
1. BOTANY
275
approximately 2000 subtropical and tropical trees, shrubs, and vine species native to the hot parts of world. The uncertainty in the exact number of species within the genus is largely attributed to a huge variability among the constituent species. Variability is prevalent in morphology, growth habit, flower color, leaves, stems, and chemical composition. Fig self-pollinates very easily, and it does not require pollination by a wasp of another tree, but it can be pollinated by fig wasp to produce seeds (Stover et al., 2007). F. carica is known by different names in different regions of world. In English, it is typically known as “fig.” In Pakistan, specifically in Urdu, it is called “anjir” or “angeer.” It is also known as “higo” or “brevo” in Spanish, “fieguier” in French, “feige” in German, “kerma” in Arabic, and “figo” in Italian and Portuguese (Flaishman et al., 2008; Joseph and Raj, 2011a). Probably the most familiar fig is the common fig (F. carica); however, it has a wide range of varieties and cultivars. The cultivars of fig have various unique features such as compressed to spreading growth habits, fruit color, taste, shape, size, and plant hardiness (Himelrick, 1999).
1.2 History/Origin F. carica is native to the Mediterranean area from Afghanistan to Portugal and southwest Asia, where it was generally cultivated for its fruits in ancient times. The term fig originates from a Latin word “ficus.” In the southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula, it was first brought into cultivation by at least 3000 BC. After its cultivation, it circulated into Iran, Turkey, Syria, and all the Mediterranean countries. The fig was taken to most subtropical areas of the Western Hemisphere during the era of exploration following the discovery of America by Columbus. Dushevskii and Kazas (1985) described two forms of F. carica from the vicinity of Mangup Kale, a settled area on Mt. Baba Dag in Crimea abandoned in 1783. They are thought to be descendants of figs cultivated on the plateau from the 12th century (Hiwale, 2015). In the 1500s, fig trees were familiarized to England and Mexico, and in 1669 to the Eastern United States, and to California in 1881. Common figs were successfully cultivated all over California and the Gulf states, while Smyrna fig, which was not native to California, did not fruit until the cross-pollination process in plants by a tiny wasp. Then in 1899 the wasp (Blastophaga psenes) was introduced that cross-pollinates the common fig (F. carica) and closely related Ficus palmate. The Greek, Roman, and Egyptian civilizations were fond of the fruit. Egyptians made pastries from figs, and the Greeks forbade their export due to their high value. Romans considered the fig tree to be symbolic of the civilization’s prosperity (Condit, 1947).
276
21. FIGS
The most cited fruit in the Bible and in the Garden of Eden is a fig. It was also mentioned in the book of Genesis that Adam and Eve, after eating the “prohibited fruit” from Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, covered themselves with fig leaves. Moreover, illustrations of leaves of fig were used to cover the genitals of naked figures in sculpture and painting. The use of the fig leaf as a defender of humility has entered the language (Flaishman et al., 2008). Different countries have strong cultural connections with figs, and the fruit has many roles in political and religious histories. For example, the Hadith quotes Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) claiming that figs surely “descended from paradise.”
1.3 Location/Demography Although fig is grown in a variety of climatic and environmental conditions, the optimum conditions are found in countries with dry and sunny areas. Warmth, light, and moisture are the key ecologic requirements for fig cultivation. Fig is less resistant to frost, and these spend the summer outdoors and are overwintered in a frost-free, cool place. However, it requires basic soil for cultivation. Fig cultivation is widely observed in different countries: Pakistan, Afghanistan, and some regions of Eastern and South India. The top five producers of figs are Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, and Iran. The United States placed at the sixth position in world production (Crisosto et al., 2011).
