FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF BIOCHEMISTRY

480 L. E. GLYNN summarised his on diet and liver injury. work with H. P. HIMSWORTH on liver damage due to dietary deficiencies in laboratory animals, stressing the difference between necrotic and cirrhotic types ; such studies may ultimately throw light on human liver disease. In another meeting- E. M. WIDDOWSON reported that, unexpectedly, German orphan children did equally well on bread from flours of high and low extraction, and equally well with and without milk, if their diets provided abundant calories. J. DAWSON and E. S. HOLDSWORTH have found that with high calciferol he believed that the real factor involved was the amount of exertion. dosage a part of the increased serum-calcium is in a diffusible non-ionised form, probably due to the formation FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF of an ether-soluble substance, which they crystallised. BIOCHEMISTRY A crowded meeting heard from British and American workers, including K. FOLKERS, E. LESTER-SMITH, THE first International Congress of Biochemistry, M. S. SHORB, and W. F. CUTHBERTSON, about the held in Cambridge from Aug. 19 to 25, was attended by isolation, properties, and assay of the anti-pernicious. over 1700 members from 42 different countries. In ansemia factor, vitamin B12, and the possibility of its his opening address, Prof. A. C. CHIBNALL, F.R.S., the president, while looking to the future, laid an emphasis production from bacterial sources for clinical use. on the past most salutary for workers in a young science Section II forward under the of new and P. C. LICHSTEIN (U.S.A.) reported that a complex can drive surging conceptions techniques. The members of the congress were welcomed be obtained from yeast which contains biotin (a vitamin on behalf of the Government by Viscount Addison, of the B group) and which activates the bacterial enzyme Lord Privy Seal, and on behalf of the university by the deaminating aspartic acid. This complex is probably identical with the prosthetic group of the enzyme. Vice-Chancellor. L. D. WRiGHT and his fellow workers (U.S.A.) obtained The congress, which was initiated by the Biochemical met been felt for while. a crystalline biotin complex from yeast with similar a need had some which Society, Indeed, eight congresses had previously been organised properties. In a session on enzyme formation and by the Société de Chimie biologique, and to this body adaptation, F. BERHEiM (U.S.A.) stated that in the president expressed the appreciation of all bioavirulent, but not in virulent, tubercle organisms growing chemists. The occasion was singularly appropriate for in presence of benzoic acid, enzymes oxidising this paying tribute to the memory of Gowland Hopkins. substance appear-a process inhibited by streptomycin. This beloved and revered man founded the Cambridge M. R. P. POLLOCK and S. D. WAiNWRiGHT showed that the pencillinase of B. cereus is an adaptive enzyme, school of biochemists, and through his own work and that of his collaborators and pupils strongly influenced but can be produced if the organism is treated with the development of biochemistry throughout the world. penicillin, washed, and grown for 7-8 generations ill All three speakers in the opening session spoke of his penicillin-free media. This may accord with the finding work and personality, and a copy of a commemoration of P. D. COOPER and D. RowLEY that radio-penicillin volume1 containing his autobiography, selections of is fixed by bacteria. The character of the fixation his writings, and appreciations of his character and differs in sensitive and non-sensitive organisms. P. MITCHELL and J. M. MOYLE find that in Staph. aureus influence, was given to each member of the congress. On Aug. 20, the university marked the occasion by disorganisation of purine nucleotide metabolism starts of from the moment of addition of penicillin. the doctor of science on conferring honorary degree Lord Addison, Sir Charles Harington, Prof. C. F. Cori Section III D. RiCHTER and R. M. C. DAWSON described rapid (U.S.A.), Prof. K. Linderstr0m-Lang (Denmark), Prof. A. W. K. Tiselius (Sweden), and Prof. J. Trefouel changes in lactate, phosphate ester, and acetylcholine (France). During the week, congress lectures were levels in rat brain accompanying emotional excitement given by Professor Cori on Influence of Hormones on and sleep. M. P. HELE has studied phosphorylation of Enzymatic Reactions, by Prof. M. Florkin (Belgium) sugars in vitro by the enzyme hexokinase in intestinal on Biochemical Aspects of Some Biological Concepts mucosa. Her results are consistent with the view and by Sir Robert Robinson, P.R.S., on Tryptophan that hexokinase is involved in sugar absorption from the and its Structural Relatives. gut. C. LUTWAK-MANN reported that sublethal doses of mustard-gas and X rays cause similar changes in the THE SECTIONS constitution and metabolism of the bone-marrow. The communications were given in twelve sections, H. BoRsooK (U.S.A.) has used the isotope technique and their names show the wide range of subjects covered : to study incorporation of amino-acids into the proteins of cell fragments. During a session on acetylcholine I, animal nutrition and general metabolism : II, microbiological chemistry ; III, enzymes and tissue metabolism; metabolism, D. NACHMANSOHN (U.S.A.) disclosed the lv, proteins ; v, clinical biochemistry ; vi, structure and enzymic synthesis of a substance with the pharmacosynthesis of biologically important substances ; vii, logical properties of acetylcholine but chemically quite cytochemistry ; VIII, biological pigments-oxygen different. R. A. McCANCE, A. 0. HUTCHINSON, R. F. A. carriers and oxidising catalysts ; ix, hormones and DEAN, and P. E. H. JoNES showed that in puppies, but steroids ; x, chemotherapy and immunochemistry ;not in infants, there is a phenomenal rise in serum,cholinesterase level 3 xi, plant biochemistry ; and xil, industrial fermentations. days after birth, apparently due to In all, over 500 communications were presented to theabsorption of the enzyme from the colostrum. congress, of which the following had special medical !Section I V interest. Great interest was aroused by the claim of A. RoTHEN Section I that antibody-antigen and enzyme-substrate I (U.S.A.) G. R. CAMERON, describing histological and morpho-iinteractions can occur when the antibody (or enzyme) logical changes in human liver damage, opened a session iis separated from the antigen (or substrate) by a polyvinyl chloride " screen," so that long-range forces are at 1. Hopkins and Biochemistry. Editors : Joseph Needham, F.R.S., work. C. WEIBULL (Sweden) gave evidence that the and Ernest Baldwin, PH.D. Cambridge, 1949.

