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Fisheries enhancement and restoration in a changing world
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Fisheries enhancement and restoration in a changing world Matthew D. Taylor a,b,∗ , Rowan C. Chick a , Kai Lorenzen c , Ann-Lisbeth Agnalt d , Kenneth M. Leber e , H. Lee Blankenship f , Geraldine Vander Haegen f , Neil R. Loneragan b a
Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Taylors Beach Rd., Taylors Beach, New South Wales, Australia Centre for Fish and Fisheries Research, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Forest Resource and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA d Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway e Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA f Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island, WA, USA b c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Handled by George A. Rose Available online xxx Keywords: Hatcheries Artificial reefs Habitat rehabilitation Socioeconomics
a b s t r a c t Fisheries enhancement is an important strategy for maintaining and improving fisheries productivity, and addressing some of the other contemporary challenges facing marine ecosystems. Aquaculture-based enhancement includes stock enhancement, restocking, and sea ranching. Developments in aquaculture techniques, tagging, genetics, modelling and ecology have underpinned growth in this field in the 21st century, particularly in the context of marine recreational fisheries. Marine enhancement practice has now matured to the point that quantitative tools are frequently applied before any fish or shellfish are released into the natural environment, and pilot-scale enhancement scenarios and release strategies are evaluated before full implementation. Social and economic studies are also increasingly important components of this assessment. Here, several case studies from diverse geographic areas exemplify the union of aquaculture technology, quantitative modelling, social science, physiology and ecology to estimate enhancement potential, improve enhancement strategies, assess enhancement outcomes, and support adaptive management. Integrating aquaculture-based enhancement with habitat enhancement presents a remarkable opportunity for future research and development, and offers the potential to further increase the opportunities and associated socio-economic benefits that are available to a broad range of fisheries stakeholders. Crown Copyright © 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Enhancement of fisheries productivity in the marine environment is an important challenge in the 21st century (Bell et al., 2008; FAO, 2014), especially for providing increased food security (e.g. Liao, 2004), opportunities for socioeconomic benefits (e.g. Whitmarsh, 2001) and supporting natural systems that have been negatively affected by anthropogenic stresses such as overfishing and habitat loss. Fisheries enhancement refers to the use of additional measures aimed at enhancing productivity beyond what is achievable by good harvest management alone, and can include management of habitats (e.g. Pollard, 1989) and management of populations (e.g. Leber, 2013; Lorenzen, 2008). These measures often encompass technical solutions that address natural or human-induced ecological limitations in natural systems, for
∗ Corresponding author at: Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Taylors Beach Rd., Taylors Beach, New South Wales, Australia. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.D. Taylor).
example, recruitment limitation (e.g., aquaculture-based enhancement), degraded natural habitats (e.g., habitat restoration and rehabilitation), and habitat limitation (e.g., deployment of artificial reefs and other man-made habitat). Such limitations are also addressed, less commonly, by restricting access of stakeholders to areas (e.g., fishing closures) or marine protected areas with sanctuary or no-fish zones, which have an intended fisheries outcome (e.g. Pérez-Ruzafa et al., 2008). The term aquaculture-based enhancement is used here and by others to refer to stock enhancement (the release of hatchery seed to improve self-sustaining populations), restocking (the release of hatchery seed to rebuild severely depleted fish stocks), and sea ranching (release of hatchery seed in put, grow and take operations; Bell et al., 2008; Lorenzen et al., 2013). The science of these strategies has undergone major transformation over the past 20 years, with a concurrent dialogue on the way release programs should be developed, implemented and assessed (Bell, 2004; Bell et al., 2006, 2008, 2005; Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Blaxter, 2000; Laurec, 1999; Leber, 2013; Lorenzen, 2014; Lorenzen et al., 2013, 2010; Molony et al., 2003; Munro and Bell, 1997; Radonski and Loftus,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016.10.004 0165-7836/Crown Copyright © 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Taylor, M.D., et al., Fisheries enhancement and restoration in a changing world. Fish. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016.10.004
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1995; Sass and Allen, 2014; Taylor et al., 2005). The International Symposia on Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching (ISSESR), and associated proceedings, have contributed greatly to this scientific development, providing a forum for the review and synthesis of work, regularly identifying emerging issues and novel areas for research, and leading the development of some of the fundamental principles in the field. The research presented at these Symposia and the ensuing debates have been published in books (1st ISSESR, Howell et al., 1999; 2nd ISSESR, Leber et al., 2004) and various journal Special Issues (3rd ISSESR, Bell et al., 2008; 4th ISSESR, Lorenzen et al., 2013). Almost two decades after the 1st ISSESR in Bergen, Norway in 1997, the three major pressures of an increasing human population, a plateau in capture fisheries production, and the fundamental importance of aquatic derived protein to a healthy diet, still remain. Over this period, human population increased by almost 30% from 5.7 to 7.3 billion. Annual capture fisheries production remained stable at around 90 million tonnes (t), while aquaculture production increased by 150% from 28 to 70 million t, so that overall aquatic food production grew at a rate of 35%, marginally exceeding that of human population growth (FAO, 2014). Despite the impressive growth of aquaculture over this period, exploitation of capture fisheries has remained crucially important for many of the world’s poorest coastal dwellers (Béné et al., 2010), and has increased in importance for recreational fisheries and the multi-billion dollar industries they support (Ihde et al., 2011). Environmental change at scales ranging from local to global is likely to impact increasingly on the productive capacity of fisheries (see Sale et al., 2014 for tropical coastal fisheries). Together with a growing global population and sustained pressures to maintain and increase current high levels of production, complementary approaches to traditional fisheries management practices (such as fisheries enhancement) remain important, and will play a key role in addressing fishery productivity limitations into the future. The 5th ISSESR, held in Sydney Australia in 2015, examined the advances in aquaculture-based enhancement over the last 5–10 years, and the implications of these developments for future research and management. This article introduces the Fisheries Research Special Issue “Fisheries Enhancement and Restoration in a Changing World” arising from the 5th ISSESR. We summarise the main advances presented in this Special Issue, and integrate these with other relevant, recent literature. We start with a focus on recreational fisheries and the pressures to initiate release programs for this sector, examine the social and economic value of release programs, investigate developments in hatchery technology and release strategies, look at alternative forms of fisheries enhancements and conclude by identifying potential opportunities for future development. The research presented in the 18 publications within this issue covers aquaculture and ecological research to support more effective enhancement, mechanisms for increasing the survival of released individuals, models for evaluating release strategies and the potential success of releases, qualitative approaches to understand the social value of release programs, and the governance of these programs within an overall framework of managing fisheries. These topics are covered for a range of taxa with diverse lifehistory strategies, including crustaceans and echinoderms, as well as teleosts.