1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology Fig is a monoecious, deciduous tree or large shrub. It is generally 15e20 ft tall, with spreading branches, and the diameter of the trunk is hardly beyond 7 ft. Leaves are single, large, alternate (equal to 1 ft in length), and bright green in color. Flowers rise from the axils of old leaves. It exhibits a structure of receptacles. Female flowers occupy the upper part of the receptacle, and the lower part has male flowers. Syconium, the ripened receptacle, comprises a huge amount of small whitish seeds, which can be small, large, medium, and range in number per fruit from 30 to 1600. Fruit is a syconium, is pyriform fleshy, solitary, 5e8 cm long, very sweet, and tasty (Mawa et al., 2013). The bark is flat. Outer bark is ashcolored, exfoliated through asymmetrical, rounded flakes. The sections of middle bark look light reddish brown. The layers of light yellowish or orange-brown-colored granular tissue are present in the inner bark (Badgujar et al., 2014). Fig requires warm, temperate, or Mediterranean conditions. The areas having an arid or semiarid environment, plenty of sunshine, high summer temperature, and moderate winter are suitable for the plant
2. CHEMISTRY
277
development. Although plants can survive at temperature as high as 45 C, beyond 39 C the quality of fruit deteriorates. Fig requires calcareous, well-drained, medium to heavy and deep (about 1 m) soil. While for better root establishment, light sandy, shallow, and deep soils are suitable. It grows well in soils with a pH ranging from 7 to 8. In general, the limiting factor for its cultivation is climate rather than soil.
2. CHEMISTRY The fruit of the fig tree has a fleshy and succulent pulp and is sweetened slightly. It is appreciated for dessert. A large number of fig ecotypes have been described on the basis of their taste, flavor, and other phenotypic characters. Fig color varies from dark purple to green. Cedrol, gmuurolene, manoyl oxide, a-terpinyl acetate, abietatriene, a-pinene, and pentadecanal are the main components of leaves, while cedrol, a-terpinyl acetate, manoyl oxide, a-pinene, and abietadiene are main components of the fruits. However, the aroma of leaves and fruits is the outcome of a complex mixture of aldehydes, esters, alcohols, terpenoids compounds, and others, at low concentrations that reach the olfactory epithelium, intensely contributing to the taste of foods. Most of recognized mixtures certainly add to the pleasant taste and aroma of fig fruits to different extents (Soltana et al., 2017). F. carica contains a large amount of minerals, carbohydrates, vitamins, sugars, dietary fiber, organic acids, and phenolic compounds. Fig is an extremely nourishing fruit. It has an excellent amount of calories, proteins, iron, calcium (higher than milk), and maximum fiber content. Figs are fat and cholesterol free and contain a high concentration of amino acids. Sugars and organic acids are also found in fig that influence their quality, like other fruit species. It also contain phenolic substances, which contribute significantly to their value, because it was proved that their consumption shown a positive result on health of humans (Veberic et al., 2008). The dried and fresh figs contain a huge amount of fiber and polyphenols. Figs are a rich source of phenolic compounds like proanthocyanidins. Fig is a very poor source of vitamin C but very rich in sugar, next to dates (Mawa et al., 2013). Total sugar content of fresh fig is 16% and of dried is 52%. Besides essential or fixed oils, the plant also includes coumarins, sterols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and triterpenoids, etc., in different parts of the plant. The compounds found in F. carica leaf extracts are quercetin, rutin, carotene, luteolin, psoralen, and bergapten. The latex contains resin, rennin, albumin, cerin, caoutchouc, sugar and malic acid, proteolytic enzymes, lipase, diastase, esterase, catalase and peroxidase, 6O-linoleyl-b-D-glucosyl-b-sitosterol, 6-O-oleyl-b-D-glucosyl-b-sitosterol, and 6-O-palmitoyl-b-D-glucosyl-b-sitosterol. Fruits have cyanidin-3-
278
21. FIGS 1
O
(E)-2-Hexenal 2
O
O
(Z)-3-Hexenyl benzoate 3
O
n-nonanal
H
4 H HO
Phyton
FIGURE 21.2 Potent chemical components of Fig.
orhamnoglucoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cholesterol, insoluble sugars, protein, saturated fat, vitamin A, vitamin C, sodium, iron, and calcium. Roots contain bergapten and psoralen (Chawla, 2012; Joseph and Raj, 2011b; Patil and Patil, 2011b). The fig essential oil contains (Z)-3-hexeny benzoate, n-nonanal, n-tetracosane, (E)-2-hexenal n-hexadecanoic acid, and n-docosane (Ayoub et al., 2010). Some potent chemical components of Fig are shown in Fig. 21.2.
3. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY Conventionally, the best harvesting times of figs are, first, in early summer (late June) and, second, in late summer or early fall (August or September). The exact harvesting timing of the main crop depends on conditions and climate. For example, cultivators in cooler coastal areas generally harvest their figs during October and November. The typical
4. PROCESSING
279
harvest time is between June and September for warmer and inland climates. Figs must be allowed to ripen completely on the tree before they are picked. They will not ripen if picked when immature. A ripe fruit will be slightly soft and starting to bend at the neck. Harvest the fruit lightly to prevent yellowing. Fresh figs do not keep well and can be stored in the refrigerator for only 2e3 days. Some fig cultivars are delicious when dried. They take 4e5 days to dry in the sun and 10e12 hours in a dehydrator. Dried figs can be stored for 6e8 months (Yemis¸ et al., 2012). In some tropical locations, fig trees may bear certain fruit all year, with increased production in early summer and midwinter. Figs are broadly used up fresh, either peeled or not. Fresh fruits obviously have a short, postharvest life of 7e10 days, but with a combination of cooler conditions and a CO2-enriched atmosphere, the fruit can be stored for up to 2e 4 weeks. Figs are also very widespread as dried fruit, since drying prolongs their storability (Veberic et al., 2008). It is best to use, eat, dry, or freeze figs as soon as possible after harvest. If the figs are dried either in the sun or using a dehydrator, they will last for up to 3 years in the freezer. The figs must be washed and dried and placed on a baking sheet and frozen until hard. Once the fruit is hard, it can be transferred to a container and stored in the freezer for up to 3 years. Fresh figs will keep in the refrigerator when placed in a single layer on a tray. The tray should be placed in the coldest part of refrigerator, generally the crisper. However, the figs must not be placed close to fresh vegetables, as they can cause the veggies to rot quickly.
4. PROCESSING Fig is consumed in diverse ways for various purposes. Fresh figs are subjected to two different drying processes, i.e., oven drying and sun drying. The fig is completely ready when it drops to ground. To remove soil and rubbish, the fig must be washed. Trim off damaged and cracked parts. Before proceeding, perfectly dry them with a dishcloth or paper towel. A sharp peeling knife must be used to cut the figs in half from stem to tip. They will dry more rapidly by cutting in half. For this purpose, a drying rack must be used, or purchase screening with adequate ventilation holes. A cover of cheesecloth must be used to line the rack before settings the figs on top. The figs must not be dried on a solid sheet. For proper drying, they need airflow from below and above. If a rack with very large holes is used, then a double layer of cheesecloth must be used. As they dry, they will be protected from insects by using this double layer of cheesecloth. The cheesecloth must be strongly placed around the drying rack, locking it with tape if necessary, to guaranteed it will not come loose. This method works best when it is very dry and hot outside.
280
21. FIGS
The figs must not be placed in the shade because they will not dry as rapidly, and then they can spoil before they are preserved properly. Every evening, take them inside if temperature does not fall more than 20 at night. Turn the figs over, so they dry uniformly from all sides in the mornings. When the outside seems rubbery and no juice may be seen on the inside on squeezing, then the figs are ready. An oven can be used to finish if the figs remain a little tacky. To make them last even longer, the dried figs must be stored in a dry and cool place or freeze them. The temperature of the oven must be adjusted to 140 F (60 C) because it is necessary to dry the figs at a low temperature. A food dehydrator can also be used to dry figs. Wash figs carefully with water. Any broken parts are carefully trimmed away and perfectly dry them with a paper towel or dishcloth. Cut the figs in half, and by using a sharp trimming knife, they can be sliced from stem to tip, lengthwise. A rack with ventilation holes must be used to place them cut side up so the figs dry from below and above. The figs that do not dry evenly must be dried by using a regular baking pan. After placing those in the oven, prop the door of oven somewhat open to permit moisture to escape and prevent the figs from getting too hot and cooking instead of drying. During the drying process the figs must be turned occasionally. Figs must be allowed to stay in oven for up to 8e24 hours. When the outsides are rubbery and no juice may be seen on the inside on splitting one open, then the figs are dried. The dried figs can be stored in airtight vessels or freezer bags and must be kept in a refrigerator or freezer for approximately 18e24 months when appropriately stored. Essential oil can be extracted from figs through hydro distillation. Essential oil is concentrated in the leaves. Essential oil has rich amount of oxygenated compounds (Ayoub et al., 2010; Zito et al., 2013).