infection, particularly Sonne dysentery, in a surprisingly rapid way. The skin, if healthily sunburnt and kept in good condition, was able to tackle chickenpox and even measles more satisfactorily ; and the eyes of a well-nourished child did not readily develop squints or an increase of refractive error. Moderation in eating was necessary lest acidosis and acne should appear. While acknowledging the experimental work indicating that the healthy monkey was more prone to infantile paralysis than one fed with insufficient vitamin B,

481 hormone is diabetogenic in adult cats ; they emphasised species and strain differences. S. BERGSTROM (Sweden) has isolated l-noradrenaline from adrenals. R.’ PITTRIVERS gave a masterly review of antithyroid substances. C. H. LI (U.S.A.) has found that peptide fragments, containing on the average 7 amino-acid residues, obtained by hydrolysis of adrenocorticotrophic hormone, are more active than the hormone itself.

flagella of bacteria consist of single .proteins. F. SANGER is gradually determining the sequence of the aminoacids in the peptide chains of insulin ; one day this hormone may be synthesised. S. MooR.E and W. H. STEIN (U.S.A.), using starch chromatograms, can do a complete quantitative amino-acid analysis on 5 mg. of protein. Section V C. E. DENT and G. A. RosE stated that in cystinuria there is a low renal threshold for cystine and certain basic amino-acids, rather than a failure of the tissues to oxidise cystine. D. ADLERSBERG and colleagues (U.S.A.) consider that hereditary hypercholesterolsemia, an error of metabolism, is an important factor in the genesis of coronary atherosclerosis in xanthoma families, and also in coronary artery disease in relatively young patients. A. C. FRAZER and others have observed in sprue achlorhydria or hypochlorhydria, and bacterial growth extending up the small intestine into the stomach. S. VAN CREVELD, (Netherlands) described a state of hypersensitivity to vitamin D in a child. The experiments of R. A. MCCANCE on water excretion in undernourished Germans provoked keen discussion.

Section X In a session on drugs and enzymes in chemotherapy B. A. FRY stated that the bactericidal triphenylmethane dyes inhibit glutamine synthesis in extracts of staphylococci, and E. D. WILLS that suramin inhibits several enzymes. E. Cpuz-Co’KE and M. PLAZA DE LOS REYES (Chile) found that tricresyl phosphate, which has anti-vitamin-E action, retards or arrests the growth of sarcoma implants in rats. In another session the question of the relative importance of the carbohydrate and nitrogenous parts of antigens was discussed and the need for new techniques of purification became clear. In a meeting on drug-resistance P. D’ARCY HART stressed the danger of development of streptomycinresistant human tubercle organisms, and suggested the administration with streptomycin of a drug such as p-aminosalicylic acid which does not readily give rise to resistant bacteria. It was mentioned that M. MACHEBOEUF (France) has made organisms resistant by contact with extracts of a resistant strain. P. SCHAEFFER (France) described a type of resistance to streptomycin in which the latter becomes a growth factor for the resistant strain. A. Bisnor has produced resistant malaria parasites by subcurative doses of proguanil or sulphadiazine in infected birds. In a meeting on immunology P. GRABAR (France) urged that antibody production should not be regarded as a specific protective mechanism against infection but as an example of a physiological process in which globulins act as carriers for metabolic products. M. HEIDELBERGER (U.S.A.) suggested that carbohydrate antigens, unlike protein antigens, persist in the body for a long time. No theory of the antibody-antigen reaction received the support of all present.

