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Fixing ink jet printed textiles
Fixing ink jet printed textiles
Polka dot repeat with droplet motif.
Ink Jet Textile Printing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-85709-230-4.00008-X Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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8.1
Ink Jet Textile Printing
Introduction
The printed mark could be transitory and fleeting, washed away by the rain, but the human effort involved in designing and printing cloth desires, and perhaps deserves, more lasting recognition. Printing is dyeing, but only in specific areas. It leaves a mark, not random but highly controlled in color and shape. Whether described as “fixed,” “cured,” “set,” or yet another term, permanence, therefore, is the point in print. This chapter will discuss fixing methods for securing the ink jet print as a permanent feature on a textile. It will also consider the meaning of permanence, from the perspective of the commercial timeframe and from the longer-term perspective of the significance of the printed textile as a cultural artifact and record. For fibers and dyes sourced from plants and other natural sources, the addition of a “mordant,” from the French mordre meaning to bite, enhances the ability of many dyes to “bite” and hold fast onto textile fibers even through rigorous “wear and care” cycles. In processes occurring before, during or after dyeing, different mordants were used to treat different fibers for different naturally sourced dyestuffs. The knowledge of which mordant to use and how and when to use it was the skill of the master dyer. The development of synthetic or man-made dyestuffs, as used for most ink jet printing on textiles, has systematized and simplified much of this procedure, although skill and experience are still of value. Much like using a mordant, pretreating the cloth assists in the uptake and retention of the ink when printing by ink jet onto textiles. The pretreatment is often the first step for fixing a print design onto a textile substrate to last a lifetime, and perhaps beyond.
8.2
Fixing
As with much in life, the best and most durable prints will happen if optimal conditions for success are offered from the beginning. The process of fixing the print, therefore, begins before the printing process itself: l
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The projected final use for the printed fabric influences the careful selection of ink type, pretreatment, and fiber type to give the most satisfactory results. The construction method of the cloth as weave, knit, or bond influences the print result. Smooth cloths offer better definition and print clarity, compared to those fabrics with strong dimensionality and an uneven surface or incorporating slubs or raised hairs. Fiber and fabric types are considered in depth in Chapter 3 of this book. For ink jet printing, appropriate pretreatments, matched to fiber and ink types, will also assist the uptake and retention of the ink. Pretreatments are discussed in Chapter 5 of this book. Different inks are suitable for different fiber types; these are considered in detail in Chapter 7 of this book.
Once the print has been jetted on to the cloth, it will dry and can be assessed quickly for quality, although it is not yet ready for use. Different fixing processes are also required, as different ink formulations bond differently with their respective fibers.
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At an atomic level, colorant and fiber atoms bond through attraction between their respective positively or negatively charged electrons: l
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Reactive dyes form “covalent” bonds, where atoms bond by sharing electrons across the atoms. An alkali is usually required to facilitate this bonding. Covalent bonds form the strongest linkage between dyestuff and fabric. Acid dyes form “ionic” bonds (also known as “electrovalent” bonds), where one atom relinquishes one or more electrons to another atom. Disperse dyes form hydrogen bonds, where atoms are joined together by a linking hydrogen atom; they also bond using “van der Waals forces,” where charges on the molecules may shift around, bonding, but to a relatively weak extent. Pigments are not soluble colorants as are those that form typical dyestuffs, but instead are fine, solid particles of colorant. They do not interact with the fiber, and thus must be held or fixed in place by a binder as an additional component. Binders are typically polymers, which are types of chemical compounds made from multiple, repeating units like long chains. To hold the pigment particles in place as the print on the fabric, the polymer chains in the binder will “cross-link,” forming covalent bonds across these chains (Iqbal et al., 2012, p. 88). This cross-linking forms the binder into a “film,” over the surface of the textile, which is insoluble to water and resistant to rubbing. This film accounts for the slight stiffening of handle, which can be experienced with some pigment-printed fabrics.
8.3
Methods for fixing
Promotion of the formation of chemical bonding between colorant and textile substrate to fix the print mostly involves, in varying proportions; heat, moisture, pressure, and time. No simple formula can be given for fixing inks, as there are too many variables to be considered; however, methods are discussed here. The sacrifice of a little time to test appropriate fixing methods is likely to save time in the long run. Extra time may be needed for fixing higher concentrations of ink; heat must be monitored, as overheating may cause yellowing of the fabric substrate (Cotton Incorporated, 2002, p. 4). As with other steps in the ink jet print process, practice and patience make for perfection.
8.3.1
“Wet” heat (steam)
Heating water creates steam and will “open” up the fibers by increasing air and moisture gaps between the fibers to help the dye molecules penetrate further into the fabric. This heat also encourages the development of molecular bonds. Liquid water turns to steam at “atmospheric” or normal pressure, generally at 100 Celsius (C), depending on height above sea level. At lowered atmospheric pressure, such as at the top of a mountain, water will boil at a lower temperature than the expected 100 C, so steam generated under increasing pressure will therefore occur at correspondingly increasing temperatures. There are two main types of steamers used commercially. Tube steamers allow for the whole roll of cloth to be loaded inside the chamber. Many can produce steam generated at either atmospheric or increased pressure. Pressurized steam, along with
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increased duration in the steamer, can be particularly useful when “batch” steaming a rolled length of cloth. This pressure, over a longer period of time, helps the steam to penetrate through all the layers and to ensure that fixation occurs throughout the roll. Tube steamers tend to be useful for short run production, such as in sample and test production. Roll-to-roll steamers literally unload the roll of cloth to pass through the steam fixation process, rolling it up again on the other side. As “open,” rather than closed like the tube steamer, these mostly operate at atmospheric pressure, needing only to fix through a single layer of printed cloth. They are naturally compatible with the roll-to-roll production of ink jet or digitally printed textiles on a large commercial scale. Visible steam, such as seen from the spout of a boiling kettle, is only visible because it is no longer steam, appearing instead as some of the water condenses into droplets in contact with the cooler air. Such condensation is best avoided where possible, as direct contact with unfixed ink may cause the ink to bleed outside of the print area. For this reason, drafts and air movement that may accelerate cooling and condensation are also best avoided during the fixing process. However, once all of the water has been heated to a gas, visible “steam” cannot be seen. Heating this gas beyond and away from risk of condensation produces increasingly “superheated” or “dry” steam.
8.3.2
“Dry” heat
The direct application of disperse dyes involves printing directly onto the cloth using a liquid carrier to transport the solid, heat-sensitive dye particles that form the “ink” (Swain, 2011, p. 8). Disperse dyes are used on polyester fibers or blends with a significant percentage of polyester, although “enablers,” such as sprays or preprint preparation sheets, can be used on other fiber types to apply a thin layer of polyester first, to bond with the disperse dye. Disperse dyes are also described as “sublimation” inks, as the ink molecules “sublimate” or change directly from a solid to a gas due to the application of heat, skipping any liquid state entirely. This heat also opens up spaces in the synthetic fibers that the dye can enter. On cooling, the spaces in the fibers close as the dye reverts to solid particles, trapping the dye particles to “fix” the print. This fixing process therefore involves physical entrapment in addition to chemical forms of bonding. The disperse dye print can be fixed by passing the cloth through an oven to heat and cure, particularly for the large-scale commercial production of yardage. Commercial ovens for fixing textiles typically use a looped blanket or belt to pass the fabric under the heating elements for an appropriate duration. For smaller scale production, the disperse dye print can be also be fixed using a heat press.