5. VALUE ADDITION The fresh or dried fig can be eaten but is mainly used in making of jam and pickling. The fig paste, fig powder, fig concentrate, fig nuggets, and diced and sliced figs are considered food products including figs. In fig jam, preserves, and paste the natural flavor of figs can be preserved. For making fig concentrate, which replaces corn syrup and sucrose, the water is extracted from figs. Diced, chopped, and sliced figs are fused into food products. Figs are added to bars, cookies, and snacks when dried. Moreover, high-quality figs are used for fresh consumption, so few figs are canned. The oil is present in dried seeds of figs and is 30% fatty acids. The beneficial ingredients for health and beauty products such as soap, moisturizers, and fragrance are formed from the natural humectants of figs. In India, after the harvest of fruit, the leaves of figs are plucked and used for fodder. The leaves of figs are used as a source of
6. USES
281
perfume material because the leaves create a woody, mossy scent in southern France. Since the beginning of civilization, fresh and dry fig have mostly been used as food. The syrup of fig is used as a medicine for minor constipation. For domestic animals, the leaves of figs are traditionally consumed as a fodder. For the production of tremendously familiar milk products such as cheese through different indigenous communities, the latex of the plant is used as a clotting agent. Moreover, the wood is used for jewels, crowns, and for decoration purposes (Badgujar et al., 2014).
6. USES Many herbs and spices contribute significantly to health despite the low amounts of consumption, as they are full of antioxidants and certain mineral compounds. In addition to this, they are a good source of certain minerals and dietary fiber. Fig is a tree, and its fruit is usually eaten. To make medicine, the fruit and leaves are used. Fig fruit is used as a cathartic to get rid of constipation. Fig fruits contain a high content of dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids, and fig is fat and cholesterol free, so this fruit is ideal to control hypertension, diabetics, and colon cancer. Fig leaf is used for diabetes, high cholesterol, and skin disorders such as psoriasis, eczema, and vitiligo. Some people apply milky sap from the tree directly to skin for treatment of skin tumors and warts (Mawa et al., 2013). Fig has been used for many years as a culinary vegetable and for medicinal and spiritual purposes. Green, unripe fig is used as a vegetable for preparing soup. Fresh or dried fruits of F. carica can be eaten and are also used as jam. In warm and humid climates, fresh and raw figs are usually eaten without peeling, and they are frequently obliged with cream and sugar. Pies, cakes, puddings, and other bakery products such as jam, jellies, and preserves are made from processed figs. Dried figs can be used in appetizers and desserts such as cakes, porridge, muesli bars, muffins, oatmeal, or breakfast cereals. Fresh figs are usually used in healthy salads. Peeled or unpeeled, the fruits can be cooked by different methods, such as in cakes, pastries, bread, desserts, or bakery goods, or added to ice cream mixture. Home owners can preserve complete fruits in sugar syrup or cook them as jam, paste, or marmalade. Fig paste forms the filling for bakery products. Other current uses are as icepack, lotion, gargle, and drink (Ahmad et al., 2013; Chawla, 2012; Chawla et al., 2017). Fig has an extensive list of traditional medical uses. It is considered a good nutritional support for diabetics. For controlling menorrhagia, through its sharp action, these compounds bring a styptic effect. Fruits of figs are used in lithotripter, for nose bleeding, as aphrodisiacs, for leprosy, hair health, and as antipyretics, demulcents, and cathartics. Different
282
21. FIGS