Section VI B. A. HEMS described

a new synthesis of natural LEGGETT BAILEY a new simple 0. KAMM (U.S.A.) gave an account of the structure and synthesis of the antibiotic chloromycetin, and of the purification and properties of the antidiuretic hormone of the posterior pituitary.

1-thyrogine and J. synthesis of peptides.

Section VII

sessions on mitotic poisons, cell constituents, nucleic acids and nucleoproteins, enzymes and nucleic acid, lipids, and cytochemical methods. J. S. MITCHELL reported clinical trials of large doses of tetra-sodium 2-methyl-l : 4-naphthohydroquinone diphosphate, mainly in conjunction with palliative X-ray therapy. The drug caused a small but useful improvement in the results of the latter in some cases of advanced cancer, a small increase in survival-time. in inoperable carcinoma of the bronchus, and retrogession of tumour cells in certain CONCLUSIONS P. MANDEL and colleagues cases of adenocarcinoma. that starvation there was stated All (France) during protein agreed that the congress was a success. The a great loss of ribonucleic acid in liver and muscle whereas glorious weather, the lovely setting of university, the deoxyribonucleic acid was unaffected. Others college, and town will leave a lasting impression on those confirmed the constancy of the latter in the cell. who took part. The value of a congress does not lie H. CHANTRENNE (Belgium) considered that cytoplasmic solely in its scientific sessions ; and in little informal particles are not divisible into large granules and micro- gatherings and parties, as well as at the receptions and somes but form a continuous gradation in size. The dinners, biochemists from many lands met to exchange smallest contain most ribonucleic acid, the largest the ideas, to resolve differences of opinion, and to strengthen old friendships and initiate new. Speaker after speaker highest enzyme activities. at the closing session emphasised in happy phrase the Section VIII easy cooperation and agreement between members from There were valuable discussions on the structure of different countries ; and one feels it was not only the and hoemoglobin, hsem-containing enzymes, cytochromes, common aim, but also appreciation of a deeper the metabolism of porphyrins and bile pigments. C. G. which drew all together in amity. significance, HoLMBERG and C. B. LAURELL (Sweden) have isolated This readiness to agree is exemplified by the working a blue copper-containing protein, caeruloplasmin," of an ad hoc international committee which met during from blood-serum. G. WALD (U.S.A.) described new congress under the chairmanship of Sir CHARLES developments in the biochemistry of rod vision ; the F.R.S. This committee put forward the rhodopsin is bleached by light to give retinenel (vitamin HARINGTON, resolutions : following the latter is then reduced to vitamin Å1 aldehyde) ; Al That the invitation of the Societe de Chimie biologique by the enzyme retinene reductase, with reduced cozymase for1. the holding of the next international congress of bioas coenzyme. chemistry in Paris in 1952 be accepted with gratitude. 2. That an international committee for biochemistry be Section IX now set up and that it have the following composition (here I. F. SOMERVILLE and G. F. MARRIAN described what followed the names of Sir Charles Harington, chairman, is apparently a priming effect of progesterone on and of 20 representatives from all parts of the world) and that pregnanediol production in postmenopausal women. this committee be empowered to ooopt additional members A. WETTSTEIN and C. MEYSTRE (Switzerland) reported from other countries as may be desirable. that 11-dehydro-progesterone has three times the 3. That this committee be instructed to approach the progestational activity of progesterone. P. M. COTES. International Council of Scientific Unions with a request for E. REID, and F. G. YOUNG have found that pure recognition as the international body representative of There

were

distribution

spirited

of

"

’

growth

482

biochemistry,

with

a

view to the formal constitution of

International Union of

Biochemistry,

as soon

an

as’possible.

These resolutions were unanimously adopted by the congress at the closing session. So the congress ended on a note of international collaboration achieved, with a promise of even greater cooperation in the future. Professor Chibnall is retiring from the chair of biochemistry at Cambridge, and it must give him great pleasure that his tenure should have ended with his presidency of this happy and successful gathering. The congress has emphasised the dignity and independence of biochemistry as a discipline. Once merely on the borderlines between older sciences, it now forms a focus at which biochemists and workers in other sciences, old and new, meet for the solution of problems of common interest and the promotion of the health and happiness of mankind.