2. Recreational fisheries and increasing impetus for enhancement Over the last twenty years, our understanding of the nature, volume, value and extent of recreational fishing has grown rapidly. Recently, Arlinghaus et al. (2015) estimated that about 118 million people participated in recreational fisheries in the industrialised
world. However, this figure does not include recreational fishing in some of the world’s most populous developing countries, which may push this level as high as 11.5% of the global population (totalling more than 850,000,000 participants, as suggested by Cooke and Cowx, 2004). Recreational fishing exacerbates the pressures on many fishery resources, particularly species perceived as highly desirable that are also subject to commercial fishing, while providing multiple social and economic benefits (Ihde et al., 2011). Our growing understanding of the costs and benefits of recreational fisheries, and their interaction with other sectors using marine resources (e.g. commercial and indigenous fishers, and other groups utilising waterways and the marine environment) continues to provide challenges to fisheries management systems (Jordan et al., 2016). Recognising the social and financial benefits of recreational fishing, many governments highlight the improvement of recreational fishing opportunities as a strategic objective. However, participation is decreasing in some developed countries, possibly due to real or perceived reductions in fishing opportunities or fishing quality, particularly in and around urban centres (Arlinghaus et al., 2015). Aquaculture-based enhancement is increasingly being employed as a strategy to improve the recreational fishing experience and provide greater opportunities to communities. Research and progress in the enhancement of recreational fisheries have been a hallmark of the last two ISSESR. The responsible approach to marine stock enhancement provides an accepted framework of guiding principles for designing and implementing aquaculture-based enhancement (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Lorenzen et al., 2010). Importantly, Leber (2013) points out that the elements of the responsible approach need to be adapted to the local circumstances, and Taylor et al. (2005) give some examples of how this can be achieved. Several examples of how the responsible approach can be adapted wholly or partially to the enhancement of recreational fisheries are presented here. These examples come mainly from the United States (Garlock et al., 2016) and Australia (Blount et al., 2016b; Broadley et al., 2016; Taylor, 2016). Blount et al. (2016b) summarises a process (Cardno, 2011) that integrates these principles with the requirements of local legislation, to design and assess a marine stocking strategy in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The process was initiated through stakeholder engagement, and assessed priority species and locations against agreed, pre-determined criteria. The environmental, social and economic risks and potential outcomes from these scenarios were also assessed. Importantly, the associated Fishery Management Strategy, which now governs marine fish stocking in this jurisdiction (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2014), highlights recruitment limitation as the rationale for stocking events, provides a comprehensive research plan to further develop stocking practices and minimise risks, and includes provisions for adaptive management of marine fish stocking into the future, based on research outcomes. In Florida, USA, Garlock et al. (2016) quantitatively assessed current and potential release programs for five candidate, marine species, and evaluated the outcomes from stocking relative to other management measures that could be applied. This study applied readily available life-history and fishery model parameters, alongside constraints imposed by local regulatory policies. They identified that the contributions of stocked fish to fisheries are heavily influenced by the species’ life history and its pattern of vulnerability to fishing, reinforcing the importance of biological attributes in species being released (Munro and Bell, 1997; Taylor et al., 2005) while highlighting the often overlooked importance of fisheries characteristics (see also Section 3 below). This study forms part of a wider set of biological-technical, social and economic assessments on Florida’s marine recreational fisheries
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enhancements within the framework of the responsible approach (Camp et al., 2016, 2013; Garlock and Lorenzen, 2016). Two novel examples of invertebrate recreational fisheries enhancement are presented, both relating to recreational penaeid prawn [=shrimp] fisheries. While “recreation” is a key outcome of recreational fishing, consumptive outcomes also comprise a significant motivation of this type of activity. Invertebrate recreational fisheries provide an example of this principle, where harvest is usually achieved using simple hand collection, traps, or nets (as opposed to angling), and the primary objective is the consumption of freshly caught seafood. Penaeid prawns generally represent a high value product to purchase, but can be harvested easily in estuaries as juveniles or adults. Importantly, this practice only requires a low-level of skill and relatively inexpensive equipment, so is attractive to a broad demographic. Broadley et al. (2016) present preliminary work on a release program that was initiated to evaluate the potential for an aquaculture-based release program to rebuild a severely depleted stock of estuarine prawns (Metapenaeus dalli). They report on targeted research to define biological parameters necessary to facilitate bioeconomic analyses of the practice and design parameters of an effective release strategy, particularly the time of release. In contrast, Taylor (2016) outlines the enhancement of recreational prawn fisheries in the context of extreme recruitment limitation, in a put-grow-take enhancement system. This unique practice shows that significant recreational fishery outcomes can be achieved when releases are used to address advection-induced recruitment limitation in estuarine systems that become closed to the ocean, in a productive but underutilised nursery habitat. Aquaculture-based enhancement will be essential in addressing falling recreational fishing participation rates and maintaining fishing quality in the face of increasing participation and demand, in developed and developing economies respectively. To effectively address these challenges into the future, aquaculture-based enhancement will require increasingly innovative socio-economic and ecological solutions, and this highlights an important area for ongoing research and development.