inflammations such as paralysis, chest pain, liver diseases, and piles are also treated by fig fruits. The fruit’s juice mixed with honey is used for hemorrhage. However, fruits are used as a minor laxative, medicine, and diuretic in Indian medicine. It is used as an aid in spleen and liver diseases. The dry fruit of F. carica is a supplement food for diabetics. It is commercialized in the market as sweet due to its high level of sugars. To get rid of pain, fruit paste is applied to swellings, tumors, and inflammations (Mawa et al., 2013). For treatment of leukoderma, stimulant, and ringworm contamination, roots are used. Latex is used as anthelmintic, diuretic, antianemic, and expectorant. Leaves are used as antidiabetic, vermifuge, and for dermatitis in humans or phototoxicity in animals. The seeds are used as cooked oil, grease, etc. (Ahmad et al., 2013; Chawla, 2012; Joseph and Raj, 2011b). Physical and mental exertion is removed by fig, and it provides the body with improved potency and strength. Fig is an excellent stimulant for those who suffer from cracks in tongue, lips, and mouth (Hiwale, 2015). Figs are valued as sacred, denoting a symbol of peace, fertility, or prosperity by many civilizations from ancient times. Figs have been in existence since the beginning of the world according to the Old Testament. In the Holy Bible, it was also revealed when Eve picked the forbidden fruit that it was not an apple tree, but some scholars believe it was a fig. Plato accepted that Greek athletes at Olympia were fed a diet of figs to increase their total strength and running speed. Angeer as a dry fruit is also considered a good nutritional support.
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES 7.1 Antibacterial Activity Antibacterial activity of F. carica extracts has been widely studied against several bacterial strains. It has been shown that F. carica leaf methanol extract inhibits the growth of clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to penicillin. In addition, this extract had an additive effect when tested in synergy with antibiotics. Its action was mainly linked to the cell loss of viability as a property of phenolic compounds to cross the bacterial membrane. The methanol and ethanol extracts of the fruit of F. carica were tested against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus sp., Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, and Salmonella paratyphi (Jasmine et al., 2014). The antibacterial activity of the extracts of chloroform, hexane, ethyl acetate, and alcohol has also been investigated. Ethyl acetate extract showed a significant zone of inhibition against S. aureus. While in another study, the ethanolic leaf extracts were
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES
283
tested against several bacterial strains, and the results showed an inhibitory activity against Streptococcus anginosus at a concentration of MIC ¼ 0.156 mg/mL (Bouyahya et al., 2016).
7.2 Antiviral Activity A small contagious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms is a virus. Methanol, chloroformic, ethyl acetate, hexanic, and hexane-ethyl acetate extracts of F. carica have been confirmed for antiviral activity. In vitro antiviral potential action has been considered via observing cytopathic effect toward echovirus type 11 (ECV-11), herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1), and adenovirus (ADV). It has been concluded that hexane-ethyl acetate and hexanic extracts prohibited development of viruses at concentrations of 78 mg/mL. For herbal medicines, these two extracts are the most effective candidates. Viral contagious diseases like adenovirus, herpes virus, and echovirus are being treated by the treatment of these extracts (Badgujar et al., 2014).
7.3 Antioxidant Activity It is well known that F. carica products from latex and fruit are rich in phenolic compounds (polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, etc.) with an antioxidant power. Using different systems, several organic extracts from F. carica proved capable of reducing free radicals. A study was carried out on polyphenols and flavonoids that extracted from F. carica latex and used the radical scavenging activity in vivo assay system via the determination of the action of superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase. It showed a significant reduction in the rate of these two enzymes in liver cells. An in vitro antioxidant action of F. carica leaf methanolic extracts was also evaluated using the scanning technique of the radical DPPH, revealing its antioxidant capacity (IC50) to be 0.0903 mg/mL. It also found an inhibition of 10.222 DPPH radical at a concentration of 250 mg/ mL (Bouyahya et al., 2016).