Public Health

The local administrative unit was and still remains the Kreis, of which there are two types-the Stadtkreis (county borough with population from 50,000 upwards) and the Landkreis (county or rural district with population varying from 20,000 to 250,000). The executive medical officer of health at these levels is the Amtsarzt who is the head of the local public-health department (Gesundheitsamt). From 1933 these appointments were made by the minister of home affairs, and the Amtsarzt was responsible to him through the intermediate levels described above. The Nazi party also ran its own health service, whose function it was to ensure that the people’s health was safeguarded and promoted according to party doctrine and the best interests of the State. This organisation was entirely separate from the State public-health service, and at Kreis and higher levels there were special party health offices with a hierarchy of " health leaders"

(Gsundhitsfhrr). Thus the local publiehealth --

-

service was not only under strict central control; there was also a double check on its doctrinaire reliability at all levels. If the Amtsarzt was a trusted Nazi, and especially if he had been newly appointed in 1933 because of his party record, WILFRID G. HARDING he might also hold the post of Gesundheitsfuhrer. Where, on the other hand, his qualifications for the post were M.R.C.S., D.P.H. merely professional, where he was only a Marzveilchen HON. LIEUT.-COLONEL, R.A.M.C. ; LATE PUBLIC-HEALTH OFFICER, RUHR DISTRICT, BRITISH ZONE (" March violet " was the nickname given to those who joined the party in March, 1933, just after the Nazis’ AMONG the many tasks in Germany which faced the accession to power), or possibly not even a party member public-health branch of Military Government, and later at all (a rare occurrence, possible only in a few remote of the Control Commission, reorganisation of the health and nowhere after 1937), he was conscious at districts, services was probably the most urgent, and the most all times that he was being watched not only by the difficult. The condition of country and people made an Gestapo for his general political reliability, but also by efficient health administration more essential than ever, the party health organisation for the loyal execution of and direct administration by the Allied staff-a small his public-health tasks in accordance with Nazi doctrine. group of public-health officers most of whom did not In October, 1937, public servants who had not been German-was of time. impossible for any length speak members before were given a last chance of joining UNDER THE NAZIS the party, and this was seized by almost all of them. When the National Socialist government came into Thus the majority of German public-health adminispower in 1933, they decided to retain most of the civil trators were willing tools of the party, with a fair number servants. The civil service had enjoyed for many ardent Nazis among them, and only very few managed of a in the and the generations unique reputation country, to maintain some independence in their outlook, which, new government realised that the large conservative in any case, they were never able to translate into action. be on element within the service could relied to support the nationalistic tendencies of the new regime, while its AFTER THE OCCUPATION efficiency would suffer severely if there were many changes The technical instructions issued by SHAEF (1945) to of staff. However, all active supporters of other political the officers of Military Government laid parties, as well as all Jews and most non-Aryans, were downpublic-health that simply dismissed, and those suspected to be not wholly in "as permitted by the military organisation and prefavour of National Socialism were transferred to posts scribed policy, the maximum degree to which utilisation of little responsibility, and their promotion blocked. To of established health organisation and services may be replace those dismissed, loyal Nazis were appointed, often affected will measure the success of operations. All actual regardless of the fact that they did not possess the furnishing of medical services should be by indigenous personnel.... necessary qualifications. The service was to be recruited in future only from pro-Nazis, and arrangements were When the Allied troops occupied an area they almost made for the intimidation, indoctrination, supervision, always found that the public-health staff, along with and control of non-Nazis retained in it. most other public servants, had abandoned their posts, For about a hundred years the public-health services and that there was no established health organisation had been run directly by the central government. Rumsey to be utilised." Some local doctor might be told to act (1856) describes their organisation very much as we found as an emergency public-health executive and to coordinate it existing in 1945. the local medical services. But the reorganisation of The authority deciding on- policy and appointments a proper public-health organisation had generally to was the ministry of home affairs of the Land concerned. !start from scratch. Meanwhile the local commander, In Prussia the Land ministries were amalgamated withoften unable even to consult an Allied hygienist for some those of the Reich in 1933, and the public-health service weeks, carried a heavy responsibility. That in those was thenceforward the responsibility of the Reich4early days no great health disaster occurred in areas of ministerium des Innern. It was administered throughcdevastation such as the Ruhr is due in large measure i the efforts of these men who had to be mayor, chief provincial (Provinz) and regional district (Regierungs- to ( and city engineer, as well as medical officer bezirk) headquarters by medical officers who were constable, responsible for the local public-health organisation, for (of health and sanitary inspector. the inspection of hospital, sanitary, and pharmaceutical The central authority on which the service had services, and for the professional nursing examinations, cdepended had disappeared altogether, and for the next

REORGANISATION OF THE HEALTH SERVICES IN THE BRITISH ZONE OF GERMANY

"

"