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the foundation for several case studies examining the social impacts of fisheries enhancement in this Special Issue. The attitudes of anglers to fishery release programs in Florida, USA are evaluated in Garlock and Lorenzen (2016) through an internet-based survey. In general, all anglers supported release programs but the level of support for fisheries enhancement compared with other management options, such as habitat rehabilitation, bag and size limits, varied with the level of motivation and fishing intensity or specialisation of the angling group. The greatest support for release programs came from the most specialised group who interestingly, were unlikely to derive significant benefits from releases because of their focus on catching large trophy fish rather than larger numbers of smaller fish. Quantitative studies on the potential economic and biological effectiveness of release programs are provided for Florida, USA (Camp et al., 2016; Garlock et al., 2016) and eastern Australia (Hunt et al., 2016; Taylor, 2016). Fisheries models were used to assess five candidate species that are recreationally targeted in Florida, but have very different life histories and fisheries. The models showed that contributions of released fish to the fisheries were influenced by both the life history and characteristics of the fishery. For example, Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) is targeted by fishers before they reach maturity, and as a consequence were more likely to contribute to the recreational catch than other species (e.g., Common Snook Centropomus undecimalis) but were unlikely to contribute to the spawning population. Hunt et al. (2016) present an analysis on the economic and social cost-effectiveness of releasing salmonids in south-western Victoria, and demonstrates the potential for significant economic and social return-on-investment from fish stocking. Taylor (2016) draws on principles established in previous bioeconomic assessments of fish releases, and identifies the potential for high returns (benefit:cost of up to 5:1) from prawn releases to enhance recreational fisheries. The methods of evaluation presented in these studies can be readily applied to other fisheries and enhancement systems.
4. Developments in hatchery technology and release strategies to improve enhancement outcomes 3. Developing the social and economic paradigm for enhancements Given the relative expense of aquaculture-based fishery release programs, and the negative views of some conservation and community groups on fishing as a threatening process to biodiversity, it is very important that the benefits and costs associated with the activity are identified, quantified and effectively communicated to the broad range of stakeholders. The need for such evaluation has been a central principle of responsible stock enhancement for decades (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Radonski and Loftus, 1995), however this remains an important direction for research (Lorenzen et al., 2013), and several key papers are included in this Special Issue. Barclay et al. (2016) reviewed the use and importance of social research for effective fisheries management, and outline important principles when studying social impacts in a fisheries context. They considered three case studies that used different social-science approaches to: (1) understand how commercial and recreational fisheries contribute to the wellbeing of coastal communities; (2) identify factors limiting community development in the Pacific Islands; and (3) identify appropriate fisheries management tools through an interactive-governance analysis. The qualitative approach adopted in these case studies adds a new dimension to understanding fisheries that is not possible with a focus solely on quantitative data and approaches. Their review lays
Technical developments and advances in both aquaculture practices and release strategies continue to play a critical role in responsible stock enhancement programs (Bell et al., 2005; Leber, 2013). Some of the most recent advances aim to improve the efficiency of the initial stages of hatchery production, including the development of low-risk production systems to support enhance˜ ment programs (Juinio-Menez et al., 2016; Partridge et al., 2016). ˜ et al. (2016) outline a novel framework by which Juinio-Menez Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) production facilities can be optimised to support the specific requirements of multiple local fisheries. Adaptive use of these modular production systems led to improved hatchery-production and supply of appropriately reared juveniles for both re-stocking and sea ranching, ultimately leading to important socio-economic benefits for local communities. Partridge et al. (2016) describe how eggs from wild spawning aggregations can be exploited to support the rearing of Snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) for stock enhancement, thus overcoming the various issues that arise through use of captive broodstock to produce juveniles for release (such as decreased genetic diversity, e.g. Utter, 1998). The results of this study are also broadly applicable in the sense that they demonstrate the potential for exploiting wild eggs from other marine finfish that form dense spawning aggregations. Development of appropriate release strategies has always been a key feature of aquaculture-based enhancement. While this may involve simply identifying important habitat requirements for hatchery-reared individuals (Altamirano et al., 2016), it may also
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involve explicit activities prior to release to prepare these animals for conditions they will experience in the wild, sometimes referred to as conditioning or training. For example, Agnalt et al. (2016) show how enriching the hatchery environment for European lobster (Homarus gammarus) not only leads to improved survival in the hatchery, but also improves survival following release into natural systems. The development and implementation of improved release strategies ultimately have a positive effect on post-stocking processes such as settlement into natural habitats and lower emigration (Chick et al., 2013; Pursche et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2016). Taylor et al. (2016) highlight higher levels of movement activity as one of the key biological differences between hatchery-reared and naturally recruited juvenile Mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicus). Garlock et al. (2014) likewise showed elevated activity levels in hatchery-reared Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) and demonstrated a link between heightened activity and reduced survival probability in semi-natural environments, identifying movement activity as an important factor affecting post-release survival of hatchery-reared fish. Ultimately, development and implementation of improved hatchery rearing and release strategies aid the transition of released individuals into wild habitats by encouraging appropriate behaviours (Lorenzen et al., 2013), but excessive densities of recruits in the receiving system can negate the benefits derived from these strategies (Tomiyama et al., 2016). Recent studies highlight the importance of animal density in both natural and enhanced systems, and its effect on population regulation (e.g. Loneragan et al., 2001; Lorenzen and Enberg, 2002; Ochwada-Doyle et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2013). While several general approaches to estimating stocking density based on resource availability have been proposed (e.g. Christensen, 1994; Smith et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2013), many enhancement systems require species-specific approaches. Yamashita et al. (2016) provide a novel example of this, and show how factors limiting productivity can be used in conjunction with a physiological model, incorporating species-specific consumption rates, to estimate appropriate release densities for flatfish Paralichthys olivaceus. This model predicted that in most years, releases were likely to be effective, but this depended on the density of mysid prey and wild juveniles within the release area. Stochastic, environmentally-induced variation in spawning success (e.g. Kawabe et al., 2016) can ultimately lead to poor reproductive outcomes in the wild and low recruitment years, and elucidating the behavioural and environmental factors that are required for successful spawning (e.g. Kayaba et al., 2016) is essential to inform when and where releases may be required. Stocking during years of exceptional wild recruitment can lead to density-dependent effects on both released and wild fish, as identified in the analysis of releases of P. olivaceus (Tomiyama et al., 2016). The importance of understanding animal density and carrying capacity, as well as natural recruitment levels in stocked systems, should not be underestimated. This is further exemplified by Blount et al. (2016a), who show that manipulating the density of naturally recruited individuals can ultimately lead to improvements in animal condition, and result in enhanced fisheries outcomes.