8.3.3
Pressure
Disperse dyes can also be applied indirectly as a transfer from paper that has been printed with the pattern using an ink jet printer charged with the disperse dye. A heat press, available in various flatbed or roll-to-roll formats, is aptly named, applying both heat and pressure to a substrate. This method fixes or “cures” the ink as part of the
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printing process due to the heat and pressure of the heat press, so a separate fixing step is no longer necessary. The heat activates the sublimation of the dye from the solid on the paper to a gas that migrates to the textile substrate, with the pressure from the heat press helping to force the particles into spaces in the polyester fibers also opened up by the heat. As with directly applied sublimation inks, on cooling, the dye reverts to solid particles and the spaces in the fibers close, trapping the dye particles to “fix” the print. Time and speed are also important as the smooth and swift removal of the transfer paper postprinting will prevent the appearance of an unwanted “shadow” blurring the image. Care in the physical arrangement of postprint items by any dyestuff or fixing process whilst they cool will avoid accidental contact with other surfaces that may take up the image where it is unwanted and disrupt the fixing process. Transfer printing can also occur using other dyestuffs as inks, aside from disperse dye types. Alternative methods of transfer printing use special transfer paper to feed through a standard desktop printer, preferably delivering pigment-based inks. A “film” will secure this ink onto a textile substrate, similar in principle to the binders used to secure pigment-based inks. Application is also by heat press, with the heat helping to release the film from the special transfer paper and also to promote cross-linking between the polymers that form the film that will secure the ink and print in place. The pressure from the heat press helps to force dyestuff in and force the film to mold over and into the fibers of the fabric. This film can account for the slight stiffening of handle, particularly if used to print onto dark fabrics. There can be a trade-off for film-based heat transfers between ease of use and differences in elasticity between the film on the surface and the flexible cloth underneath, with opaque transfers most subject to cracking and flaking off. Placement prints, particularly on skate, surf, and snowboard wear, sometimes replicate this as a graphic fashion statement, mimicking the brokenup, worn appearance that can eventually result from this form of printing. Some films, however, avoid this and are designed to break apart on heating; if pigment-based dyestuffs are used, they are also fixed by this heat (Lewis and Rattee, 1974).
8.3.4
Ultraviolet
Pigment-based inks are versatile, used not only on cellulose but also on protein fibers and polyester. In many ways, they are the easiest inks to fix or “cure,” although, like disperse inks, they differ from other ink types by composition and are a suspension rather than a solution. The small but solid particles of colorant are suspended in, rather than dissolved into, the fluid, and a binder is added. On curing, the binder forms into a “film” or “glue” and holds the pigment particles in place on the fabric. There are similarities with the transfer printing process using standard desktop ink jet printers that has previously been described; however, this is significantly more durable. The crosslinking of the binder polymers can be promoted by comparatively brief exposure to heat in a thermal curing process. This heat is often produced by infrared (IR) heat lamps, but fixing or curing is also possible by controlled exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light from the other side of the light spectrum to initiate the polymerization
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process. UV-curable ink uses minimal heat and also generates minimal solvent evaporation, so some argue that this process produces no harmful volatile organic compounds. UV curing systems typically require less space than conventional fixing systems, and the production of the UV light by light-emitting diode lamps requiring less energy also promises to extend the “green” credentials of this process. Binders to fix the pigment to the cloth have typically either been included in pretreatments for the cloth applied prior to printing, or in the ink itself. Research into pretreatments for pigments has included investigation into the use of chitosan, a biopolymer obtained from chitin, an abundant polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of shrimp and crab, and often dumped as waste (Chakvattanatham et al., 2010; Phattanarudee et al., 2009). There has also been research into the use of chitosan as a postprint treatment, shifting and extending the range of possible fixation techniques for ink jet printing on textiles (Momin et al., 2011).
8.3.5
Washing
After fixing, most fabrics will then be washed in accordance with the relevant dyestuff and fabric type, summarized here and discussed in more detail in Chapter 9 of this book: l
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Reactive dyes, used on cellulose fibers such as cotton and linen and protein fibers as well as nylon, can be fixed by atmospheric or pressurized steam. The fabric will then also be washed, often twice and sometimes at different water temperatures to remove any dye molecules still unfixed to the fabric. If not removed, these loose dye molecules could randomly reattach themselves and “back stain” the fabric, ruining the print. Acid dyes, appropriate for protein fibers such as wool and silk as well as nylon, are also fixed by steaming, often for longer duration than that selected for reactive dyes. They also require washing after fixing, sometimes for several cycles, to remove unfixed dye molecules, other ink components, and pretreatments. Disperse dyes are used to print on polyester and are usually washed postfixation, particularly if destined for use as garments. Disperse and other dyes applied by the transfer method may be less likely to be washed postfixation, particularly if placement prints such as those on T-shirts and small-scale production rather than yardage. Pigment inks can print on cellulose fibers, although they are often also used on protein fibers and nylon. The particles of pigment are fixed by the film of binder that tends to trap all of the dye molecules, so there is usually no need to wash out any excess. Washing may not be necessary after pigment fixation, although it may be preferable for the consumer, particularly if it can soften the stiffer handle that tends to occur with pigment printing.