7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity In traditional medicine, leaves of F. carica are used to get rid of different inflammatory ailments such as hemorrhoids, insect bites, and stings. The antiinflammatory effect in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema and cotton pellet granuloma method was studied (Patil and Patil, 2011a). The ethanolic extract at 600 mg/kg/day of body weight showed best antiinflammatory activity of 75.90% in acute swelling, and in long-lasting inflammation, there was a 71.66% reduction in granuloma weight. All
284
21. FIGS
extracts showed a greater antiinflammatory effect than that of indomethacin, which is a standard drug. This antiinflammatory activity might be correlated to antiradical activity of extracts and, by extension, to their chemical composition (Ali et al., 2012).
7.5 Antipyretic Activity An antipyretic is used to lower body temperature when a fever is present. Several studies have revealed the antipyretic activity of figs. Indeed, the ethanolic extracts of leaves were tested and showed a significant reduction in body temperature; their effect is comparable to that of paracetamol. This effect may be related to the inhibitory action of these extracts on heat shock proteins or due to their effect on the thermoregulatory center (Bouyahya et al., 2016).
7.6 Antiangiogenic Activity The development of new blood vessels is called angiogenesis. If we can stop cancers from increasing blood vessels, we can slow the evolution of the cancer, or occasionally shrink it. Antiangiogenic drugs are treatments that stop tumors from growing their own blood vessels. The antiangiogenic and antiproliferative possibilities of F. carica latex extract was examined by using human umbilical vein endothelial cells. It has been concluded that latex extracts of F. carica contain solid antiangiogenic and antiproliferative activities. Latex extract may be a suitable candidate for inhibition of angiogenesis in cancer and other long-lasting ailments, and as a potential agent (Badgujar et al., 2014).
7.7 Hypoglycemic and Hypocholesterolemic Activity Hypocholesterolemic activity has also been observed in fig leaves. The aqueous decoction of fig leaves is used to prepare the chloroform extract. It causes a decrease in the total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ratio and deterioration in the levels of total cholesterol, together with a reduction of hyperglycemia. Additionally, in hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HepG2), the cell content of cholesterol appreciates the decrease of blood cholesterol level in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (Canal et al., 2000).
8. SIDE EFFECTS AND TOXICITY Eating too many figs can be heavy on the stomach and can even cause a stomachache, as too much fiber is bad for the stomach. It causes gas and
REFERENCES
285
bloating, increases skin sensitivity to sunlight, is harmful for the liver and intestines, increases the risk of calcium deficiency, causes retinal, rectal, and vaginal bleeding, increases the risk of hypoglycemia, causes allergic reactions, and is harmful for individuals suffering kidney and gallbladder problems. Eating figs can lower the blood sugar level in body and is harmful for the individuals who have to undergo surgery. Consult with a doctor before eating figs during pregnancy or during the breastfeeding stage.