5. Further integration of fisheries enhancements presents new opportunities Lorenzen et al. (2013) proposed that controlling fishing effort, habitat enhancement (restoration, rehabilitation and deployment of artificial habitats), and aquaculture-based enhancement are the three principal means by which fisheries can be sustained and improved. However, it is possible that multiplicative gains may be made through a combination of these approaches. Theoretically,
controlling fishing effort in conjunction with aquaculture-based enhancement can produce positive economic outcomes for heavily exploited stocks (e.g. Hart et al., 2013), but these two controls are rarely implemented alongside each other. In fact, fish releases in recreational fisheries are sometimes conducted with the intention of supporting increasing fishing effort on the enhanced stock (Camp et al., 2013). It follows that most potential may lie in combining habitat and aquaculture-based enhancement, and local examples of such projects were presented at the 4th (China) and 5th ISSESR (Australia). There are significant developments in habitat repair across many countries (recently reviewed in Bayraktarov et al., 2016), with work generally targeting coral and oyster reefs, seagrass, mangroves and saltmarshes. The fisheries and economic benefits derived from such habitats provide a good justification for undertaking habitat repair (Abt Associates Inc., 2014; Blandon and zu Ermgassen, 2014; Creighton et al., 2015), however, the full realisation of potential fisheries benefits relies on an adequate supply of wild recruits of desirable (exploited) species. Inadequate recruitment from depressed wild spawning or poor advection may well detract from the magnitude of fisheries enhancement that is derived from restored or rehabilitated habitats. It follows that the release of desirable species that do not readily recruit to restored or rehabilitated sites, but naturally occur in such habitats, may help to enhance the benefits of habitat repair. The potential contributions that aquaculture-based enhancement can make to coastal habitat enhancement and repair are yet to be evaluated in a quantitative fashion, and no obvious case studies are yet published in the literature. These management measures, however, need not be alternatives to one another. Evidence of this potential may lie in some recent examples where artificial habitats have been deployed specifically to enhance the outcomes from hatchery-releases. While this has been discussed for many years, mainly for non-migratory invertebrate species (e.g. Burton, 2001; Hart, 2015), only recently have these ideas been put into practice (mostly in large commercial operations in China and South Korea). Zhang et al. (2015) describe the construction of artificial oyster reefs to support sea ranching of Sea Cucumber (Apostichopus japonicas) in China. These artificial habitats supported higher animal densities than non-reef areas, likely due to additional diatom productivity on the oyster reef relative to adjacent non-reef habitats. Wu et al. (in press) present a further example, describing the trophic flows from cultured kelp to fisheries in the Yellow Sea, where benthic invertebrates are released in conjunction with artificial reef units. A good contemporary example of the combination of habitat and aquaculture-based enhancement was presented in a key note presentation by Brad Adams of Ocean Grown Abalone (http://www.oceangrown.com.au) at the 5th ISSESR, which summarised the approach taken to enhance Greenlip Abalone (Haliotis laeviagata) production in south-western Australia. This operation combines commercial leases of seafloor area with the development of species-specific artificial reefs (“ABITATS”) and aquaculturebased enhancement to produce 100 t of abalone. Although the 5000 reefs now deployed have been in the water for less than three years, the initial production has been so successful that plans to double production have already been developed. In recent years, we have seen a proliferation of artificial reefs to enhance recreational fishing opportunities (Becker et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2016). Coupled with emerging case studies that demonstrate outcomes of habitat enhancement, the increasing push for both artificial reefs and habitat rehabilitation provides an impetus to further explore how aquaculture-based enhancement might add value to these projects. It is likely that such projects will be expensive, however similar principles should apply as those for aquaculture-based enhancement. Decision-support frameworks and modelling tools already exist which can be readily
Please cite this article in press as: Taylor, M.D., et al., Fisheries enhancement and restoration in a changing world. Fish. Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016.10.004
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adapted to assess the outcomes of such scenarios (e.g. Lorenzen, 2008), and evaluate the ability of hatchery releases to add-value to coastal habitat repair or enhancement. As for aquaculture-based enhancement, application of these tools to evaluate the potential for multiplicative gains and the relative costs and benefits of such endeavours, will allow informed decision making prior to any large investments being made.
6. Concluding remarks Fisheries enhancement in all its forms provides a mechanism to supplement the natural resources of existing systems and increase productivity. Such measures provide a range of complementary tools that aim to mitigate the pressures on marine fisheries. Moreover, fisheries enhancements integrate the tools that can be used to manage, enhance and restore fisheries, provide unique opportunities for learning about the dynamics of fisheries systems, and unify traditionally separate strands of the fisheries sciences (Lorenzen, 2014). It is clear that fisheries enhancement is being more broadly utilised in marine systems, and as the contents of this Special Issue demonstrate, the field continues to develop through improvements in aquaculture technology, increasing application of modelling tools and decision making frameworks, research on species biology and ecology, and quantitative assessments to support adaptive management. Aquaculture-based enhancement already provides opportunities and associated socio-economic benefits to a broad range of stakeholders. Coupling this technology with habitat enhancement will likely increase these opportunities and benefits for recreational, commercial, artisanal and conservation stakeholders alike.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the speakers, sponsors, steering committee and International Scientific Committee of the 5th International Symposium on Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching, as well as the Australian Society for Fish Biology and the local organising committee for hosting this event in Sydney. They also thank J. You, I. Gopinath and G. Rose for advice and assistance in the preparation of this Special Issue, as well as the many colleagues who contributed to the peer review process.