8.4
Durability
Ink jet printing onto textiles uses comparatively less ink than other methods, so there can be less scope for error. It is important that all the steps in the print process are followed as appropriate for the most successful long-term result. The introduction
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of a new technology into an established area can be greeted with jubilation by some and skepticism verging on cynicism by others (Moore, 2002). This is described visually as a bell curve rising up from the optimistic “early adopters” to the height of popularity and then falling toward the wary and skeptical, who lag behind at the end. There can, however, be a “chasm” on the way into which new technology may fall if it fails to prove itself in the marketplace. For the widespread acceptance of ink jet printing, the final product must perform consistently, and possibly even perform better than the other established printing methods, to be accepted as a commercially viable and acceptable alternative technology. Textile ink is fixed onto the cloth for durability so that it won’t wash away or fade quickly. For consumer protection, and in some cases also health and safety, many fabrics are tested to ensure suitability for a particular use. Measurements and tests of the durability of an ink printed and fixed onto a textile recognize the conditions that it must endure, according to the likely usage that it will encounter in its lifetime. Accordingly, standards vary according to those requirements relative to the final use of the printed textile. Textiles as automotive upholstery, for example, particularly on public transport, must be far more resistant to the abrasive effect of bags and backsides than if used on occasional cushions in a domestic setting. Fabrics used for certain applications also require specific testing, such as flammability for firefighting garments. The main focus in such testing is usually on the fiber type, along with the method of fabric construction; however, color durability is included as part of the standard testing regime: l
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Physical testing includes stress and strain tests for strength when dry and wet; the resistance to abrasion (rubbing); and the likelihood of “pilling” due to abrasion, where fibers are released from the structure of the textile and form small balls attached to the textile surface. Changes in the surface can also affect the appearance of the print. Dimensional testing includes stability tests for shrinkage and other distortions, such as recovery rates for elasticity. Dependent on ink penetration, stretching can reveal the ground color through the print. Performance testing may examine absorbency; thermal or cooling properties; crease resistance; and the drape and “handle,” or the feel of the cloth as soft, crisp, etc. Use of a binder to secure the dyestuff can affect the fabric handle. Color-fastness testing measures alterations in color of fabric due to light exposure; laundering, including dry cleaning; and also “crocking,” where color transfers to another fabric on rubbing when wet or when dry (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists [AATCC], 2012). Crocking can be caused by incorrect or poor application methods, penetration, wash-off, or fixing.
Textile testing has evolved principally from commercial and consumer imperatives, considering the performance of the textile during its “service life.” The service life of a textile refers to how it has been or is likely to be used. However, it is this service life that reduces possibilities for the preservation of many textiles, particularly everyday items. Fixing processes are used to secure the printed ink to the textile and to preserve it through its service life. However, some textiles will be preserved well beyond this service life, as textiles have also come to serve as historical records. From a materials
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point of view, textiles rarely endure as well as stone or metal; however, alongside commercial value, textiles hold cultural information of value about a society and an era. Fixation processes for ink jet printing can be considered as important in the short, long, and even in the longer term, as discussed in the following sections.
8.5
Archiving
Archives are often associated with museums. A museum is a building commonly set apart for study and inspiration, and is a home for the “Muses” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2013). Primarily public and primarily focusing on objects, there is an implication here of public display, originally for education and now also for entertainment. An archive is the orderly collection of these historical items, and the place in which these are held. There need be no obligation of public access to the archive, but there is an implication of organization (Bettington and Australian Society of Archivists, 2008). An incoherent jumble might be considered an archive by some, but without consideration and order, the items are likely to be inaccessible, which prompts the key question, “Why?” Why is this, or this, being saved? Many companies do not archive their production history, despite its usefulness for “data mining” and other commercial activities. An archive can be considered a resource rather than a relic, a repository of already completed design work, as exemplified by the popularity of the rediscovered work of Florence Broadhurst (Sydney Morning Herald, 2004). Prints that have previously failed commercially may come to suit the prevailing taste; reconfiguring colorways can reclaim an otherwise rejected design with little extra effort. Aside from notions of preservation for some unspecified future public and social “good,” archives can be profitable, alongside the commercial benefits of a versatile “signature” print, such as Marimekko’s “Poppy” (Aav, 2003) or Orla Kiely’s “Stem” (Kiely, 2010), lasting in popularity through many seasonal rotations. For these companies, their brand is linked to highly recognizable print designs. The value of such print patterns, adaptable yet still recognizable across many different uses, languages, and cultures, is increasingly recognized commercially as valuable intellectual property and a global brand-building tool. Not everything can be saved in a consumer “throwaway” society, with prolific, even profligate, production. This is the dilemma of the archivist. How to choose what to save in a time of plenty, as the focus shifts away from just the preservation of scarcity? Notorious mistakes have been made; thus, how to see into the future to know what then will be valued (Lawson, 2010)? Selection is a key process in archiving, often referred to as “accessioning,” and then “deaccessioning” when an item is no longer considered necessary for the completeness of the collection. This process is rightly contentious, with committees rather than individuals needed to make the decisions, as bias could be replicated through an unbalanced collection and then be presented as a “truth.” Archiving can be considered a political activity by those both in and out of political power (Parajuli, 2012). From a purely functional perspective, archives are necessary for some functions in certain societies, such as the legal system, which relies on past precedents for present judgments. The “why” in the question regarding what to
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save must be answered, yet it must also remain open rather than be considered as definitive and thus closed to debate. Historic collections with a wide range of objects or opinions allow for the reevaluation of accepted “truths.”
8.6
Preservation
Printed textiles, particularly as dress, are increasingly used by museums as cultural records and deemed worthy of preservation and display. The high attendance records at curated dress exhibitions, which often travel internationally to several venues, satisfy requirements that museums maintain their finances as well as their artifacts. They justify the effort to mount such exhibitions and consolidate the reputation of a museum as one of international standing (Kite, 2010, p. 33). Broadening the criteria for acceptability has also however allowed for a broadening the criteria for collection. Garments in excellent condition are still sought by museums, but are usually not the type of garments frequently worn but often belong to richer sectors of society. The service life of a textile, or how it has been used, is part of its history and thus part of the historical record. Recognizing this, there has been a radical shift in perspective among textile conservators and curators, as an ethos of minimal intervention informs consideration of the textile, with rips and marks, even mud, providing valuable historical evidence regarding the conditions in which the textile was worn, revealing the conditions that it was required to endure (Brooks and Eastop, 2006, p. 174). Conservation, however, is not restoration. Conservation aims to preserve and to minimize further damage. Restoration attempts to restore to “new,” sometimes even when it is not clear what “new” looked like. An item may no longer appear “as good as new,” but this does not make it unworthy of interest. In addition to preserving ink jet or digitally printed textiles for their singular virtue, museums and costume collections are also using these textiles to support older textiles in their collections. As ink jet printing can mimic even the print degraded by time, there is no need for the damaging “breaking down” process that will bring the new textile into visual line with the old. Ink jet printed textiles are being used to supplement existing items, such as to replace missing items from a garment “set,” such as stomachers or petticoats, or to infill areas missing from older textiles, often due to wear (Lennard et al., 2008; Myers Breeze, 2002). In other cases, ink jet printed textiles are used to substitute for older textiles still in existence but too fragile for long-term display (Westerman Bulgarella et al., 2010). The very factors that textiles must endure through a service life, such as light, moisture, or areas of strain—particularly around folds or seams—are the factors that must be avoided if the textile is to be preserved. To save a textile, it should not be used. The difference between conservator and curator articulates the paradox between preservation and display that museums and archives face. A conservator monitors the condition of the textile and with minimal intervention, attempts to maintain or preserve the textile in its current state. A conservator will have practical skills in the maintenance of the textile medium. Alternatively, the role of the curator is to select items for display and exhibition, often according to a particular theme, considering items within their design context. They may have specific skills in
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the display of items to the public. However, by their display, these items are exposed to light, humidity, insects, and pests, all the very things that may possibly destroy them. Light, in particular, is particularly injurious to color in print. Even careful handling by conservators poses a risk to the item; one evolving field in dress or costume preservation has been the development of skills in designing and building display equipment that minimizes handling when mounting exhibitions, particularly if touring with transport in between venues (Kite, 2010, p. 33).