References Ahmad, S., Bhatti, F.R., Khaliq, F.H., Irshad, S., Madni, A., 2013. A review on the prosperous phytochemical and pharmacological effects of Ficus carica. International Journal of Bioassays 2, 843e849. Ali, B., Mujeeb, M., Aeri, V., Mir, S.R., Faiyazuddin, M., Shakeel, F., 2012a. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of Ficus carica Linn. Natural Product Research 26 (5), 460e465. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.488236. Epub 2011 Jun 12. Ayoub, N., Singab, A.N., Mostafa, N., Schultze, W., 2010. Volatile constituents of leaves of Ficus carica Linn. grown in Egypt. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants 13, 316e321. Badgujar, S.B., Patel, V.V., Bandivdekar, A.H., Mahajan, R.T., 2014. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus carica: a review. Pharmaceutical Biology 52, 1487e1503. Bouyahya, A., Bensaid, M., Bakri, Y., Dakka, N., 2016. Phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology of Ficus carica. International Journal of Biochemistry Research & Review 14, 1e12. Canal, J., Torres, M.D., Romero, A., Pe´rez, C., 2000. A chloroform extract obtained from a decoction of Ficus carica leaves improves the cholesterolaemic status of rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Acta Physiologica Hungarica 87, 71e76. Chawla, A., 2012. Ficus carica Linn.: a review on its pharmacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Phytopharmacological Research 1, 215e232. Chawla, A., Kaur, R., Sharma, A.K., 2017. Ficus carica Linn.: a review on its pharmacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacological aspects. International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Phytopharmacological Research 1, 215e232. Condit, I.J., 1947. The Fig. Chronica Botanica Co., USA. Crisosto, H., Ferguson, L., Bremer, V., Stover, E., Colelli, G., 2011. Fig (Ficus Carica L.), Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Cocona to Mango. Elsevier, pp. 134e160e. Dushevskii, V.P., Kazas, A.N., 1985. Byulletin Gosudartvennogo Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada 58, 50e53. Flaishman, M.A., Rodov, V., Stover, E., 2008. The fig: botany, horticulture, and breeding. Horticultural Reviews-Westport Then New York 34, 113. Himelrick, D., 1999. Fig Production Guide. Alabama A & M Auburn Universities, Alabama Cooperative Extension System. ANR-1145 1. Hiwale, S., 2015. Fig (Ficus carica), Sustainable Horticulture in Semiarid Dry Lands. Springer, pp. 159e175. Jasmine, R., Manikandan, K., Niveditha, B., Thirupathi, K., Manikandan, G., 2014. Evaluation the efficiency of Ficus carica fruits against a few drug resistant bacterial pathogens. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 3, 1394e1400. Joseph, B., Raj, S.J., 2011a. A comparative study on various properties of five medicinally important plants. International Journal of Pharmacology 7, 206e211.
286
21. FIGS
Joseph, B., Raj, S.J., 2011b. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical properties of Ficus carica LinneAn overview. International Journal of Pharmtech Research 3, 8e12. Mawa, S., Husain, K., Jantan, I., 2013. Ficus carica L.(Moraceae): phytochemistry, traditional uses and biological activities. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013. Patil, V.V., Patil, V.R., 2011a. Evaluation of Anti-inflammatory Activity of Ficus Carica Linn. Leaves. Patil, V.V., Patil, V.R., 2011b. Ficus carica Linn. An overview. Research Journal of Medicinal Plant 5, 246e253. Soltana, H., Flamini, G., Hammami, M., 2017. Volatile compounds from six varieties of Ficus carica from Tunisia. Records of Natural Products 11, 6. Stover, E., Aradhya, M., Ferguson, L., Crisosto, C.H., 2007. The fig: overview of an ancient fruit. HortScience 42, 1083e1087. Veberic, R., Colaric, M., Stampar, F., 2008. Phenolic acids and flavonoids of fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) in the Northern Mediterranean region. Food Chemistry 106, 153e157. Yemis¸, O., Bakkalbas¸ı, E., Artık, N., 2012. Changes in pigment profile and surface colour of fig (Ficus carica L.) during drying. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 47, 1710e1719. Zito, P., Sajeva, M., Bruno, M., Rosselli, S., Maggio, A., Senatore, F., 2013. Essential oils composition of two Sicilian cultivars of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.(Cactaceae) fruits (prickly pear). Natural Product Research 27, 1305e1314.
Further Reading Bala´zs, A., Ficsor, E., Gy} ory, H., 2010. The history of the fig tree (Ficus carica L.) and its use in phytotherapy. Orvosi Hetilap 152, 72e75. Bercu, R., Popoviciu, D., 2014. Anatomical study of Ficus carica L. leaf. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology 19, 33. Chandrasekar, S., Bhanumathy, M., Pawar, A., Somasundaram, T., 2010. Phytopharmacology of Ficus religiosa. Pharmacognosy Reviews 4, 195. Robinson, J.P., Nithya, K., Ramya, R., Karthikbalan, B., Kripa, K., 2014. Effect of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza Glomus fasciculatum on the growth and physiological response in Sesamum indicum L. International Letters of Natural Sciences 18.