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Fisheries enhancement and restoration in a changing world Matthew D. Taylor a,b,∗ , Rowan C. Chick a , Kai Lorenzen c , Ann-Lisbeth Agnalt d , Kenneth M. Leber e , H. Lee Blankenship f , Geraldine Vander Haegen f , Neil R. Loneragan b a
Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Taylors Beach Rd., Taylors Beach, New South Wales, Australia Centre for Fish and Fisheries Research, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Forest Resource and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA d Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway e Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA f Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island, WA, USA b c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Handled by George A. Rose Available online xxx Keywords: Hatcheries Artificial reefs Habitat rehabilitation Socioeconomics
a b s t r a c t Fisheries enhancement is an important strategy for maintaining and improving fisheries productivity, and addressing some of the other contemporary challenges facing marine ecosystems. Aquaculture-based enhancement includes stock enhancement, restocking, and sea ranching. Developments in aquaculture techniques, tagging, genetics, modelling and ecology have underpinned growth in this field in the 21st century, particularly in the context of marine recreational fisheries. Marine enhancement practice has now matured to the point that quantitative tools are frequently applied before any fish or shellfish are released into the natural environment, and pilot-scale enhancement scenarios and release strategies are evaluated before full implementation. Social and economic studies are also increasingly important components of this assessment. Here, several case studies from diverse geographic areas exemplify the union of aquaculture technology, quantitative modelling, social science, physiology and ecology to estimate enhancement potential, improve enhancement strategies, assess enhancement outcomes, and support adaptive management. Integrating aquaculture-based enhancement with habitat enhancement presents a remarkable opportunity for future research and development, and offers the potential to further increase the opportunities and associated socio-economic benefits that are available to a broad range of fisheries stakeholders. Crown Copyright © 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Enhancement of fisheries productivity in the marine environment is an important challenge in the 21st century (Bell et al., 2008; FAO, 2014), especially for providing increased food security (e.g. Liao, 2004), opportunities for socioeconomic benefits (e.g. Whitmarsh, 2001) and supporting natural systems that have been negatively affected by anthropogenic stresses such as overfishing and habitat loss. Fisheries enhancement refers to the use of additional measures aimed at enhancing productivity beyond what is achievable by good harvest management alone, and can include management of habitats (e.g. Pollard, 1989) and management of populations (e.g. Leber, 2013; Lorenzen, 2008). These measures often encompass technical solutions that address natural or human-induced ecological limitations in natural systems, for
∗ Corresponding author at: Port Stephens Fisheries Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Taylors Beach Rd., Taylors Beach, New South Wales, Australia. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.D. Taylor).
example, recruitment limitation (e.g., aquaculture-based enhancement), degraded natural habitats (e.g., habitat restoration and rehabilitation), and habitat limitation (e.g., deployment of artificial reefs and other man-made habitat). Such limitations are also addressed, less commonly, by restricting access of stakeholders to areas (e.g., fishing closures) or marine protected areas with sanctuary or no-fish zones, which have an intended fisheries outcome (e.g. Pérez-Ruzafa et al., 2008). The term aquaculture-based enhancement is used here and by others to refer to stock enhancement (the release of hatchery seed to improve self-sustaining populations), restocking (the release of hatchery seed to rebuild severely depleted fish stocks), and sea ranching (release of hatchery seed in put, grow and take operations; Bell et al., 2008; Lorenzen et al., 2013). The science of these strategies has undergone major transformation over the past 20 years, with a concurrent dialogue on the way release programs should be developed, implemented and assessed (Bell, 2004; Bell et al., 2006, 2008, 2005; Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Blaxter, 2000; Laurec, 1999; Leber, 2013; Lorenzen, 2014; Lorenzen et al., 2013, 2010; Molony et al., 2003; Munro and Bell, 1997; Radonski and Loftus,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016.10.004 0165-7836/Crown Copyright © 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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1995; Sass and Allen, 2014; Taylor et al., 2005). The International Symposia on Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching (ISSESR), and associated proceedings, have contributed greatly to this scientific development, providing a forum for the review and synthesis of work, regularly identifying emerging issues and novel areas for research, and leading the development of some of the fundamental principles in the field. The research presented at these Symposia and the ensuing debates have been published in books (1st ISSESR, Howell et al., 1999; 2nd ISSESR, Leber et al., 2004) and various journal Special Issues (3rd ISSESR, Bell et al., 2008; 4th ISSESR, Lorenzen et al., 2013). Almost two decades after the 1st ISSESR in Bergen, Norway in 1997, the three major pressures of an increasing human population, a plateau in capture fisheries production, and the fundamental importance of aquatic derived protein to a healthy diet, still remain. Over this period, human population increased by almost 30% from 5.7 to 7.3 billion. Annual capture fisheries production remained stable at around 90 million tonnes (t), while aquaculture production increased by 150% from 28 to 70 million t, so that overall aquatic food production grew at a rate of 35%, marginally exceeding that of human population growth (FAO, 2014). Despite the impressive growth of aquaculture over this period, exploitation of capture fisheries has remained crucially important for many of the world’s poorest coastal dwellers (Béné et al., 2010), and has increased in importance for recreational fisheries and the multi-billion dollar industries they support (Ihde et al., 2011). Environmental change at scales ranging from local to global is likely to impact increasingly on the productive capacity of fisheries (see Sale et al., 2014 for tropical coastal fisheries). Together with a growing global population and sustained pressures to maintain and increase current high levels of production, complementary approaches to traditional fisheries management practices (such as fisheries enhancement) remain important, and will play a key role in addressing fishery productivity limitations into the future. The 5th ISSESR, held in Sydney Australia in 2015, examined the advances in aquaculture-based enhancement over the last 5–10 years, and the implications of these developments for future research and management. This article introduces the Fisheries Research Special Issue “Fisheries Enhancement and Restoration in a Changing World” arising from the 5th ISSESR. We summarise the main advances presented in this Special Issue, and integrate these with other relevant, recent literature. We start with a focus on recreational fisheries and the pressures to initiate release programs for this sector, examine the social and economic value of release programs, investigate developments in hatchery technology and release strategies, look at alternative forms of fisheries enhancements and conclude by identifying potential opportunities for future development. The research presented in the 18 publications within this issue covers aquaculture and ecological research to support more effective enhancement, mechanisms for increasing the survival of released individuals, models for evaluating release strategies and the potential success of releases, qualitative approaches to understand the social value of release programs, and the governance of these programs within an overall framework of managing fisheries. These topics are covered for a range of taxa with diverse lifehistory strategies, including crustaceans and echinoderms, as well as teleosts.