8.7
Copyright
In many countries, the protection of intellectual property relies on registration and archives for its veracity. In the United Kingdom, the protection of designs as intellectual property and industrial assets began with textile design, and the Designing and Printing of Linen Act of 1787 (Intellectual Property Office [UK], 2011). Britain became a political and commercial force in global politics due in no small part to textiles, initially wool but later cotton during the Industrial Revolution. The 1787 act for the “designing and printing of linens, cottons, calicos and muslin,” protected the sole rights of print and reprint for initially 2, later 3 months to the company or individual named on each piece. Many companies continue to print their names alongside color guides on the “selvedge,” or edge of printed cloth. This legal protection was later extended to include print on fabrics from other fibers by the Copyright and Design Act of 1839. This act introduced the principles that underpin current design laws, including external registration, with designs having to be registered as an additional step to benefit from protection. This has since evolved into the concept of “design right,” with two or three dimensional designs often treated differently. Copyright, or design right, protection for textile print pattern varies according to local legislation and international agreements around the world. In practice, copying is rife because of the legal costs of either initially registering individual designs, or of pursuing design “pirates” often through international courts. The work of individual textile designers, outside of a few well-known names, is often relatively anonymous. Digitally based design technology such as ink jet printing as well as digital design software has made such piracy easier by reducing the capital outlay and effort required to print. Proving piracy is also difficult, with copying sometimes incorporating minor alterations to the design or colorway. Arguing what still constitutes “original” is complicated and costly, particularly when artists and designers regularly look to others work for inspiration.
8.8
Conclusion
This chapter has considered the fixing process for ink jet printing on textiles along with the wider context of the preservation of printed textiles within society. It has discussed the processes involved when fixing an ink jet print to a textile as a permanent feature. It has considered the means by which molecules bond together and considered what permanence means in the “service life” of a textile as it is worn and used. It has
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considered print creativity as a cultural phenomenon worthy of respect and preservation and what is effectively the reverse of this creativity, due to the widespread copying of textile designs. The advent of digital technology, of which ink jet printing is a part, has increased the ease in which copies can be produced. However, it has also enabled many to explore textile print and design, where previously costs would have been prohibitive. Textiles are artifacts as records of processes, places, and people. Printed by ink jet technology, what is printed on the textile, whether creation or copy, ultimately illustrates the people using the technology as much as the technological process itself.
References Aav, M., 2003. Marimekko: Fashion Fabrics Architecture. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists [AATCC], 2012. AATCC Test Method 8, Colorfastness to Crocking: AATCC Crockmeter Method. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists [AATCC]. Available at: http://www.aatcc.org/tech nical/test_methods/scopes/tm8.cfm (accessed 07.02.13). Bettington, J., Australian Society of Archivists, 2008. Keeping Archives. Australian Society of Archivists Inc., Dickson, ACT. Brooks, M.M., Eastop, D., 2006. Matter out of place: paradigms for analyzing textile cleaning. J. Am. Inst. Conserv. 45 (3 (Fall-Winter)), 171–181. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/ stable/40026689. Chakvattanatham, K., Phattanarudee, S., Kiatkamjornwong, S., 2010. Anionically surfacemodified pigment/binder ink jet inks for silk fabric printing. Pigm. Resin Technol. 39 (6), 327–341. Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/03699421011085821 (accessed 18.08.12). Cotton Incorporated, 2002. Overview of Fabric Yellowing. Cotton Incorporated, Cary, NC. Available at: http://www.cottoninc.com/product/Tech-Assistance-Training/Technical Bulletins/ (accessed 07.02.13). Intellectual Property Office [UK], 2011. History of Designs. Intellectual Property Office [UK]. Available at: http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/design/d-about/d-whatis/d-history.htm (accessed 16.01.13). Iqbal, M., et al., 2012. Comparison between pigment printing systems with acrylate and butadiene based binders. J. Anal. Sci. Methods Instrum. 2 (2), 87–91. Available at: http://www.scirp. org/Journal/PaperDownload.aspx?FileName¼JASMI20120200007_44917662.pdf&paper ID¼20476 (accessed 03.02.13). Kiely, O., 2010. Pattern. Conran Octopus, London/New York. Kite, M., 2010. Modern textile conservation at the Victoria and Albert Museum: roots, evolution and rapid changes. In: Ewer, P., Lennard, F. (Eds.), Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 30–36. Lawson, M., 2010. Yesterday’s Heroes: The Lost Treasure Trove of BBC Drama. The Guardian, London, England. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/tv-and-radio/2010/nov/03/ lost-bbc-drama-missing-believed-wiped (accessed 07.02.13). Lennard, F., Baldursdo´ttir, T., Loosemore, V., 2008. Using digital and hand printing techniques to compensate for loss: re-establishing colour and texture in historic textiles. Conservator 31 (1), 55–65. Available at: http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/48364. Lewis, E.J., Rattee, I.D., 1974. U.S. patent 4351871: Decorating textile fabrics.
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Momin, N.H., Padhye, R., Khatri, A., 2011. Influence of chitosan post-treatment parameters on the fixation of pigment-based inks on ink-jet-printed cotton fabrics. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 119 (5), 2495–2501. Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/app.32857 (accessed 07.02.13). Moore, G., 2002. Crossing the Chasm: Marketing and Selling Disruptive Products to Mainstream Customers, Rev. ed. HarperBusiness Essentials, New York. Myers Breeze, C., 2002. Digitally printed textiles: their potential use in costume collections and living-history museums. WAAC Newslett. 24 (2), 20–22. Available at: http://cool.conser vation-us.org/waac/wn/wn24/wn24-2/wn24-206.html. Oxford English Dictionary, 2013. Museum, n. Oxford English Dictionary. Parajuli, K., 2012. Why Archive? Republica, Kathmandu, Nepal. Available at: http://www. hrisouthasian.org/index.php?option¼com_content&view¼article&id¼148%3Awhyarchive&catid¼5%3Aarchives&Itemid¼12 (accessed 07.02.13). Phattanarudee, S., Chakvattanatham, K., Kiatkamjornwong, S., 2009. Pre-treatment of silk fabric surface with amino compounds for ink jet printing. Prog. Org. Coat. 64 (4), 405–418. Swain, P., 2011. Sublimation 101. Available at: http://www.sawgrassink.com/educationevents/dye-sublimation-printing-guidebook. Sydney Morning Herald, 2004. Go with the Flo. The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: http://www.smh.com.au/news/Cover-Story/Go-with-the-Flo/2004/11/10/ 1100021847779.html (accessed 07.02.13). Westerman Bulgarella, M., 2010. The conservation and replication of the banner covered ceiling in the Stibbert Museum, Florence, Italy. In: Lennard, F., Ewer, P. (Eds.), Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 188–196.