2. Recreational fisheries and increasing impetus for enhancement Over the last twenty years, our understanding of the nature, volume, value and extent of recreational fishing has grown rapidly. Recently, Arlinghaus et al. (2015) estimated that about 118 million people participated in recreational fisheries in the industrialised
world. However, this figure does not include recreational fishing in some of the world’s most populous developing countries, which may push this level as high as 11.5% of the global population (totalling more than 850,000,000 participants, as suggested by Cooke and Cowx, 2004). Recreational fishing exacerbates the pressures on many fishery resources, particularly species perceived as highly desirable that are also subject to commercial fishing, while providing multiple social and economic benefits (Ihde et al., 2011). Our growing understanding of the costs and benefits of recreational fisheries, and their interaction with other sectors using marine resources (e.g. commercial and indigenous fishers, and other groups utilising waterways and the marine environment) continues to provide challenges to fisheries management systems (Jordan et al., 2016). Recognising the social and financial benefits of recreational fishing, many governments highlight the improvement of recreational fishing opportunities as a strategic objective. However, participation is decreasing in some developed countries, possibly due to real or perceived reductions in fishing opportunities or fishing quality, particularly in and around urban centres (Arlinghaus et al., 2015). Aquaculture-based enhancement is increasingly being employed as a strategy to improve the recreational fishing experience and provide greater opportunities to communities. Research and progress in the enhancement of recreational fisheries have been a hallmark of the last two ISSESR. The responsible approach to marine stock enhancement provides an accepted framework of guiding principles for designing and implementing aquaculture-based enhancement (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Lorenzen et al., 2010). Importantly, Leber (2013) points out that the elements of the responsible approach need to be adapted to the local circumstances, and Taylor et al. (2005) give some examples of how this can be achieved. Several examples of how the responsible approach can be adapted wholly or partially to the enhancement of recreational fisheries are presented here. These examples come mainly from the United States (Garlock et al., 2016) and Australia (Blount et al., 2016b; Broadley et al., 2016; Taylor, 2016). Blount et al. (2016b) summarises a process (Cardno, 2011) that integrates these principles with the requirements of local legislation, to design and assess a marine stocking strategy in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The process was initiated through stakeholder engagement, and assessed priority species and locations against agreed, pre-determined criteria. The environmental, social and economic risks and potential outcomes from these scenarios were also assessed. Importantly, the associated Fishery Management Strategy, which now governs marine fish stocking in this jurisdiction (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2014), highlights recruitment limitation as the rationale for stocking events, provides a comprehensive research plan to further develop stocking practices and minimise risks, and includes provisions for adaptive management of marine fish stocking into the future, based on research outcomes. In Florida, USA, Garlock et al. (2016) quantitatively assessed current and potential release programs for five candidate, marine species, and evaluated the outcomes from stocking relative to other management measures that could be applied. This study applied readily available life-history and fishery model parameters, alongside constraints imposed by local regulatory policies. They identified that the contributions of stocked fish to fisheries are heavily influenced by the species’ life history and its pattern of vulnerability to fishing, reinforcing the importance of biological attributes in species being released (Munro and Bell, 1997; Taylor et al., 2005) while highlighting the often overlooked importance of fisheries characteristics (see also Section 3 below). This study forms part of a wider set of biological-technical, social and economic assessments on Florida’s marine recreational fisheries
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enhancements within the framework of the responsible approach (Camp et al., 2016, 2013; Garlock and Lorenzen, 2016). Two novel examples of invertebrate recreational fisheries enhancement are presented, both relating to recreational penaeid prawn [=shrimp] fisheries. While “recreation” is a key outcome of recreational fishing, consumptive outcomes also comprise a significant motivation of this type of activity. Invertebrate recreational fisheries provide an example of this principle, where harvest is usually achieved using simple hand collection, traps, or nets (as opposed to angling), and the primary objective is the consumption of freshly caught seafood. Penaeid prawns generally represent a high value product to purchase, but can be harvested easily in estuaries as juveniles or adults. Importantly, this practice only requires a low-level of skill and relatively inexpensive equipment, so is attractive to a broad demographic. Broadley et al. (2016) present preliminary work on a release program that was initiated to evaluate the potential for an aquaculture-based release program to rebuild a severely depleted stock of estuarine prawns (Metapenaeus dalli). They report on targeted research to define biological parameters necessary to facilitate bioeconomic analyses of the practice and design parameters of an effective release strategy, particularly the time of release. In contrast, Taylor (2016) outlines the enhancement of recreational prawn fisheries in the context of extreme recruitment limitation, in a put-grow-take enhancement system. This unique practice shows that significant recreational fishery outcomes can be achieved when releases are used to address advection-induced recruitment limitation in estuarine systems that become closed to the ocean, in a productive but underutilised nursery habitat. Aquaculture-based enhancement will be essential in addressing falling recreational fishing participation rates and maintaining fishing quality in the face of increasing participation and demand, in developed and developing economies respectively. To effectively address these challenges into the future, aquaculture-based enhancement will require increasingly innovative socio-economic and ecological solutions, and this highlights an important area for ongoing research and development.