Polka dot repeat with droplet motif.
Ink Jet Textile Printing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-85709-230-4.00008-X Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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8.1
Ink Jet Textile Printing
Introduction
The printed mark could be transitory and fleeting, washed away by the rain, but the human effort involved in designing and printing cloth desires, and perhaps deserves, more lasting recognition. Printing is dyeing, but only in specific areas. It leaves a mark, not random but highly controlled in color and shape. Whether described as “fixed,” “cured,” “set,” or yet another term, permanence, therefore, is the point in print. This chapter will discuss fixing methods for securing the ink jet print as a permanent feature on a textile. It will also consider the meaning of permanence, from the perspective of the commercial timeframe and from the longer-term perspective of the significance of the printed textile as a cultural artifact and record. For fibers and dyes sourced from plants and other natural sources, the addition of a “mordant,” from the French mordre meaning to bite, enhances the ability of many dyes to “bite” and hold fast onto textile fibers even through rigorous “wear and care” cycles. In processes occurring before, during or after dyeing, different mordants were used to treat different fibers for different naturally sourced dyestuffs. The knowledge of which mordant to use and how and when to use it was the skill of the master dyer. The development of synthetic or man-made dyestuffs, as used for most ink jet printing on textiles, has systematized and simplified much of this procedure, although skill and experience are still of value. Much like using a mordant, pretreating the cloth assists in the uptake and retention of the ink when printing by ink jet onto textiles. The pretreatment is often the first step for fixing a print design onto a textile substrate to last a lifetime, and perhaps beyond.
8.2
Fixing
As with much in life, the best and most durable prints will happen if optimal conditions for success are offered from the beginning. The process of fixing the print, therefore, begins before the printing process itself: l
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The projected final use for the printed fabric influences the careful selection of ink type, pretreatment, and fiber type to give the most satisfactory results. The construction method of the cloth as weave, knit, or bond influences the print result. Smooth cloths offer better definition and print clarity, compared to those fabrics with strong dimensionality and an uneven surface or incorporating slubs or raised hairs. Fiber and fabric types are considered in depth in Chapter 3 of this book. For ink jet printing, appropriate pretreatments, matched to fiber and ink types, will also assist the uptake and retention of the ink. Pretreatments are discussed in Chapter 5 of this book. Different inks are suitable for different fiber types; these are considered in detail in Chapter 7 of this book.
Once the print has been jetted on to the cloth, it will dry and can be assessed quickly for quality, although it is not yet ready for use. Different fixing processes are also required, as different ink formulations bond differently with their respective fibers.
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At an atomic level, colorant and fiber atoms bond through attraction between their respective positively or negatively charged electrons: l
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Reactive dyes form “covalent” bonds, where atoms bond by sharing electrons across the atoms. An alkali is usually required to facilitate this bonding. Covalent bonds form the strongest linkage between dyestuff and fabric. Acid dyes form “ionic” bonds (also known as “electrovalent” bonds), where one atom relinquishes one or more electrons to another atom. Disperse dyes form hydrogen bonds, where atoms are joined together by a linking hydrogen atom; they also bond using “van der Waals forces,” where charges on the molecules may shift around, bonding, but to a relatively weak extent. Pigments are not soluble colorants as are those that form typical dyestuffs, but instead are fine, solid particles of colorant. They do not interact with the fiber, and thus must be held or fixed in place by a binder as an additional component. Binders are typically polymers, which are types of chemical compounds made from multiple, repeating units like long chains. To hold the pigment particles in place as the print on the fabric, the polymer chains in the binder will “cross-link,” forming covalent bonds across these chains (Iqbal et al., 2012, p. 88). This cross-linking forms the binder into a “film,” over the surface of the textile, which is insoluble to water and resistant to rubbing. This film accounts for the slight stiffening of handle, which can be experienced with some pigment-printed fabrics.
8.3
Methods for fixing
Promotion of the formation of chemical bonding between colorant and textile substrate to fix the print mostly involves, in varying proportions; heat, moisture, pressure, and time. No simple formula can be given for fixing inks, as there are too many variables to be considered; however, methods are discussed here. The sacrifice of a little time to test appropriate fixing methods is likely to save time in the long run. Extra time may be needed for fixing higher concentrations of ink; heat must be monitored, as overheating may cause yellowing of the fabric substrate (Cotton Incorporated, 2002, p. 4). As with other steps in the ink jet print process, practice and patience make for perfection.
8.3.1
“Wet” heat (steam)
Heating water creates steam and will “open” up the fibers by increasing air and moisture gaps between the fibers to help the dye molecules penetrate further into the fabric. This heat also encourages the development of molecular bonds. Liquid water turns to steam at “atmospheric” or normal pressure, generally at 100 Celsius (C), depending on height above sea level. At lowered atmospheric pressure, such as at the top of a mountain, water will boil at a lower temperature than the expected 100 C, so steam generated under increasing pressure will therefore occur at correspondingly increasing temperatures. There are two main types of steamers used commercially. Tube steamers allow for the whole roll of cloth to be loaded inside the chamber. Many can produce steam generated at either atmospheric or increased pressure. Pressurized steam, along with
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increased duration in the steamer, can be particularly useful when “batch” steaming a rolled length of cloth. This pressure, over a longer period of time, helps the steam to penetrate through all the layers and to ensure that fixation occurs throughout the roll. Tube steamers tend to be useful for short run production, such as in sample and test production. Roll-to-roll steamers literally unload the roll of cloth to pass through the steam fixation process, rolling it up again on the other side. As “open,” rather than closed like the tube steamer, these mostly operate at atmospheric pressure, needing only to fix through a single layer of printed cloth. They are naturally compatible with the roll-to-roll production of ink jet or digitally printed textiles on a large commercial scale. Visible steam, such as seen from the spout of a boiling kettle, is only visible because it is no longer steam, appearing instead as some of the water condenses into droplets in contact with the cooler air. Such condensation is best avoided where possible, as direct contact with unfixed ink may cause the ink to bleed outside of the print area. For this reason, drafts and air movement that may accelerate cooling and condensation are also best avoided during the fixing process. However, once all of the water has been heated to a gas, visible “steam” cannot be seen. Heating this gas beyond and away from risk of condensation produces increasingly “superheated” or “dry” steam.
8.3.2
“Dry” heat
The direct application of disperse dyes involves printing directly onto the cloth using a liquid carrier to transport the solid, heat-sensitive dye particles that form the “ink” (Swain, 2011, p. 8). Disperse dyes are used on polyester fibers or blends with a significant percentage of polyester, although “enablers,” such as sprays or preprint preparation sheets, can be used on other fiber types to apply a thin layer of polyester first, to bond with the disperse dye. Disperse dyes are also described as “sublimation” inks, as the ink molecules “sublimate” or change directly from a solid to a gas due to the application of heat, skipping any liquid state entirely. This heat also opens up spaces in the synthetic fibers that the dye can enter. On cooling, the spaces in the fibers close as the dye reverts to solid particles, trapping the dye particles to “fix” the print. This fixing process therefore involves physical entrapment in addition to chemical forms of bonding. The disperse dye print can be fixed by passing the cloth through an oven to heat and cure, particularly for the large-scale commercial production of yardage. Commercial ovens for fixing textiles typically use a looped blanket or belt to pass the fabric under the heating elements for an appropriate duration. For smaller scale production, the disperse dye print can be also be fixed using a heat press.
8.3.3
Pressure
Disperse dyes can also be applied indirectly as a transfer from paper that has been printed with the pattern using an ink jet printer charged with the disperse dye. A heat press, available in various flatbed or roll-to-roll formats, is aptly named, applying both heat and pressure to a substrate. This method fixes or “cures” the ink as part of the
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printing process due to the heat and pressure of the heat press, so a separate fixing step is no longer necessary. The heat activates the sublimation of the dye from the solid on the paper to a gas that migrates to the textile substrate, with the pressure from the heat press helping to force the particles into spaces in the polyester fibers also opened up by the heat. As with directly applied sublimation inks, on cooling, the dye reverts to solid particles and the spaces in the fibers close, trapping the dye particles to “fix” the print. Time and speed are also important as the smooth and swift removal of the transfer paper postprinting will prevent the appearance of an unwanted “shadow” blurring the image. Care in the physical arrangement of postprint items by any dyestuff or fixing process whilst they cool will avoid accidental contact with other surfaces that may take up the image where it is unwanted and disrupt the fixing process. Transfer printing can also occur using other dyestuffs as inks, aside from disperse dye types. Alternative methods of transfer printing use special transfer paper to feed through a standard desktop printer, preferably delivering pigment-based inks. A “film” will secure this ink onto a textile substrate, similar in principle to the binders used to secure pigment-based inks. Application is also by heat press, with the heat helping to release the film from the special transfer paper and also to promote cross-linking between the polymers that form the film that will secure the ink and print in place. The pressure from the heat press helps to force dyestuff in and force the film to mold over and into the fibers of the fabric. This film can account for the slight stiffening of handle, particularly if used to print onto dark fabrics. There can be a trade-off for film-based heat transfers between ease of use and differences in elasticity between the film on the surface and the flexible cloth underneath, with opaque transfers most subject to cracking and flaking off. Placement prints, particularly on skate, surf, and snowboard wear, sometimes replicate this as a graphic fashion statement, mimicking the brokenup, worn appearance that can eventually result from this form of printing. Some films, however, avoid this and are designed to break apart on heating; if pigment-based dyestuffs are used, they are also fixed by this heat (Lewis and Rattee, 1974).
8.3.4
Ultraviolet
Pigment-based inks are versatile, used not only on cellulose but also on protein fibers and polyester. In many ways, they are the easiest inks to fix or “cure,” although, like disperse inks, they differ from other ink types by composition and are a suspension rather than a solution. The small but solid particles of colorant are suspended in, rather than dissolved into, the fluid, and a binder is added. On curing, the binder forms into a “film” or “glue” and holds the pigment particles in place on the fabric. There are similarities with the transfer printing process using standard desktop ink jet printers that has previously been described; however, this is significantly more durable. The crosslinking of the binder polymers can be promoted by comparatively brief exposure to heat in a thermal curing process. This heat is often produced by infrared (IR) heat lamps, but fixing or curing is also possible by controlled exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light from the other side of the light spectrum to initiate the polymerization
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process. UV-curable ink uses minimal heat and also generates minimal solvent evaporation, so some argue that this process produces no harmful volatile organic compounds. UV curing systems typically require less space than conventional fixing systems, and the production of the UV light by light-emitting diode lamps requiring less energy also promises to extend the “green” credentials of this process. Binders to fix the pigment to the cloth have typically either been included in pretreatments for the cloth applied prior to printing, or in the ink itself. Research into pretreatments for pigments has included investigation into the use of chitosan, a biopolymer obtained from chitin, an abundant polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of shrimp and crab, and often dumped as waste (Chakvattanatham et al., 2010; Phattanarudee et al., 2009). There has also been research into the use of chitosan as a postprint treatment, shifting and extending the range of possible fixation techniques for ink jet printing on textiles (Momin et al., 2011).
8.3.5
Washing
After fixing, most fabrics will then be washed in accordance with the relevant dyestuff and fabric type, summarized here and discussed in more detail in Chapter 9 of this book: l
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Reactive dyes, used on cellulose fibers such as cotton and linen and protein fibers as well as nylon, can be fixed by atmospheric or pressurized steam. The fabric will then also be washed, often twice and sometimes at different water temperatures to remove any dye molecules still unfixed to the fabric. If not removed, these loose dye molecules could randomly reattach themselves and “back stain” the fabric, ruining the print. Acid dyes, appropriate for protein fibers such as wool and silk as well as nylon, are also fixed by steaming, often for longer duration than that selected for reactive dyes. They also require washing after fixing, sometimes for several cycles, to remove unfixed dye molecules, other ink components, and pretreatments. Disperse dyes are used to print on polyester and are usually washed postfixation, particularly if destined for use as garments. Disperse and other dyes applied by the transfer method may be less likely to be washed postfixation, particularly if placement prints such as those on T-shirts and small-scale production rather than yardage. Pigment inks can print on cellulose fibers, although they are often also used on protein fibers and nylon. The particles of pigment are fixed by the film of binder that tends to trap all of the dye molecules, so there is usually no need to wash out any excess. Washing may not be necessary after pigment fixation, although it may be preferable for the consumer, particularly if it can soften the stiffer handle that tends to occur with pigment printing.
8.4
Durability
Ink jet printing onto textiles uses comparatively less ink than other methods, so there can be less scope for error. It is important that all the steps in the print process are followed as appropriate for the most successful long-term result. The introduction
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of a new technology into an established area can be greeted with jubilation by some and skepticism verging on cynicism by others (Moore, 2002). This is described visually as a bell curve rising up from the optimistic “early adopters” to the height of popularity and then falling toward the wary and skeptical, who lag behind at the end. There can, however, be a “chasm” on the way into which new technology may fall if it fails to prove itself in the marketplace. For the widespread acceptance of ink jet printing, the final product must perform consistently, and possibly even perform better than the other established printing methods, to be accepted as a commercially viable and acceptable alternative technology. Textile ink is fixed onto the cloth for durability so that it won’t wash away or fade quickly. For consumer protection, and in some cases also health and safety, many fabrics are tested to ensure suitability for a particular use. Measurements and tests of the durability of an ink printed and fixed onto a textile recognize the conditions that it must endure, according to the likely usage that it will encounter in its lifetime. Accordingly, standards vary according to those requirements relative to the final use of the printed textile. Textiles as automotive upholstery, for example, particularly on public transport, must be far more resistant to the abrasive effect of bags and backsides than if used on occasional cushions in a domestic setting. Fabrics used for certain applications also require specific testing, such as flammability for firefighting garments. The main focus in such testing is usually on the fiber type, along with the method of fabric construction; however, color durability is included as part of the standard testing regime: l
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Physical testing includes stress and strain tests for strength when dry and wet; the resistance to abrasion (rubbing); and the likelihood of “pilling” due to abrasion, where fibers are released from the structure of the textile and form small balls attached to the textile surface. Changes in the surface can also affect the appearance of the print. Dimensional testing includes stability tests for shrinkage and other distortions, such as recovery rates for elasticity. Dependent on ink penetration, stretching can reveal the ground color through the print. Performance testing may examine absorbency; thermal or cooling properties; crease resistance; and the drape and “handle,” or the feel of the cloth as soft, crisp, etc. Use of a binder to secure the dyestuff can affect the fabric handle. Color-fastness testing measures alterations in color of fabric due to light exposure; laundering, including dry cleaning; and also “crocking,” where color transfers to another fabric on rubbing when wet or when dry (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists [AATCC], 2012). Crocking can be caused by incorrect or poor application methods, penetration, wash-off, or fixing.