3
the foundation for several case studies examining the social impacts of fisheries enhancement in this Special Issue. The attitudes of anglers to fishery release programs in Florida, USA are evaluated in Garlock and Lorenzen (2016) through an internet-based survey. In general, all anglers supported release programs but the level of support for fisheries enhancement compared with other management options, such as habitat rehabilitation, bag and size limits, varied with the level of motivation and fishing intensity or specialisation of the angling group. The greatest support for release programs came from the most specialised group who interestingly, were unlikely to derive significant benefits from releases because of their focus on catching large trophy fish rather than larger numbers of smaller fish. Quantitative studies on the potential economic and biological effectiveness of release programs are provided for Florida, USA (Camp et al., 2016; Garlock et al., 2016) and eastern Australia (Hunt et al., 2016; Taylor, 2016). Fisheries models were used to assess five candidate species that are recreationally targeted in Florida, but have very different life histories and fisheries. The models showed that contributions of released fish to the fisheries were influenced by both the life history and characteristics of the fishery. For example, Red Drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) is targeted by fishers before they reach maturity, and as a consequence were more likely to contribute to the recreational catch than other species (e.g., Common Snook Centropomus undecimalis) but were unlikely to contribute to the spawning population. Hunt et al. (2016) present an analysis on the economic and social cost-effectiveness of releasing salmonids in south-western Victoria, and demonstrates the potential for significant economic and social return-on-investment from fish stocking. Taylor (2016) draws on principles established in previous bioeconomic assessments of fish releases, and identifies the potential for high returns (benefit:cost of up to 5:1) from prawn releases to enhance recreational fisheries. The methods of evaluation presented in these studies can be readily applied to other fisheries and enhancement systems.
4. Developments in hatchery technology and release strategies to improve enhancement outcomes 3. Developing the social and economic paradigm for enhancements Given the relative expense of aquaculture-based fishery release programs, and the negative views of some conservation and community groups on fishing as a threatening process to biodiversity, it is very important that the benefits and costs associated with the activity are identified, quantified and effectively communicated to the broad range of stakeholders. The need for such evaluation has been a central principle of responsible stock enhancement for decades (Blankenship and Leber, 1995; Radonski and Loftus, 1995), however this remains an important direction for research (Lorenzen et al., 2013), and several key papers are included in this Special Issue. Barclay et al. (2016) reviewed the use and importance of social research for effective fisheries management, and outline important principles when studying social impacts in a fisheries context. They considered three case studies that used different social-science approaches to: (1) understand how commercial and recreational fisheries contribute to the wellbeing of coastal communities; (2) identify factors limiting community development in the Pacific Islands; and (3) identify appropriate fisheries management tools through an interactive-governance analysis. The qualitative approach adopted in these case studies adds a new dimension to understanding fisheries that is not possible with a focus solely on quantitative data and approaches. Their review lays
Technical developments and advances in both aquaculture practices and release strategies continue to play a critical role in responsible stock enhancement programs (Bell et al., 2005; Leber, 2013). Some of the most recent advances aim to improve the efficiency of the initial stages of hatchery production, including the development of low-risk production systems to support enhance˜ ment programs (Juinio-Menez et al., 2016; Partridge et al., 2016). ˜ et al. (2016) outline a novel framework by which Juinio-Menez Sandfish (Holothuria scabra) production facilities can be optimised to support the specific requirements of multiple local fisheries. Adaptive use of these modular production systems led to improved hatchery-production and supply of appropriately reared juveniles for both re-stocking and sea ranching, ultimately leading to important socio-economic benefits for local communities. Partridge et al. (2016) describe how eggs from wild spawning aggregations can be exploited to support the rearing of Snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) for stock enhancement, thus overcoming the various issues that arise through use of captive broodstock to produce juveniles for release (such as decreased genetic diversity, e.g. Utter, 1998). The results of this study are also broadly applicable in the sense that they demonstrate the potential for exploiting wild eggs from other marine finfish that form dense spawning aggregations. Development of appropriate release strategies has always been a key feature of aquaculture-based enhancement. While this may involve simply identifying important habitat requirements for hatchery-reared individuals (Altamirano et al., 2016), it may also
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involve explicit activities prior to release to prepare these animals for conditions they will experience in the wild, sometimes referred to as conditioning or training. For example, Agnalt et al. (2016) show how enriching the hatchery environment for European lobster (Homarus gammarus) not only leads to improved survival in the hatchery, but also improves survival following release into natural systems. The development and implementation of improved release strategies ultimately have a positive effect on post-stocking processes such as settlement into natural habitats and lower emigration (Chick et al., 2013; Pursche et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2016). Taylor et al. (2016) highlight higher levels of movement activity as one of the key biological differences between hatchery-reared and naturally recruited juvenile Mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicus). Garlock et al. (2014) likewise showed elevated activity levels in hatchery-reared Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) and demonstrated a link between heightened activity and reduced survival probability in semi-natural environments, identifying movement activity as an important factor affecting post-release survival of hatchery-reared fish. Ultimately, development and implementation of improved hatchery rearing and release strategies aid the transition of released individuals into wild habitats by encouraging appropriate behaviours (Lorenzen et al., 2013), but excessive densities of recruits in the receiving system can negate the benefits derived from these strategies (Tomiyama et al., 2016). Recent studies highlight the importance of animal density in both natural and enhanced systems, and its effect on population regulation (e.g. Loneragan et al., 2001; Lorenzen and Enberg, 2002; Ochwada-Doyle et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2013). While several general approaches to estimating stocking density based on resource availability have been proposed (e.g. Christensen, 1994; Smith et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2013), many enhancement systems require species-specific approaches. Yamashita et al. (2016) provide a novel example of this, and show how factors limiting productivity can be used in conjunction with a physiological model, incorporating species-specific consumption rates, to estimate appropriate release densities for flatfish Paralichthys olivaceus. This model predicted that in most years, releases were likely to be effective, but this depended on the density of mysid prey and wild juveniles within the release area. Stochastic, environmentally-induced variation in spawning success (e.g. Kawabe et al., 2016) can ultimately lead to poor reproductive outcomes in the wild and low recruitment years, and elucidating the behavioural and environmental factors that are required for successful spawning (e.g. Kayaba et al., 2016) is essential to inform when and where releases may be required. Stocking during years of exceptional wild recruitment can lead to density-dependent effects on both released and wild fish, as identified in the analysis of releases of P. olivaceus (Tomiyama et al., 2016). The importance of understanding animal density and carrying capacity, as well as natural recruitment levels in stocked systems, should not be underestimated. This is further exemplified by Blount et al. (2016a), who show that manipulating the density of naturally recruited individuals can ultimately lead to improvements in animal condition, and result in enhanced fisheries outcomes.
5. Further integration of fisheries enhancements presents new opportunities Lorenzen et al. (2013) proposed that controlling fishing effort, habitat enhancement (restoration, rehabilitation and deployment of artificial habitats), and aquaculture-based enhancement are the three principal means by which fisheries can be sustained and improved. However, it is possible that multiplicative gains may be made through a combination of these approaches. Theoretically,
controlling fishing effort in conjunction with aquaculture-based enhancement can produce positive economic outcomes for heavily exploited stocks (e.g. Hart et al., 2013), but these two controls are rarely implemented alongside each other. In fact, fish releases in recreational fisheries are sometimes conducted with the intention of supporting increasing fishing effort on the enhanced stock (Camp et al., 2013). It follows that most potential may lie in combining habitat and aquaculture-based enhancement, and local examples of such projects were presented at the 4th (China) and 5th ISSESR (Australia). There are significant developments in habitat repair across many countries (recently reviewed in Bayraktarov et al., 2016), with work generally targeting coral and oyster reefs, seagrass, mangroves and saltmarshes. The fisheries and economic benefits derived from such habitats provide a good justification for undertaking habitat repair (Abt Associates Inc., 2014; Blandon and zu Ermgassen, 2014; Creighton et al., 2015), however, the full realisation of potential fisheries benefits relies on an adequate supply of wild recruits of desirable (exploited) species. Inadequate recruitment from depressed wild spawning or poor advection may well detract from the magnitude of fisheries enhancement that is derived from restored or rehabilitated habitats. It follows that the release of desirable species that do not readily recruit to restored or rehabilitated sites, but naturally occur in such habitats, may help to enhance the benefits of habitat repair. The potential contributions that aquaculture-based enhancement can make to coastal habitat enhancement and repair are yet to be evaluated in a quantitative fashion, and no obvious case studies are yet published in the literature. These management measures, however, need not be alternatives to one another. Evidence of this potential may lie in some recent examples where artificial habitats have been deployed specifically to enhance the outcomes from hatchery-releases. While this has been discussed for many years, mainly for non-migratory invertebrate species (e.g. Burton, 2001; Hart, 2015), only recently have these ideas been put into practice (mostly in large commercial operations in China and South Korea). Zhang et al. (2015) describe the construction of artificial oyster reefs to support sea ranching of Sea Cucumber (Apostichopus japonicas) in China. These artificial habitats supported higher animal densities than non-reef areas, likely due to additional diatom productivity on the oyster reef relative to adjacent non-reef habitats. Wu et al. (in press) present a further example, describing the trophic flows from cultured kelp to fisheries in the Yellow Sea, where benthic invertebrates are released in conjunction with artificial reef units. A good contemporary example of the combination of habitat and aquaculture-based enhancement was presented in a key note presentation by Brad Adams of Ocean Grown Abalone (http://www.oceangrown.com.au) at the 5th ISSESR, which summarised the approach taken to enhance Greenlip Abalone (Haliotis laeviagata) production in south-western Australia. This operation combines commercial leases of seafloor area with the development of species-specific artificial reefs (“ABITATS”) and aquaculturebased enhancement to produce 100 t of abalone. Although the 5000 reefs now deployed have been in the water for less than three years, the initial production has been so successful that plans to double production have already been developed. In recent years, we have seen a proliferation of artificial reefs to enhance recreational fishing opportunities (Becker et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2016). Coupled with emerging case studies that demonstrate outcomes of habitat enhancement, the increasing push for both artificial reefs and habitat rehabilitation provides an impetus to further explore how aquaculture-based enhancement might add value to these projects. It is likely that such projects will be expensive, however similar principles should apply as those for aquaculture-based enhancement. Decision-support frameworks and modelling tools already exist which can be readily
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adapted to assess the outcomes of such scenarios (e.g. Lorenzen, 2008), and evaluate the ability of hatchery releases to add-value to coastal habitat repair or enhancement. As for aquaculture-based enhancement, application of these tools to evaluate the potential for multiplicative gains and the relative costs and benefits of such endeavours, will allow informed decision making prior to any large investments being made.
6. Concluding remarks Fisheries enhancement in all its forms provides a mechanism to supplement the natural resources of existing systems and increase productivity. Such measures provide a range of complementary tools that aim to mitigate the pressures on marine fisheries. Moreover, fisheries enhancements integrate the tools that can be used to manage, enhance and restore fisheries, provide unique opportunities for learning about the dynamics of fisheries systems, and unify traditionally separate strands of the fisheries sciences (Lorenzen, 2014). It is clear that fisheries enhancement is being more broadly utilised in marine systems, and as the contents of this Special Issue demonstrate, the field continues to develop through improvements in aquaculture technology, increasing application of modelling tools and decision making frameworks, research on species biology and ecology, and quantitative assessments to support adaptive management. Aquaculture-based enhancement already provides opportunities and associated socio-economic benefits to a broad range of stakeholders. Coupling this technology with habitat enhancement will likely increase these opportunities and benefits for recreational, commercial, artisanal and conservation stakeholders alike.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the speakers, sponsors, steering committee and International Scientific Committee of the 5th International Symposium on Stock Enhancement and Sea Ranching, as well as the Australian Society for Fish Biology and the local organising committee for hosting this event in Sydney. They also thank J. You, I. Gopinath and G. Rose for advice and assistance in the preparation of this Special Issue, as well as the many colleagues who contributed to the peer review process.
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