Textile testing has evolved principally from commercial and consumer imperatives, considering the performance of the textile during its “service life.” The service life of a textile refers to how it has been or is likely to be used. However, it is this service life that reduces possibilities for the preservation of many textiles, particularly everyday items. Fixing processes are used to secure the printed ink to the textile and to preserve it through its service life. However, some textiles will be preserved well beyond this service life, as textiles have also come to serve as historical records. From a materials
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point of view, textiles rarely endure as well as stone or metal; however, alongside commercial value, textiles hold cultural information of value about a society and an era. Fixation processes for ink jet printing can be considered as important in the short, long, and even in the longer term, as discussed in the following sections.
8.5
Archiving
Archives are often associated with museums. A museum is a building commonly set apart for study and inspiration, and is a home for the “Muses” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2013). Primarily public and primarily focusing on objects, there is an implication here of public display, originally for education and now also for entertainment. An archive is the orderly collection of these historical items, and the place in which these are held. There need be no obligation of public access to the archive, but there is an implication of organization (Bettington and Australian Society of Archivists, 2008). An incoherent jumble might be considered an archive by some, but without consideration and order, the items are likely to be inaccessible, which prompts the key question, “Why?” Why is this, or this, being saved? Many companies do not archive their production history, despite its usefulness for “data mining” and other commercial activities. An archive can be considered a resource rather than a relic, a repository of already completed design work, as exemplified by the popularity of the rediscovered work of Florence Broadhurst (Sydney Morning Herald, 2004). Prints that have previously failed commercially may come to suit the prevailing taste; reconfiguring colorways can reclaim an otherwise rejected design with little extra effort. Aside from notions of preservation for some unspecified future public and social “good,” archives can be profitable, alongside the commercial benefits of a versatile “signature” print, such as Marimekko’s “Poppy” (Aav, 2003) or Orla Kiely’s “Stem” (Kiely, 2010), lasting in popularity through many seasonal rotations. For these companies, their brand is linked to highly recognizable print designs. The value of such print patterns, adaptable yet still recognizable across many different uses, languages, and cultures, is increasingly recognized commercially as valuable intellectual property and a global brand-building tool. Not everything can be saved in a consumer “throwaway” society, with prolific, even profligate, production. This is the dilemma of the archivist. How to choose what to save in a time of plenty, as the focus shifts away from just the preservation of scarcity? Notorious mistakes have been made; thus, how to see into the future to know what then will be valued (Lawson, 2010)? Selection is a key process in archiving, often referred to as “accessioning,” and then “deaccessioning” when an item is no longer considered necessary for the completeness of the collection. This process is rightly contentious, with committees rather than individuals needed to make the decisions, as bias could be replicated through an unbalanced collection and then be presented as a “truth.” Archiving can be considered a political activity by those both in and out of political power (Parajuli, 2012). From a purely functional perspective, archives are necessary for some functions in certain societies, such as the legal system, which relies on past precedents for present judgments. The “why” in the question regarding what to
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save must be answered, yet it must also remain open rather than be considered as definitive and thus closed to debate. Historic collections with a wide range of objects or opinions allow for the reevaluation of accepted “truths.”
8.6
Preservation
Printed textiles, particularly as dress, are increasingly used by museums as cultural records and deemed worthy of preservation and display. The high attendance records at curated dress exhibitions, which often travel internationally to several venues, satisfy requirements that museums maintain their finances as well as their artifacts. They justify the effort to mount such exhibitions and consolidate the reputation of a museum as one of international standing (Kite, 2010, p. 33). Broadening the criteria for acceptability has also however allowed for a broadening the criteria for collection. Garments in excellent condition are still sought by museums, but are usually not the type of garments frequently worn but often belong to richer sectors of society. The service life of a textile, or how it has been used, is part of its history and thus part of the historical record. Recognizing this, there has been a radical shift in perspective among textile conservators and curators, as an ethos of minimal intervention informs consideration of the textile, with rips and marks, even mud, providing valuable historical evidence regarding the conditions in which the textile was worn, revealing the conditions that it was required to endure (Brooks and Eastop, 2006, p. 174). Conservation, however, is not restoration. Conservation aims to preserve and to minimize further damage. Restoration attempts to restore to “new,” sometimes even when it is not clear what “new” looked like. An item may no longer appear “as good as new,” but this does not make it unworthy of interest. In addition to preserving ink jet or digitally printed textiles for their singular virtue, museums and costume collections are also using these textiles to support older textiles in their collections. As ink jet printing can mimic even the print degraded by time, there is no need for the damaging “breaking down” process that will bring the new textile into visual line with the old. Ink jet printed textiles are being used to supplement existing items, such as to replace missing items from a garment “set,” such as stomachers or petticoats, or to infill areas missing from older textiles, often due to wear (Lennard et al., 2008; Myers Breeze, 2002). In other cases, ink jet printed textiles are used to substitute for older textiles still in existence but too fragile for long-term display (Westerman Bulgarella et al., 2010). The very factors that textiles must endure through a service life, such as light, moisture, or areas of strain—particularly around folds or seams—are the factors that must be avoided if the textile is to be preserved. To save a textile, it should not be used. The difference between conservator and curator articulates the paradox between preservation and display that museums and archives face. A conservator monitors the condition of the textile and with minimal intervention, attempts to maintain or preserve the textile in its current state. A conservator will have practical skills in the maintenance of the textile medium. Alternatively, the role of the curator is to select items for display and exhibition, often according to a particular theme, considering items within their design context. They may have specific skills in
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the display of items to the public. However, by their display, these items are exposed to light, humidity, insects, and pests, all the very things that may possibly destroy them. Light, in particular, is particularly injurious to color in print. Even careful handling by conservators poses a risk to the item; one evolving field in dress or costume preservation has been the development of skills in designing and building display equipment that minimizes handling when mounting exhibitions, particularly if touring with transport in between venues (Kite, 2010, p. 33).
8.7
Copyright
In many countries, the protection of intellectual property relies on registration and archives for its veracity. In the United Kingdom, the protection of designs as intellectual property and industrial assets began with textile design, and the Designing and Printing of Linen Act of 1787 (Intellectual Property Office [UK], 2011). Britain became a political and commercial force in global politics due in no small part to textiles, initially wool but later cotton during the Industrial Revolution. The 1787 act for the “designing and printing of linens, cottons, calicos and muslin,” protected the sole rights of print and reprint for initially 2, later 3 months to the company or individual named on each piece. Many companies continue to print their names alongside color guides on the “selvedge,” or edge of printed cloth. This legal protection was later extended to include print on fabrics from other fibers by the Copyright and Design Act of 1839. This act introduced the principles that underpin current design laws, including external registration, with designs having to be registered as an additional step to benefit from protection. This has since evolved into the concept of “design right,” with two or three dimensional designs often treated differently. Copyright, or design right, protection for textile print pattern varies according to local legislation and international agreements around the world. In practice, copying is rife because of the legal costs of either initially registering individual designs, or of pursuing design “pirates” often through international courts. The work of individual textile designers, outside of a few well-known names, is often relatively anonymous. Digitally based design technology such as ink jet printing as well as digital design software has made such piracy easier by reducing the capital outlay and effort required to print. Proving piracy is also difficult, with copying sometimes incorporating minor alterations to the design or colorway. Arguing what still constitutes “original” is complicated and costly, particularly when artists and designers regularly look to others work for inspiration.
8.8
Conclusion
This chapter has considered the fixing process for ink jet printing on textiles along with the wider context of the preservation of printed textiles within society. It has discussed the processes involved when fixing an ink jet print to a textile as a permanent feature. It has considered the means by which molecules bond together and considered what permanence means in the “service life” of a textile as it is worn and used. It has
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considered print creativity as a cultural phenomenon worthy of respect and preservation and what is effectively the reverse of this creativity, due to the widespread copying of textile designs. The advent of digital technology, of which ink jet printing is a part, has increased the ease in which copies can be produced. However, it has also enabled many to explore textile print and design, where previously costs would have been prohibitive. Textiles are artifacts as records of processes, places, and people. Printed by ink jet technology, what is printed on the textile, whether creation or copy, ultimately illustrates the people using the technology as much as the technological process itself.
References Aav, M., 2003. Marimekko: Fashion Fabrics Architecture. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists [AATCC], 2012. AATCC Test Method 8, Colorfastness to Crocking: AATCC Crockmeter Method. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists [AATCC]. Available at: http://www.aatcc.org/tech nical/test_methods/scopes/tm8.cfm (accessed 07.02.13). Bettington, J., Australian Society of Archivists, 2008. Keeping Archives. Australian Society of Archivists Inc., Dickson, ACT. Brooks, M.M., Eastop, D., 2006. Matter out of place: paradigms for analyzing textile cleaning. J. Am. Inst. Conserv. 45 (3 (Fall-Winter)), 171–181. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/ stable/40026689. Chakvattanatham, K., Phattanarudee, S., Kiatkamjornwong, S., 2010. Anionically surfacemodified pigment/binder ink jet inks for silk fabric printing. Pigm. Resin Technol. 39 (6), 327–341. Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/03699421011085821 (accessed 18.08.12). Cotton Incorporated, 2002. Overview of Fabric Yellowing. Cotton Incorporated, Cary, NC. Available at: http://www.cottoninc.com/product/Tech-Assistance-Training/Technical Bulletins/ (accessed 07.02.13). Intellectual Property Office [UK], 2011. History of Designs. Intellectual Property Office [UK]. Available at: http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/design/d-about/d-whatis/d-history.htm (accessed 16.01.13). Iqbal, M., et al., 2012. Comparison between pigment printing systems with acrylate and butadiene based binders. J. Anal. Sci. Methods Instrum. 2 (2), 87–91. Available at: http://www.scirp. org/Journal/PaperDownload.aspx?FileName¼JASMI20120200007_44917662.pdf&paper ID¼20476 (accessed 03.02.13). Kiely, O., 2010. Pattern. Conran Octopus, London/New York. Kite, M., 2010. Modern textile conservation at the Victoria and Albert Museum: roots, evolution and rapid changes. In: Ewer, P., Lennard, F. (Eds.), Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 30–36. Lawson, M., 2010. Yesterday’s Heroes: The Lost Treasure Trove of BBC Drama. The Guardian, London, England. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/tv-and-radio/2010/nov/03/ lost-bbc-drama-missing-believed-wiped (accessed 07.02.13). Lennard, F., Baldursdo´ttir, T., Loosemore, V., 2008. Using digital and hand printing techniques to compensate for loss: re-establishing colour and texture in historic textiles. Conservator 31 (1), 55–65. Available at: http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/48364. Lewis, E.J., Rattee, I.D., 1974. U.S. patent 4351871: Decorating textile fabrics.
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Momin, N.H., Padhye, R., Khatri, A., 2011. Influence of chitosan post-treatment parameters on the fixation of pigment-based inks on ink-jet-printed cotton fabrics. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 119 (5), 2495–2501. Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/app.32857 (accessed 07.02.13). Moore, G., 2002. Crossing the Chasm: Marketing and Selling Disruptive Products to Mainstream Customers, Rev. ed. HarperBusiness Essentials, New York. Myers Breeze, C., 2002. Digitally printed textiles: their potential use in costume collections and living-history museums. WAAC Newslett. 24 (2), 20–22. Available at: http://cool.conser vation-us.org/waac/wn/wn24/wn24-2/wn24-206.html. Oxford English Dictionary, 2013. Museum, n. Oxford English Dictionary. Parajuli, K., 2012. Why Archive? Republica, Kathmandu, Nepal. Available at: http://www. hrisouthasian.org/index.php?option¼com_content&view¼article&id¼148%3Awhyarchive&catid¼5%3Aarchives&Itemid¼12 (accessed 07.02.13). Phattanarudee, S., Chakvattanatham, K., Kiatkamjornwong, S., 2009. Pre-treatment of silk fabric surface with amino compounds for ink jet printing. Prog. Org. Coat. 64 (4), 405–418. Swain, P., 2011. Sublimation 101. Available at: http://www.sawgrassink.com/educationevents/dye-sublimation-printing-guidebook. Sydney Morning Herald, 2004. Go with the Flo. The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: http://www.smh.com.au/news/Cover-Story/Go-with-the-Flo/2004/11/10/ 1100021847779.html (accessed 07.02.13). Westerman Bulgarella, M., 2010. The conservation and replication of the banner covered ceiling in the Stibbert Museum, Florence, Italy. In: Lennard, F., Ewer, P. (Eds.), Textile Conservation: Advances in Practice. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 188–196.